KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD

Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering (NBA Accredited)

(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)
EXPERIMENT:- 1
Aim of Experiment:- To Study of lab equipment’s and components CRO, Multimeter, Function
Generator, Power supply, Active and Passive Components & Bread Board.

Apparatus Required:-

S. No. Component Specification Quantity

1 Multimeter - 1
2 CRO - 1
3 Function Generator - 1
4 DC Power Supply - 1
5 Bread Board - 1
6 Connecting Wires Single core wire -
7 Diode 1N4007 1
8 Transistor BC107 1
9 Resistance 1 KΩ, 10 KΩ 2
10 Capacitance 0.1nF 1
11 Inductance 1 mH 1

Theory:-
The CRO is a Universal measuring instrument capable of measuring a wide variety of rapidly
changing electrical signal into a visual one and thus enables us to observe the voltage and current
waveforms. The block diagram of CRO is shown in figure.

Figure No.- 1.1: Block diagram of a General Purpose CRO

The major sub systems of a CRO are: -

1) Cathode Ray Tube (CRT).
2) Vertical deflection circuit which includes vertical amplifier and delay time.
3) Horizontal deflection circuit which includes Trigger Circuit, Time base generator and horizontal
amplifier.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering (NBA Accredited)
(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)

VERTICAL AMPLIFIER SECTION

• Position: Controls vertical positioning of oscilloscope display
• Sensitivity: Selects the sensitivity of the vertical amplifier in calibrated steps.
• Variable Sensitivity: Provides a continuous range of sensitivities between the calibrated steps.
Normally the sensitivity is calibrated only when the variable knob is in the fully clockwise
position.
• AC-DC-GND: Selects desired coupling (ac or dc) for incoming signal applied to vertical
amplifier, or grounds the amplifier input. Selecting dc couples, the input directly to the amplifier;
selecting ac send the signal through a capacitor before going to the amplifier thus blocking any
constant component.

HORIZONTAL-SWEEP SECTION
• TRIGGER: - The trigger selects the timing of the beginning of the horizontal sweep.
• INT - (internal) - from signal on vertical amplifier
• EXT - (external) - from an external signal inserted at the
• EXT. TRIG. INPUT

We measure the following parameters of this instrument (CRO) listed below: -

• Measurement of Voltage (AC & DC).
• Measurement of Frequency.
• Measurement of Current.
• Measurement of Phase.

Measurement of Voltage: -
Peak to Peak Value: - The maximum value, +ve or –ve of the alternating quantity is known as
its peak value. It is also called maximum value or amplitude of the alternating quantity.

Figure No.- 1.2: Sinusoidal Waveform to measure Peak Value

The total voltage measured from –ve peak to +ve peak is called the Peak to Peak voltage.
Using CRO: - Measure the number of divisions on the voltage axis and multiply it by the value indicated
by the Volts/Div knob on the CRO. This gives the peak value.

RMS Value (Root Mean Square Value): -

It is given by the steady dc current which when flowing through a given circuit for a given time
produces the same heat as produced by the alternating current which when flowing through the same
circuit for the same time.
RMS value of alternating voltage is related to its peak value by the relation-
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering (NBA Accredited)
(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)
𝑉𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = =
2 √2
Measurement of Frequency: -
Time Period: - The time taken by an alternating voltage to complete one cycle is called its Time period,
T. Using CRO Measure the number of divisions for a single cycle on the time axis and multiply it by
the value indicated by the Times/Div knob on the CRO. This gives the Time Period of the alternating
voltage.
T = number of divisions for a single cycle X Times/ Div knob on the CRO
Frequency: - The number of cycles completed in one second is called the frequency of the alternating
voltage. Its unit is Hertz. Frequency is given by the reciprocal of Time period T.
i.e. f = 1/T

Measurement of Current:- The current to be measured is passed through a resistance the voltage
developed across this resistance is of the same waveform as the current, if the resistance is pure the
voltage is measured by CRO and current can be find.

Measurement of Phase: -
Phase: - The phase of an alternating quantity is the fraction of the time period of the alternating voltage
which has elapsed since the voltage last passed through the zero position of reference.
Phase difference: - Consider two alternating quantity of same frequency reaching their peak/ zero value
at different instants of time. It gives the phase difference between two waves.

Figure No.- 1.3: Sinusoidal Waveform to measure Phase difference

Front Panel Control on CRO: -

A typical CRO has the following controls on the front panel.
• Intensity Control: - It adjusts brightness of the Trace.
• Focus Control: - It controls the sharpness of the Trace.
• Timing Control: - It adjusts time per division of the time base.
• Y – Gain Control: - It adjusts amplitude of the vertical display. For example, 05mV / Div to
20mV / Div.
• H-gain control: - It adjusts length of the H- Trace.
• Sweep control: - It selects internal or external sweep.
• Trigger control: - It selects Trigger pulse from either Y amplifier or time signal. External signal.
• Trigger level control: - It adjusts the trigger level of trigger pulse.
• H- Position control: - It adjusts the position of horizontal display on CRO screen.
• V- Position control: - It adjusts the position of vertical display on CRO screen.
• Internal calibration: - It provides line frequency signal of fixed amplitude to check calibration.
• AC/DC/GND Coupling: - Input coupling switch is provided for each channel. In case of AC, the
signal is coupled through 0.1 µF capacitor.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering (NBA Accredited)
(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)
Operating Instructions: Before plugging the oscilloscope into a wall receptacle, set the controls as
follows:
a) Power switch at off
b) Intensity fully counter clockwise
c) Vertical centering in the center of range
d) Horizontal centering in the center of range
e) Vertical at 0.2
f) Sweep times 1
Plug line cord into a standard ac wall receptacle (nominally 118 V). Turn power on. Do not advance the
Intensity Control.

WARNING: Never advance the Intensity Control so far that an excessively bright spot appears. Bright
spots imply burning of the screen. A sharp focused spot of high intensity (great brightness) should never
be allowed to remain fixed in one position on the screen for any length of time as damage to the screen
may occur. Adjust Horizontal and Vertical Centering Controls. Adjust the focus to give a sharp trace.
Set trigger to internal, level to auto.

FUNCTION GENERATOR: - A function generator is an electronic test equipment or software used

to generate electrical waveforms. These waveforms can be either repetitive, or single-shot in which case
some kind of triggering source is required (internal or external).

DC power supply:- This is another important instrument used in electronic laboratory. Since we know
that most electronic components used DC voltage for their working. The +ve value of DC voltage for
operation of electronic component varies from less than 1V to 100 V depending upon the component in
the lab we have dual power supply PSD 302 with tracking facility. PSD 302 means DC power supply
of 0-30 V variable with 2 amps maximum

MULTIMETER- A multimeter is an electronic instrument which can measure resistance, current and
voltages. Multimeter can be used for measuring DC as well as AC voltage and current. Generally,
Multimeter are two types depend on their construction. These are Analog Multimeter and Digital
Multimeter.

Analog Multimeter-These Multimeter can measure voltages, currents and resistances. To achieve this
objective proper circuits are incorporated with the Galvanometers. The Galvanometers in a multimeter
is always of left zero type. i.e. normally its needle resets in extreme left position as compare to center.
Zero position of ordinary galvanometers.

Digital Multimeter-Basically, it is a digital voltmeter. All other parameters like resistance, Current, AC
voltage are converted into DC voltage with the help of a function switch as shown in figure. Then the
measurement of DC voltages gives the value of desired parameters. These DC voltages are then given
to the analog to digital converters (ADC) circuits, which converts these voltages corresponding to digital
numbers which displays on LCD screen in the form of digit.

For measuring resistances, it is converted into DC voltage by passing current from a constant current
source. If this current is 1mA then DC voltage produce by unknown resistance will be direct in mV. If
the resistance is 1KΩ then a voltage of 1V will be produced.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering (NBA Accredited)
(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)
For measuring current it is converted into DC voltage by passing it through a constant resistance, say
of 1Ω then DC voltage developed is equal to current. For measuring AC voltage, it is first rectified and
then considered as DC voltage for measurement.
Checked by measuring zero resistance of the shorted probe.
One of the features of digital voltmeter is the accuracy under optimum measuring conditions, ranging
from 0.1% to 0.001% depending on technology and price class.

Figure No.- 1.4: Block diagram and description of Multimeter

BREADBOARD: - A breadboard is used to make up temporary circuits for testing or to try out an
idea. No soldering is required so it is easy to change connections and replace components. Part will
not be damaged so they will be available to re-use afterwards. The photograph shows a circuit on a
typical small breadboard, which is suitable for beginners building simple circuits with one or two ICs
(chips).

Figure No.- 1.5: Breadboard

 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering (NBA Accredited)
(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)
Connections on Breadboards
Breadboards have many tiny sockets (called 'holes') arranged on a 0.1" grid. The leads of most
components can be pushed straight into the holes. ICs are inserted across the central gap with their notch
or dot to the left. Wire links can be made with single-core plastic-coated wire of 0.6mm diameter (the
standard size). Stranded wire is not suitable because it will crumple when pushed into a hole and it may
damage the board if strands break off.

Figure No.- 1.6: Connections on Breadboard

The diagram shows how the breadboard holes are connected.

NE555 the top and bottom rows are linked horizontally all the way across. The power supply is
connected to these rows, + at the top and 0V (zero volts) at the bottom. I suggest using the upper row of
the bottom pair for 0V, and then you can use the lower row for the negative supply with circuits requiring
a dual supply (e.g. +9V, 0V, -9V).
The other holes are linked vertically in blocks of 5 with no link across the center. Notice how there is
separate blocks of connections to each pin of ICs.

ACTIVE & PASSIVE COMPONENTS: -

Diode: A diode is a device which permits passage of current in forward direction not in the opposite
direction. It is the simplest semiconductor device but it plays a vital role in electronic systems. It is also
called p-n junction diode. It is a two-terminal device. The positive terminal is called anode and negative
terminal is called cathode.

Figure No.- 1.7: Symbol of Diode

Zener diode: It is a reference diode, which gives the specified reference voltage in the circuit i.e. The
voltage required in the circuit and is given by reference node i.e. Zener diode.

Figure No.- 1.8: Symbol of Zener Diode

 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering (NBA Accredited)
(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)
Resistors: -The flow of the charge or current through any material encounters an opposing force similar
in many respects to mechanical friction. This opposing force is called the resistance of the material. It
is measured in ohms for which symbol is Ω. Types of resistance belong to two groups-fixed or variable.

Figure No.- 1.9: Symbol of Resistor

Fixed resistors the most common of the low wattage fixed type resistors are carbon composition
resistors. Resistors of this type are readily available in values ranging from few ohms to mega ohms. A
system colors coding is used to indicate the values of carbon type resistors.

LED: It is called light emitting diode. It is simply a p-n junction diode. It is usually made from a
semiconductor material such as Aluminum-Gallium Arsenide (Al-GaAs) or Gallium-Arsenide
Phosphate. When forward biased the processes essentially the same as in ordinary diode except the
recombination of carriers across the junction give up energy in the form of light.

LE D 1 C QX 3 5A

Figure No.- 1.10: Symbol of LED

Inductors: When current flows through a wire that has been coiled, it generates a magnetic field. This
magnetic field reacts so as to oppose any change in the current. This reaction of the magnetic field trying
to keep the current flowing at a steady rate is known as inductance, and the force it develops is called
induced e.m.f. The electronic component producing inductance is called an inductor. The inductance is
measured in henrys (H). Inductors are employed extensively in electronic circuits.

Figure No.- 1.11: Symbol of Inductor

PNP Transistor: A transistor is basically a silicon or germanium crystal containing three separate
regions. It has two P-N junctions. In PNP transistor the thin central N region is called the base, one side
region is called the emitter and the other side is the collector. The collector region is made physically
larger than the emitter region since it is required to dissipate more heat.
T1 ! P NP

Figure No.- 1.11: Symbol of PNP Transistor

NPN Transistor: A transistor is a semiconductor device capable of amplification of signals. The NPN
transistor has three regions. The middle region is called base and the outer regions are called the emitter
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering (NBA Accredited)
(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)
and the collector. Although the two outer regions are of the same type (N-type), their functions cannot
be interchanged. The two regions have different physical and electrical properties.

T2 !NP N

Figure No.- 1.12: Symbol of NPN Transistor

Field Effect Transistor (FET) is a three Terminal semiconductor device in which current conduction
is by one type of carrier i.e. Electrons or Holes. In a FET the current conduction is either by electrons
or holes and is controlled by means of an electric field between the gate electrode and the conducting
channel of the device. The FET has high input impedance and low noise level.

Figure No.- 1.13: Symbol of FET

CALCULATION: -
Frequency f = 1 / T cycle / sec. or Hz
Voltage = No. of horizontal block * volts / division.
Phase Ø = Sin─1 a / b
Current = Measured voltage / Resistance (one ohm).
I = V/R
Result: -
• Frequency f = ……………..Hz
• Voltage = …………………Volts.
• Phase Ø = …………………..
• Current = ………………….mA.

Precautions:
➢ Make the connections carefully.
➢ Take the observations carefully.
➢ Switch off the power supply after completion of experiment.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering (NBA Accredited)
(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)

Viva Voce Question & Answers

Q1. What are Function of multimeter?

Ans. multimeter can measure: AC & DC voltage (volt) AC & DC current (amp) resistance (ohm) etc.

Q2. What are. Basic functions of an analog multi tester?

Ans. It is a moving-coil galvanometer with a selectable array of shunts and series (bobbin) resistors.
Shunts are also resistors but they go in parallel to the meter to restrict current through the meter...

Q3.What are the parts of a multimeter both analog and digital?

Ans. There are basic parts of a multimeter: meter scale, selector function range, test probe, zero adjust
for ohmmeter,

Q4.What is an Analog Output Module?

Ans. It is a module or Assembly to describe its sole function
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering (NBA Accredited)
(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)
EXPERIMENT:- 2
Aim of Experiment: To study P-N Junction Diode: Characteristics of PN Junction Diode-Static and
dynamic resistance measurement from graph.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S. No. Component Specification Quantity

1 Voltmeter 0-20V 1
2 Ammeter 0-100mA and 0-100µA 1
3 Resistance 470Ω 1
4 Diode 1N4007 1
5 Bread Board - 1
6 Connecting Wires Single core wire -

THEORY: -
A diode is the basic electronic component. Its property is that it can conduct only in one direction. A
diode can be made by joining a p type semiconductor and an n type semiconductor. At the junction point
there will be a voltage drop due to the migration of carriers. The voltage at this barrier is known as
barrier potential. Ideally the barrier potential is zero. But in practical case there will be a drop of 0.7
Volts.

Forward Biased Condition- When the P side of diode is connected to the positive of power supply and
N region is connected to the negative of supply, the diode is said to be in forward biased condition. At
this condition, if the applied voltage is greater than the barrier potential of the diode, it starts conduction.
After the diode is arrived in the conduction mode, the drop across it remains at 0.7 V. After the
conduction starts, if the voltage is increased further, current trough it increases linearly with voltage.

Figure No.- 2.1: Circuit description of Forward Biased Condition

Reverse Biased Condition- When the supply voltage is reversed the diode is said to be in reverse biased
condition. Here there is no conduction at lower voltage values. If we increase the voltage value further,
it is observed that at a voltage the current sharply increases due to the breakdown of the P-N junction.
This damages the device. So, care is to be taken while connecting diode in a circuit.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering (NBA Accredited)
(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)

Figure No.- 2.2: Circuit description of Reverse Biased Condition

The V-I characteristics of a p-n junction is the curve between voltage across the junction and Circuit
Current.

Figure No.- 2.3: V-I Characteristics of PN Junction Diode

Breakdown Voltage: - It is the reverse voltage at which the junction breakdowns with the sudden rise
in reverse current.

Knee Voltage: - The minimum voltage applied to the P-N junction for which it starts conduction for Ge
diode =0.3V, for Si diode = 0.7V

Maximum Forward Current: - The maximum values of forward current that P-N junction can carry
without damaging itself.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering (NBA Accredited)
(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV): - The max. Value of reverse voltage that a P-N junction can with stand
damaging itself is called peak inverse voltage.

Maximum Power Rating: - The Max. Power that a P-N junction or diode can dissipate without
damaging is called max. Power rating.

Procedure:
• Connect the circuit according to the given figure.
• Connect DC power supply to the circuit.
• Find out the relation between voltage and current.
• Trace a graph of V-I characteristic of diode.

Observation Table: -
a) Diode in Forward Biased

Table No.- 2.1: Observation Table of Forward Biased Condition

S. No. Voltage Across Diode (VD) in Volt Current Through Diode (ID) in mA
1 0 0
2 0.20 0
3 0.30 0
4 0.40 .01
5 0.45 .17
6 0.55 .42
7 0.60 1.23
8 0.65 3.90
9 0.69 8.72
10 0.73 19.32

b) Diode in Reverse Biased

Table No.- 2.2: Observation Table of Reverse Biased Condition

S. No. Voltage Across Diode (VD) in Volt Current Through Diode (ID) in µA
1 0.2 0.1
2 2 0.3
3 5 0.6
4 8 1
5 10 1.3
6 12 2
7 14 3
8 15 4
9 16 6
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering (NBA Accredited)
(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)

Calculations from the Graph

Static Resistance: To find the forward static resistance locate a point on characteristic curve obtained
from the forward bias characteristics which is called operating point Q and draw a line onto the X-axis
and Y-axis to obtain VF and IF . Calculate static forward resistance using the formulae-
The static resistance of the diode as
RF = VF / IF Ω at Q point

Figure No.- 2.4: Graph for calculation of Static Resistance

Dynamic Resistance: The dc resistance of a diode is independent of the shape of the characteristic in
the region surrounding the point of interest. If a sinusoidal input is applied rather than a dc input, the
varying input will move the instantaneous operating point up and down a region of the characteristics
and thus defines a specific change in current and voltage. To find the ac or dynamic resistance draw a
straight line drawn tangent to the curve through the Q-point as shown in the figure will define a particular
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering (NBA Accredited)
(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)
change in voltage and current that can be used to determine the ac or dynamic resistance for this region
of the diode characteristics.
The dynamic resistance of the diode as-
RF = ΔVd / Δ Id Ω at Q point

Figure No.- 2.5: Graph for calculation of Dynamic Resistance

Result: - The V-I characteristic of PN junction diode is verified. Following parameter are found as-

Cut in voltage = 0.6V

Static or DC resistance = 0.73V / 19.32 mA = 37 Ω
Dynamic or AC resistance = (.73-.69)V/(19.32-8.72) mA = 3.78 Ω

Precautions:
➢ Make the connections carefully.
➢ Take the observations carefully.
➢ Trace should be drawn on properly.
➢ Switch off the power supply after completion of experiment.

Viva voce Question & Answers

Q1. What is a PN junction diode?

Ans. when a semiconductor is doped with p-type and n-type impurities, a PN junction is formed
which acts as a diode and prevents the charge carriers to flow to either side of junction
Q2. What is barrier voltage of PN junction diode?
Ans. In silicon, about 0.7 volts. In germanium, about .3 volts. Let me fill some for this. For the
silicon diode, barrier potential voltage is about 0.7V, For the germanium diode is about 0.3V.
Q3What are the uses of PN junction diode?
Ans. The major use of PN junction diode is in rectification i.e. to convert ac to dc, Clipper circuit,
Clamping circuit etc.
Q4. What are the limiting values of a PN junction Diode?
Ans. Heat and PIV (Peak Inverse Voltage) or so called Peak Reverse Voltage is limit the diode
characteristics.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering (NBA Accredited)
(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)
EXPERIMENT:- 3
Aim of Experiment:- Applications of PN junction diode: Half & Full wave rectifier- Measurement of
VRMS,VDC, and ripple factor.

Apparatus Required: -

S. No. Component Specification Quantity

1 Multimeter - 1
2 Ammeter 0-100mA and 0-100µA 1
3 Resistance 470Ω 1
4 Diode 1N4007 4
5 Bread Board - 1
6 Connecting Wires Single core wire -
7 CRO - 1
8 Step down transformer - 1

THEORY: -
A diode is using to pass current in a single direction. Alternating current is a current which flow in both
directions. In some applications we need dc power supply. A method to obtain dc supply is by using
batteries. But it is not economical at all times. It is possible to obtain dc from ac supply. That process
is known as rectification. Rectification is of two types:-
1. Half wave rectification
2. Full wave rectification

Half Wave Rectifiers-

In a half wave rectifier only, one-half cycle of ac voltage is taking. The circuit is given. Here only one
diode is using. During the positive half cycle of ac voltage, the diode conducts. So current flows through
load. During the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased. So, no current flows through the diode.
This type of rectification needs only one diode. But the efficiency is not so good as that of full wave
rectifier.

Figure No.- 3.1: Circuit diagram of Half Wave Rectifier

Full Wave Rectifiers-

Unlike a half wave rectifier, a full wave rectifier conducts in both half cycles of ac voltageA full wave
rectifier can be implemented in two ways: -
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering (NBA Accredited)
(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)
a) Full wave bridge rectifier
In full wave bridge rectifiers 4 diodes are using. During positive half cycle, D1 and D4 are in forward
biased condition. In the negative half cycle of ac D3 and D2 are in forward biased condition. So, in both
the half cycles current through the load is in single direction. Thus, rectification can be done. This circuit
does not need a center tap rectifier. But it requires more number of diodes than center tap and half wave
rectifiers.

Figure No.- 3.2: Circuit diagram of Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

b) Full wave center tap rectifier
This is another method to obtain full wave rectification. In this method only two diodes are using. But
it requires a center tap transformer. During the positive half cycle diode D1 conducts. In the negative
half cycle diode D2 conducts. So, in both half cycles current flowing through load in same direction.
Thus, rectification can be obtained.

.
Figure No.- 3.3: Circuit diagram of Full Wave Centre Tap Rectifier
Procedure of HWR: -
• Look at the given circuit of half wave rectifier. Trace the circuit. Note the type number of the
diode. Also note the value of the load resistor used in the circuit.
• Connect the primary side of the transformer to the AC mains. Connect the CRO probe to the
output points. Adjust different knobs of CRO so that the good and stable wave form is visible
on the screen. Plot this waveform in your record table. Take the CRO probe to the input of the
rectifier circuit. Note the wave shapes of the signal & compare them.
• Now use a multimeter to measure the ac voltage at the secondary terminal of the transformer.
This gives the r.m.s value. Also measure the ac and dc voltage at the output points.
• Multiply this r.m.s value by 2 to get the peak i.e. maximum value. Calculate the theoretical value
of the dc voltage using formula-
VDC = Vm/π
• Compare this value with the practically measured value of the output dc voltage.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering (NBA Accredited)
(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)

Procedure of FWR: -
• Look at the given circuit of full wave rectifier. Trace the circuit. Note the type number of the
diode. Also note the value of the load resistor used in the circuit.
• Connect the primary side of the transformer to the AC mains. Connect the CRO probe to the
output points. Adjust different knobs of CRO so that the good and stable wave form is visible
on the screen. Plot this waveform in your record table. Take the CRO probe to the input of the
rectifier circuit. Note the wave shapes of the signal & compare them.
• Now use a multimeter to measure the ac voltage at the secondary terminal of the transformer.
This gives the r.m.s value. Also measure the ac and dc voltage at the output points.
• Multiply this r.m.s value by 2 to get the peak i.e. maximum value. Calculate the theoretical value
of the dc voltage using formula-
VDC = 2Vm/π
• Compare this value with the practically measured value of the output dc voltage.
Procedure of Center Taped FWR:
• Trace the circuit. Note the value of the load resistor and the type of two diodes.
• Connect the mains voltage to the primary of the center tapped transformer. Connect the output
terminals to the vertical plates of the CRO. Adjust different knobs of the CRO and obtain a
stationary pattern on the screen. Now touch the CRO probes at the center tap and one of the
diodes. Observe the waveform on the CRO. Plot both the wave shapes in your notebook.
Compare the two voltage wave shapes.
• Measure AC voltage at the input (center tap and one of the diodes) and output points. Also
measure the dc voltage across the load resistor.
• From the measured ac voltage, calculate the dc voltage. Compare it with the measured value of
the dc output voltage. Calculate its difference with the theoretical value.

RESULTS
Measurement of VRMS, VDC, and ripple factor for half wave and full wave rectifier is done
successfully.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering (NBA Accredited)
(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)

CALCULATION:
Ripple Factor = AC voltage at output / dc voltage at output
Output Voltage VDC for FWR = 2Vm/π
Output Voltage VDC for HWR = Vm /π
Vrms for FWR = Vm /√2
Vrms for HWR = Vm /2
PIV across the diode- For Half Wave Rectifier = Vm
For Full Wave Bridge Rectifier = Vm
For Full Wave Centre Tap Rectifier = 2Vm
Precautions:
• Make the connections carefully.
• Take the observations carefully.
• Trace should be drawn on properly.
• Switch off the power supply after completion of experiment.

Viva voce Question & Answers

Q1. What is the advantage of half wave rectifier?

Ans. In half wave rectifier there are only two diodes connecting opposite to each other, hence there is
possibility of only 90-degree phase will give to us. thus, we got the dc voltage wave. The half wave
rectifier.

Q2. What is the effect of capacitor in waveform of half wave rectifier?

Ans. Without the capacitor, the waveform is the positive halves of the AC waveform. With the capacitor,
and with no load, the waveform is a straight-line DC at the peak value minus the diode's forward voltage
drop. Add some load,

Q3. How does a diode act as a half wave rectifier?

Ans. Diode only permits current flow in one direction. In AC the current waveform reverses for half the
cycle. Since current won't flow for 1/2 the cycle you get half-wave rectification.

Q4. What is PIV value of a half wave rectifier?

Ans. Peak inverse voltage = supply voltage. the diode would be in reverse biased condition.

Q6. What Is a Bridge Rectifier?

when four diodes are placed in a certain configuration in an electric circuit and an alternating current is
supplied to them, the Resulting output is a direct current. This setup is known as a "bridge rectifier"
because the alternating current is rectified or changed to direct current.

Q7. How to Check a Bridge Rectifier?

Ans. Connect the oscillating voltage source (transformer or function generator) to the input leads of the
circuit. Using a multimeter, measure the output voltage. For a sinusoidal input signal, it should read
roughly 0.6 of the amplitude of the input, the average value of the rectified sine curve.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering (NBA Accredited)
(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)

EXPERIMENT:- 4
Aim of Experiment:- To Plot V-I characteristics of Zener diode. Graphical measurement of forward
and reverse resistance.

Apparatus Required:-

S. No. Component Specification Quantity

1 Voltmeter 0-20V 1
2 Ammeter 0-100mA and 0-100µA 1
3 Resistance 470Ω 1
4 Zener Diode 5V1 1
5 Bread Board - 1
6 Connecting Wires Single core wire -

THEORY:-
Zener diode is a P-N junction diode specially designed to operate in the reverse biased mode. It is
acting as normal diode while forward biasing. It has a particular voltage known as break down voltage,
at which the diode break downs while reverse biased. In the case of normal diodes, the diode damages
at the break down voltage. But Zener diode is specially designed to operate in the reverse breakdown
region.
The basic principle of Zener diode is the Zener breakdown. When a diode is heavily doped, it’s
depletion region will be narrow. When a high reverse voltage is applied across the junction, there will
be very strong electric field at the junction. And the electron hole pair generation takes place. Thus,
heavy current flows. This is known as Zener break down.
So, a Zener diode, in a forward biased condition acts as a normal diode. In reverse biased mode, after
the break down of junction current through diode increases sharply. But the voltage across it remains
constant.
The V-I characteristics of a Zener Diode is the curve between voltage across the junction and circuit
Current.

Figure No.- 4.1: Circuit diagram for Forward Bias condition

 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
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(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)

Figure No.- 4.2: Circuit diagram for Reverse Bias condition

V-I Characteristics-

Figure No.- 4.3: V-I Characteristics of Zener Diode

It has sharp breakdown voltage called Zener voltage.

It can be operate in any one of the three regions i.e. Forward, Leakage, Breakdown.
The voltage is almost constant (V2) over the operating region.
Usually the value of V2 at a particular test current I2 is specified in the data sheet.
During the operation it will not burn out as long as the external circuit limitation the current flowing
through i.e. I.

Avalanche Breakdown: - when the electric field existing in the depletion layer is sufficiently high the
velocity of the carried crossing the depletion layer is sufficiently high, these carriers collide with the
crystal atom. Some collisions are so violent those electrons are knocked of the crystal atoms. Thus, by
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
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increase in charge carrier, we approach the break down voltage, the chain of collision can give rise to
an almost infinite current with very slight additional increase in voltage. Once, this breakdown occurs
the junction cannot regain its original position. Thus, the diode is said to be turn off.

Zener Breakdown: - This breakdown takes in a very thin junction i.e. When both the sides of the
junction are heavily doped and consequently the depletion layer is heavily doped and consequently the
depletion layer is narrow. In the Zener breakdown mechanism, the electric field becomes very high to
107 V/m in the depletion layer with only a small applied ever – bias voltage. In this process it becomes
possible for some electrons to jump across the barrier from the balance band in P – material to some of
in the filled condition band is not damage. The junction regions its original position when the reverse
voltage is removed. This process is used in Zener diode.
Thus, it is concluded that Zener breakdown does not Result in the destruction of the diode of
long as current through the diode is limited by external circuit to a level with in its power handling
capacity whereas avalanche breakdown destroys the diode.

Observation Table:

Table No.- 4.1: Observation Table of Forward Biased Condition

Voltage Across Zener Diode (Vz) Current Through Zener Diode (ID)
S. No.
in Volt in mA
1 0 0
2 0.661 1.5
3 0.700 2.0
4 0.733 3.1
5 0.754 7.0
6 0.768 13.0
7 0.774 18.0
8 0.781 24.0
9 0.787 30.6
10 0.790 40.1

Table No.- 4.2: Observation Table of Reverse Biased Condition

Voltage Across Diode (Vz) Current Through Diode (ID)

S. No.
in Volt in µA
1 0.0 00
2 0.5 1.5
3 1.0 2.0
4 2.1 3.2
5 3.3 6.7
6 4.9 15.0
7 5.03 22.0
8 5.12 31.63
9 5.14 37.89
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
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(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)
Procedure:
• Connect the circuit according to the given figure.
• Connect DC power supply to the circuit.
• Find out the relation between voltage and current.
• Trace a graph of V-I characteristic of Zener diode.

Result: - V-I characteristics of Zener diode:

Precautions:
• Make the connections carefully.
• Take the observations carefully.
• Trace should be drawn on properly.
• Switch off the power supply after completion of experiment
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering (NBA Accredited)
(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)

Viva voce Question & Answers

Q1. What is a Zener Diode?

Ans. Zener diode is a diode that allows current to flow forward in the normal direction, as well as
reverse direction,

Q2. How to Check a Zener Diode

Ans. Placing the multimeter on the diode setting. This is usually indicated by a small diode symbol on
the casing. Measure

Q3How Zener diode behaves as a voltage regulator?

Ans. The Zener diode behaves as a voltage regulator because, in the reverse bias condition, it has a
relatively flat voltage to current curve. That means that the voltage across the diode will be...

Q4. How a Zener diode can be used as a voltage regulator?

Ans. Zener diodes try to keep their terminal voltage at their designed voltage, that is their function.
Putting a Zener diode in parallel with a load can help regulate the voltage to the desired amount,

Q5. Why Zener diode is used as voltage regulator?

Ans. At one time it was used for a regulator because in the reverse voltage breakdown it has the
characteristic of keeping the voltage constant as voltage is increased. IT has been replaced by many...

Q6. Why the Zener diode is used as a semiconductor device in voltage regulator?
Ans. Zener diode is a special kind of diode, which permits current to flow in the forward direction as
normal, but it will also allow current to flow in the reverse.

Q7. What is the basic principle of Zener diode?

Ans. Zener break down.

Q8. What is Zener break down?

Ans. When diode is heavily doped, it’s depletion region will be narrow. When high R.V. is applied
across the junction, there will be very strong electric field at the junction. And electron hole pair
generation take place. Thus, the heavy current flows this is known as Zener break down.

Q9.Mention the application of Zener diode?

Ans. In voltage regulator.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering (NBA Accredited)
(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)
EXPERIMENT:- 5
Aim of Experiment:- To study the reverse bias characteristic of Photo-diode for different intensity of
incident light on it.
Apparatus Required:-

S. No. Component Specification Quantity

1 Photo Diode - 1
2 Voltmeter (0-10Volt) 1
3 Milli-ammeter - 1
4 Variable DC Source (0-10Volt) 1
5 Bread board - 1
Connecting Wires / Single core wire
6 -
leads

Theory:-

Photo-Diode: It is a silicon or germanium PN junction diode which is photo-sensitive in reverse bias

condition. i.e. The reverse current in a photodiode depends on the intensity of light falling on it or
exposure of light. The application of this diode is in its reverse biased condition.
V-I characteristics: The voltage-current equation for photodiode is given by following equation.
𝑉
𝐼 = 𝐼0 (𝑒 ⁄𝜂𝑉𝑇 − 1) − 𝐼𝑃 ----(1)
𝐼0 is reverse saturation current, V is applied potential to diode
VT is voltage equivalent to temperature = kT/q
IR = IP -I0 ----(2)
Equation (2) indicates that in reverse biased photo-diode the total current is sum of reverse saturation
current and photo-current. In absence of light, the photo-current becomes zero and the total current
flowing through diode is equal to reverse saturation current. This current is known as dark current.

Figure No.- 5.1: Circuit diagram to study characteristics of Photodiode

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Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering (NBA Accredited)
(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)

Observation:-

1. Least count of voltmeter = 0.1 V

2. Least count of ammeter = 0.02mA
3. VR and IR at Intensity I = 0<I1<I2<I3

Table No.- 5.1: Observation Table of reverse bias characteristic of Photo-diode

Intensity I =0 I1 I2 I3
(I)
Sr. No. VR IR VR IR VR IR VR IR
(Volt) (mA) (Volt) (mA) (Volt) (mA) (Volt (mA)
)
1. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2. 0.5 0.02 0.5 0.06 0.5 0.12 0.5 0.18
3. 1.0 0.04 1.0 0.12 1.0 0.24 1.0 0.36
4. 1.5 0.06 1.5 0.18 1.5 0.36 1.5 0.54
5. 2.0 0.06 2.0 0.20 2.0 0.40 2.0 0.60
6. 2.5 0.06 2.5 0.20 2.5 0.40 2.5 0.60
7. 3.0 0.06 3.0 0.20 3.0 0.40 3.0 0.60
8. 3.5 0.06 3.5 0.20 3.5 0.40 3.5 0.60
9. 4.0 0.06 4.0 0.20 4.0 0.40 4.0 0.60
10. 4.5 0.06 4.5 0.20 4.5 0.40 4.5 0.60
11 5.0 0.06 5.0 0.20 5.0 0.40 5.0 0.60

Result: - The following results can be written on the basis of photo-diode characteristic curve-

(A) Since the reverse saturation current at zero intensity of light is 0.06mA=60 A. Thus dark current
for photo diode is 60 A.
(B) The reverse bias current increases with increase in intensity of incident light. Due to increase
in intensity of light, the number of photon incident per unit area per unit time increases. Therefore
the photo-generation of charge carriers (electron-hole pairs) increases, hence the current increase.
(C) At fixed intensity of light, the reverse bias current increases initially but after few voltsit
becomes constant. The number of charge carriers generated at fixed intensity of light is fixed.
Initially, the number of charge carrier crossing the junction increases with increase in reverse bias
voltage, thus firstly, the current increases. When all the generated charge carrier are able to cross the
junction and are involved for current flow then due to no increase in charge carrier flow per unit
time, the current becomes independent of voltage.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
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Graph:- Reverse bias characteristic of Photo-diode-

Precautions:-
1. The connection should be tight otherwise fluctuation in voltage and current will happen.
2. At the turning point of curve, more reading should be taken.
3. For the accuracy, current should be taken both in mA and A.
4. The reading should be in multiple of least count.

Viva voce Question & Answers

Q1. What is function of PHOTO DIODE?

Ans. A photodiode is a transducer that takes light energy and converts it into electrical energy. If
placed in a dark room, the photodiode is exposed to no light; therefore it creates no electricity.
However, if light falls upon it, it takes the light energy and produces electric current in response. A
photodiode conducts electric current directly proportional to the amount of light that falls upon it. It's
a perfect direct relationship.
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(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)

Q2. What is function of LDR?

Ans. A light dependent resistor (LDR) is resistor whose resistance varies with light intensity. This
resistor uses a high resistance conductor, whereby, light energy contained in the light makes the
electrons to move changing the resistive property of the semiconductor. Depending on the
semiconductor, the resistance may either increase or decrease.

Q3. Define dark current in photodiode.

Ans. The small amount of current that flows through a photonic semiconductor device when it is not operating. Also
known as leakage current.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
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(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)

EXPERIMENT:- 6
Aim of Experiment:- Characteristics of Solar cell: V-I characteristics of solar cell, graphical
measurement of forward and reverse resistance.

Apparatus Required:-

S. No. Component Specification Quantity

1 Solar Cell - 1
2 Lamp 100 Watt 1
3 Voltmeter - 1
4 Current meter - 1
5 Connecting Wires - -
Theory:-
The solar cell is a semiconductor device, which converts the solar energy into electrical energy. It
is also called a photovoltaic cell. A solar panel consists of numbers of solar cells connected in
series or parallel. The number of solar cell connected in a series generates the desired output
voltage and connected in parallel generates the desired output current. The conversion of sunlight
(Solar Energy) into electric energy takes place only when the light is falling on the cells of the
solar panel. Therefore in most practical applications, the solar panels are used to charge the lead
acid or Nickel-Cadmium batteries. In the sunlight, the solar panel charges the battery and also
supplies the power to the load directly. When there is no sunlight, the charged battery supplies the
required power to the load.

Figure No.- 6.1: Operational diagram of Solar Cell

A solar cell operates in somewhat the same manner as other junction photo detectors. A built-in
depletion region is generated in that without an applied reverse bias and photons of ad energy
create hole-electrons pairs. In the solar cell, as shown in Fig. 1a, the pair must diffuse a
considerable distance to reach the narrow depletion region to be drawn out as useful current.
Hence, there is higher probability of recombination. The current generated by separated pairs
increases the depletion region voltage (Photovoltaic effect). When a load is connected across the
cell, the potential causes the photocurrent to flow through the load.
The e.m.f. generated by the photo-voltaic cell in the open circuit, i.e. when no current is drawn
from it is denoted by VOC (V-open circuit). This is the maximum value of e.m.f.. When a high
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resistance is introduced in the external circuit a small current flows through it and the voltage
decreases. The voltage goes on falling and the current goes on increasing as the resistance in the
external circuit is reduced. When the resistance is reduced to zero the current rises to its maximum
value known as saturation current and is denoted as
ISC, the voltage becomes zero. Figure No.- 6.2:
VI characteristics of Solar
Cell

The product of open circuit voltage VOC and short circuit current ISC is known a ideal power.
Ideal Power = VOC × ISC
The maximum useful power is the area of the largest rectangle that can be formed under the V-I
curve. If Vm and Im are the values of voltage and current under this condition, then
Maximum useful power = Vm × Im
The ratio of the maximum useful power to ideal power is called the fill factor
Vm I m

VOC ISC
Circuit Diagram: Solar Cell Characteristics Apparatus
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(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)

Procedure:

When experiment is performed with 100 Watt lamp:

1. Place the solar cell and the light source (100 watt lamp) opposite to each other on a
wooden plank. Connect the circuit as shown by dotted lines (Fig. 2) through patch
chords.
2. Select the voltmeter range to 2V, current meter range to 250µA and load resistance (RL)
to 50Ω.
3. Switch ON the lamp to expose the light on Solar Cell.
4. Set the distance between solar cell and lamp in such a way that current meter shows
250 µA deflections. Note down the observation of voltage and current in Table- 6.1.
5. Vary the load resistance through band switch and note down the current and voltage
readings every time in Table1.
6. Plot a graph between output voltage vs. output current by taking voltage along X-axis
and current along Y-axis. You should get a curve similar to shown in Fig.- 6.2.

Determining Fill factor:

Draw a rectangle having maximum area under the V-I curve and note the values of Vm and
Im. Note the voltmeter reading for open circuit, VOC and milli ammeter reading with zero
resistance ISC. Using these values, calculate the fill factor for the cell.

Observations-
I) Voltmeter reading for open circuit, VOC = 14.2 Volts
Milli ammeter reading with zero resistance, ISC = 3.09 mA.
Load Resistance (RL) = 5kΩ

Table No.- 6.1: Observation Table for Intensity-1 of Solar Cell

Voltage Current Power (P)=V×I×10-3
S. No.
1 0 0 0
2 0.5 14.2 0.5*14.2*10-3
3 1.0 14.2 1*14.2*10-3
4 1.5 14.2 1.5*14.2*10-3
5 2.0 14.2 2*14.2*10-3
6 2.5 12.1 2.5*12.1*10-3
7 3.0 3.1 3*3.1*10-3
8 3.8 0.03 3.8*0.03*10-3

II) Voltmeter reading for open circuit, VOC = 2.91 Volts

Milli ammeter reading with zero resistance, ISC = 6.5 mA.

Load Resistance (RL) = 10kΩ

 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
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(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)

Table No.- 6.2: Observation Table for Intensity-2 of Solar Cell

S. No. Voltage Current Power (P)=V×I×10-3

1 0 6.5 0
2 0.5 6.5 0.5*6.5*10-3
3 1.0 6.5 1*6.5*10-3
4 1.5 6.5 1.5*6.5*10-3
5 2.0 6.1 2*6.1*10-3
6 2.5 4.6 2.5*4.6*10-3
7 2.88 0.02 2.88*0.02*10-3

Table No.- 6.3: One Intensity of Source

S. N. Voltage(V) Current(mA) RH Power (P)
=V×I×10-3
1 0 0.6 0 0
2 1.24 0.5 9.6Ω 0.62
3 1.78 0.4 1.74Ω 0.712
4 2.02 0.3 2.84Ω 0.602
5 2.16 0.2 3.62Ω 0.432
6 2.88 0.1 5.86Ω 0.228

Calculations-
For Intensity-1:
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥
Fill factor (1) =
𝐼𝑆𝐶1 𝑉𝑂𝐶1
0.88∗10−3
=
0.7∗10−3 ∗2.42
= 0.4722
For Intensity-2:
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥
Fill factor (2) =
𝐼𝑆𝐶2 𝑉𝑂𝐶2
0.711∗10−3
=
0.6∗10−3 ∗2.43
= 0.4883

∆𝑉
Resistance (Rs) =
∆𝐼
0.18
=
0.1∗10−3
= 1.8 kΩ.

Result-
The characteristics of Solar Cell is plotted on the graph paper.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
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(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)

Fill factor (1) = 0.4722

Fill factor (2) = 0.4833
Resistance (Rs) = 1.8 kΩ.

Precautions:-
1. The connection should be tight otherwise fluctuation in voltage and current will happen.
2. At the turning point of curve, more reading should be taken.
3. For the accuracy, current should be taken both in mA and A.
4. The reading should be in multiple of least count

Viva voce Question & Answers

Q1. What is a solar cell?

Ans. A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is an electrical device that converts the energy
of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect.

Q2. Explain the operation of photovoltaic cell.

Ans. The operation of a photovoltaic (PV) cell requires 3 basic attributes:
(1) The absorption of light, generating either electron–hole pairs or excitons.
(2) The separation of charge carriers of opposite types.
(3) The separate extraction of those carriers to an external circuit.

Q3. How does the photon proceed in a solar cell?

Ans. After a photon makes its way through the encapsulate it encounters the antireflective
layer. The antireflective layer channels the photon into the lower layers of the solar cell. Once
the photon passes the anti reflective layer, it will either hit the silicon surface of the solar cell
or the contact grid metallization. The metallization, being opaque, lowers the number of
photons reaching the Si surface. The contact grid must be large enough to collect electrons yet
cover as little of the solar cell’s surface, allowing more photons to penetrate.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering (NBA Accredited)
(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering (NBA Accredited)
(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)

EXPERIMENT:- 7
Aim of Experiment:- Application of Zener diode: Zener diode as a voltage regulator.
Measurement of percentage regulation by varying load resistor.

Apparatus Required: -

S.No. Component Specification Quantity

1 Voltmeter 0-20V 1
2 Ammeter 0-100mA and 0-100µA 1
3 Resistance 470Ω 1
4 Zener Diode 5V1 1
5 Bread Board - 1
6 Connecting Wires Single core wire -

Theory:- The Zener diode is like a general-purpose signal diode. When biased in the forward
direction it behaves just like a normal signal diode, but when a reverse voltage is applied to it,
the voltage remains constant for a wide range of currents.

Avalanche Breakdown: There is a limit for the reverse voltage. Reverse voltage can increase
until the diode breakdown voltage reaches. This point is called Avalanche Breakdown region.
At this stage maximum current will flow through the Zener diode. This breakdown point is
referred as “Zener voltage”.

The Zener Diode is used in its "reverse bias". From the I-V Characteristics curve we can study
that the Zener diode has a region in its reverse bias characteristics of almost a constant negative
voltage regardless of the value of the current flowing through the diode and remains nearly
constant even with large changes in current as long as the Zener diodes current remains between
the breakdown current IZ(min) and the maximum current rating IZ(max).

This ability to control itself can be used to great effect to regulate or stabilize a voltage source
against supply or load variations. The fact that the voltage across the diode in the breakdown
region is almost constant turns out to be an important application of the Zener diode as a voltage
regulator

The exciting part of this diode is that we can choose the Zener diode with a suitable breakdown
voltage to work as a voltage regulator in our circuit. For example, we want that the voltage
across a load in our circuit does not exceed, let’s say, 12 volts. Then we can select a Zener
diode with a breakdown voltage of 12 volts and connect it across the load. Then even if the
input voltage exceeds that value, the voltage across the load will never exceed 12 volts. Let us
try to understand that with a circuit diagram-
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Figure No.- 7.1: Circuit diagram of Zener diode as Voltage Regulator

Here the Zener diode is connected across the load RL. We want the voltage across the
load to be regulated and not cross the value of Vz. Depending on our requirement, we choose
the suitable Zener diode with a Zener breakdown voltage near to the voltage we require across
the load. We connect the Zener diode in reverse bias condition. When the voltage across the
diode exceeds the Zener breakdown voltage, a significant amount of current starts flowing
through the diode. As the load is in parallel to the diode, the voltage drop across the load is also
equal to the Zener breakdown voltage. The Zener diode provides a path for the current to flow
and hence the load gets protected from excessive currents. Thus the Zener diode serves two
purposes here: Zener diode as a voltage regulator as well as it protects the load from
excessive current.

Basically, there are two type of regulations such as:

a) Line Regulation
In this type of regulation, series resistance and load resistance are fixed, only input voltage is
changing. Output voltage remains the same as long as the input voltage is maintained above a
minimum value.
∆𝑉
Percentage of Line Regulation = ∆𝑉 0
𝐼𝑁
where V0 is the output voltage and VIN is the input voltage and ΔV0 is the change in
output voltage for a particular change in input voltage ΔVIN.

b) Load Regulation
In this type of regulation, input voltage is fixed and the load resistance is varying. Output volt
remains same, as long as the load resistance is maintained above a minimum value.
𝑉 −𝑉
Percentage of Line Regulation = [ 𝑁𝐿𝑉 𝐹𝐿 ] ∗ 100%
𝑁𝐿
where VNL is the null load resistor voltage (i.e. remove the load resistance and measure
the voltage across the Zener Diode) and VFL is the full load resistor voltage.

Procedure:
• Connect the circuit according to the given figure.
• Connect DC power supply to the circuit.
• Find out the percentage regulation of regulator circuit, Load current and Zener current
of Zener diode.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering (NBA Accredited)
(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)

Observation Table:

Table No.- 7.1: Observation Table for Zener diode as voltage regulator

S. No. Variable Input Voltage (Vs) in Volt Output Voltage (Vo) in Volt
1 0 0
2 1 0.5
3 2 1.0
4 3 3.2
5 4 4.4
6 5.5 5.0
7 6.5 5.12
8 7.5 5.21
9 8.5 5.33
10 9.5 5.89

Calculations-
Let, the maximum power rating PZ of the Zener diode is 2W. Using the Zener regulator circuit
above calculate:
a). The maximum current flowing through the Zener diode.
2𝑊
Maximum Current = = 400 mA.
5𝑉

b). The minimum value of the series resistor, RS

𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑧 (12 − 5) 𝑉
= [ ]= = 17.5 𝛺
𝐼𝑧 400 𝑚𝐴
c). The load current IL if a load resistor of 1kΩ is connected across the Zener diode.
𝑉𝑍 5𝑉
𝐼𝐿 = = = 5 𝑚𝐴
𝑅𝐿 1000 𝛺
d). The Zener current IZ at full load.
𝐼𝑍 = 𝐼𝑆 − 𝐼𝐿 = 400 𝑚𝐴 − 5 𝑚𝐴 = 395 𝑚𝐴

𝑉𝑁𝐿 = 5.3 𝑉, 𝑉𝐹𝐿 = 5.1 𝑉

𝑉𝑁𝐿 −𝑉𝐹𝐿
Percentage of Line Regulation = [ ] ∗ 100%
𝑉𝑁𝐿
5.3 𝑉 − 5.1 𝑉
= ∗ 100%
5.3 𝑉
= 37.73 %
Result: -
We have verified the Zener diode as a voltage regulator. Measured percentage regulation by
varying load resistor.

Precautions:
• Make the connections carefully.
• Take the observations carefully.
• Trace should be drawn on properly.
• Switch off the power supply after completion of experiment
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering (NBA Accredited)
(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)

Viva voce Question & Answers

Q1. What is a Zener Diode?

Ans. Zener diode is a diode that allows current to flow forward in the normal direction, as well
as reverse direction,

Q2. How to Check a Zener Diode

Ans. Placing the multimeter on the diode setting. This is usually indicated by a small diode
symbol on the casing. Measure

Q3. How Zener diode behaves as a voltage regulator?

Ans. The Zener diode behaves as a voltage regulator because, in the reverse bias condition, it
has a relatively flat voltage to current curve. That means that the voltage across the diode will
be...

Q4. How a Zener diode can be used as a voltage regulator?

Ans. Zener diodes try to keep their terminal voltage at their designed voltage, that is their
function. Putting a Zener diode in parallel with a load can help regulate the voltage to the
desired amount,

Q5. Why Zener diode is used as voltage regulator?

Ans. At one time it was used for a regulator because in the reverse voltage breakdown it has
the characteristic of keeping the voltage constant as voltage is increased. IT has been replaced
by many...

Q6. Why the Zener diode is used as a semiconductor device in voltage regulator?
Ans. Zener diode is a special kind of diode, which permits current to flow in the forward
direction as normal, but it will also allow current to flow in the reverse.

Q7. What is the basic principle of Zener diode?

Ans. Zener break down

Q8. What is Zener break down?

Ans. When diode is heavily doped, it’s depletion region will be narrow. When high R.V. is
applied across the junction, there will be very strong electric field at the junction. And electron
hole pair generation take place. Thus, the heavy current flows this is known as Zener break
down.

Q9.Mention the application of Zener diode?

Ans. In voltage regulator.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering (NBA Accredited)
(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)

EXPERIMENT:- 8
Aim of Experiment:- Characteristic of BJT: BJT in CE configuration- Graphical
measurement of h parameters from input and output characteristics. Measurement of Av, AI,
Ro and Ri of CE amplifier with potential divider biasing.

Apparatus Required: -

S. No. Component Specification Quantity

1 Multimeter - 1
2 Ammeter 0-100 mA and 0-100 µA 1
3 Resistance 470 Ω 1
4 Transistor BC107 1
5 Bread Board - 1
6 Connecting Wires Single core wire -
7 Regulated Power Supply - 1

Theory: -
The basic circuit diagram for studying input characteristics is shown in the circuit diagram. The
input is applied between base and emitter, the output is taken between collector and emitter.
Here emitter of the transistor is common to both input and output and hence the name Common
Emitter Configuration.

Input characteristics are obtained between the input current and input voltage at constant
output voltage. It is plotted between VBE and IB at constant VCE in CE configuration.

Output characteristics are obtained between the output voltage and output current at constant
input current. It is plotted between VCE and IC at constant IB in CE configuration.

Figure No.- 8.1: Circuit diagram of CE transistor to study input & output characteristics
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering (NBA Accredited)
(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)

Procedure:
Input Characteristics:
• Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
• Keep output voltage VCE = 0V by varying VCC.
• Varying VBB gradually, note down base current IB and base-emitter voltage VBE.
• Step size is not fixed because of nonlinear curve. Initially vary VBB in steps of 0.1V.
Once the current starts increasing vary VBB in steps of 1V up to 12V.
• Repeat above procedure (step 3) for VCE = 5V.
• Plot the input characteristics by taking VBE on X-axis and IB on Y-axis at a
constant VCE as a constant parameter.
Output Characteristics:
• Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
• Keep emitter current IB = 20 A by varying VBB.
• Varying VCC gradually in steps of 1V up to 12V and note down collector current IC and
Collector-Emitter Voltage(VCE).
• Repeat above procedure (step 3) for IB = 60µA, 20µA.
• Plot the output characteristics by taking VCE on X-axis and taking IC on Y-axis
taking IB as a constant parameter.
Observations:
Table No.- 8.1: Observation Table for Input characteristics
VBB (Volts) VCE = 0V VCE = 5V

VBE (Volts) IB (µA) VBE (Volts) IB (µA)

0.18 2.586 0.10 2.307

0.42 3.644 0.30 3.070

0.86 6.833 0.70 5.437

1.22 11.430 1.00 8.345

1.60 19.670 1.50 17.050

Table No.- 8.2: Observation Table for Output characteristics

VCC (Volts) IB = 20 µA IB = 60 µA

VCE (Volts) IC (mA) VCE (Volts) IC (mA)

1.0 67.36 1.0 265.5

2.0 85.27 2.0 336.0

3.0 88.01 3.0 346.9

4.0 88.39 4.0 348.3

5.0 88.44 5.0 348.6

 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering (NBA Accredited)
(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)

Calculations from Graph:

1. Input Characteristics: To obtain input resistance find VBE and IB for a
constant VCE on one of the input characteristics.
Input impedance = hie = Ri = VBE / IB (VCE is constant)
Reverse voltage gain = hre = VEB / VCE (IB = constant)
2. Output Characteristics: To obtain output resistance find IC and VCB at a
constant IB.
Output admittance 1/hoe = Ro = IC / VCE (IB is constant)
Forward current gain = hfe = IC / IB (VCE = constant)

Graph:

Figure No.- 8.2: Input Characteristics of Common Emitter Transistor

Figure No.- 8.3: Output Characteristics of Common Emitter Transistor

 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering (NBA Accredited)
(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)

Figure No.- 8.4: Graph of Input Characteristics of Common Emitter Transistor

Figure No.- 8.5: Graph of Output Characteristics of Common Emitter Transistor

Inference:
• Medium input and output resistances.
• Smaller values if VCE, lower the cut-in-voltage.
• Increase in the value of IE causes saturation of the transistor of an earlier voltage.

Result:
Input and Output characteristics of a Transistor in Common Emitter Configuration are studied.

Precautions:
• While performing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the transistor. This may
lead to damage the transistor.
• Connect voltmeter and ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
• Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as
per the circuit diagram.
• Make sure while selecting the emitter, base and collector terminals of the transistor.

Viva voce Question & Answers

 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering (NBA Accredited)
(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)

Q1. What is a Transistor?

Ans. Transistor is an Active electronic component. Transistor is base of Digital Electronics &
Computers. It performs various tasks like Amplification, Timer, Oscillator, etc.

Q2. What are Transistors?

Ans. Most commonly referred to in electronics, a transistor is a semiconductor device that is
used to amplify or switch electronic signals.

Q3. What is self-bias transistor circuit?

Ans. transistor with a resistance in the emitter lead that gives rise to a voltage drop which is in
the direction to reverse-bias the emitter junction; the circuit can be used even if there is zero
direct-current resistance in series with the collector terminal.

Q4. How to Bias a PNP Transistor?

Ans. Identify the base, collector and emitter terminals of your transistor. This information is
available in the device's data sheet Connect the emitter of the transistor to your positive supply
voltage. A common voltage for this sort of circuit is 12 Volts.
Connect one lead of a resistor to the base terminal, and connect the other lead of this resistor to
ground ("ground" in this circuit comes from the negative terminal of your power supply or
battery). This is called the base resistor. The appropriate value for this resistor depends on your
particular transistor and on your desired bias point. A good starting value for most circuits is
10 k-ohms
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
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(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)

EXPERIMENT:- 9
Aim of Experiment: - Field effect transistor – single stage common source amplifier – plot
of gain in db Vs frequency, measurement of bandwidth, input impedance, maximum signal
handling capacity (MSHC) of an amplifier
.
Apparatus Required: -

S. No. Component Specification Quantity

1 Multimeter - 1
2 CRO - 1
3 Resistance 1 MΩ, 4.7 KΩ, 1 KΩ 3
4 Capacitor 10 μF, 100 ΜF 1
5 Bread Board - 1
6 Connecting Wires Single core wire -
7 Function generator - 1
8 FET BFW10 1

Theory: -

Transistor amplifier circuits such as the common emitter amplifier are made using Bipolar
Transistors, but small signal amplifiers can also be made using Field Effect Transistors. These
devices have the advantage over bipolar transistors of having an extremely high input
impedance along with a low noise output making them ideal for use in amplifier circuits that
have very small input signals.
Firstly, a suitable quiescent point or “Q-point” needs to be found for the correct biasing
of the JFET amplifier circuit with single amplifier configurations of Common-source (CS),
Common-drain (CD) or Source-follower (SF) and the Common-gate (CG) available for most
FET devices.
FET amplifiers we will look at the popular Common Source JFET
Amplifier as this is the most widely used JFET amplifier design
Almost no electronic system can work without an amplifier. The voice of a single person could
reach everybody in a hall only because of the amplification of the signal picked up by the P.A
system. After a transistor is biased in the active region, it can work as an amplifier. We apply
an AC voltage between the base and emitter terminals to produce fluctuations in the collector
current. An amplified output signal is obtained when this fluctuating collector current flows
through a collector resistor Rc. When the input signal is so weak as to produce small fluctuations
in the collector current compared to its quiescent value, the amplifier is called ‘small signal
amplifier’ (also ‘voltage amplifier’). Such an amplifier is used as the first stage of the amplifier
used in receivers (radio and TV), tape recorders, and stereos and measuring instruments. The
circuit of a single stage transistor amplifier is shown in fig. Almost all amplifiers use potential
divider biasing circuit because the design of the circuit is simple and it provides good
stabilization of the operating point. If this circuit is to amplify ac voltages, some more
components must be added such as the circuit capacitors are added. The capacitor CC is called
coupling capacitors. A coupling capacitor passes an ac signal from one side to another. The
capacitor CE works as a bypass capacitor. It bypasses all the ac currents from the emitter to
ground. The resistance R represents the resistance of whatever is connected at the output. To
what extent an amplifier enlarges signal is expressed in terms of its voltage gain. The voltage
gain of an amplifier is given as –
AV = output AC voltage / input AC voltage
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
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(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)

AV = Vo/Vi
The other quantities of interest for a voltage amplifier are current gain (Ai) input impedance (zi
) and output impedance (zo). The performance of an amplifier is judged by observing whether
all frequency component of the signal is amplified equally well. The information is provided
by its frequency response curve. This curve illustrates how the magnitude of voltage gain of
the amplifier varies with the freq. of the input signal (sinusoidal). It can be plotted by measuring
voltage gain of the amplifier. for different frequencies of sinusoidal voltage fed to its input. Fig
shows the frequency response curve of the typical RC coupled amplifier.
B.W = f2 – f1
The efficiency of the common source JFET amplifier can be improved by the addition
of a resistor, Rs included in the source lead with the same drain current flowing through this
resistor. Resistor, Rs is also used to set the JFET amplifiers “Q-point”.

Figure No.- 9.1: Circuit diagram of Single Stage RC Coupled FET Amplifier

Figure No.- 9.2: Frequency Response of Single Stage RC Coupled FET Amplifier
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
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(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)

Procedure: -
• Connect the circuit as the circuit diagram.
• Apply Vcc = +15V & set i/p voltage in mV.
• Now vary the frequency of i/p voltage &Measure the corresponding amplitude
variation in o/p at different values of i/p frequency.
• Not down the reading and plot a graph between gain and frequency. The curve is
known as frequency response curve.

Observations: -
When Input Voltage = 33.33mV
Table No.- 9.1: Observation Table to draw Frequency Response
O/P Voltage(mV) Voltage Gain Gain=20log10(Vo/Vin)
S.NO I/P Frequency(Hz) (Av)=Vo/Vin

1. 100Hz 100mV 2 6.02

2. 200Hz 200mV 6 15.04
3. 500Hz 400mV 10 20
4. 1KHz 800mV 16 24.08
5. 2KHz 800mV 16 24.08
6. 3KHz 800mV 16 24.08
7. 15KHz 800mV 16 24.08
8. 25KHz 800mV 16 24.08
9. 45KHz 800mV 16 24.08
10. 60KHz 400mV 10 20
11. 80KHz 200mV 6 15.04
12. 100KHz 100mV 2 60.2

In first case : (1) Gain =20log(2) =20*0.3010 =6.02

(2) Gain =20log(6) =15.04
(3) Gain =20log(10) =20*3*0.3010 =20
(4) Gain =20log(16) =20*4*0.3010 =24.08
Result: -
Thus, we have plotted a graph between gain and frequency to obtain a frequency response
curve.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering (NBA Accredited)
(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)

Following parameter have found using graph-

i. Bandwidth = f1-f2

= 55.00 – 0.88
=54.12KHz

𝑉𝑖𝑛
ii. I/O Resistance =
𝐼𝑖𝑛
50 (𝑚𝑉)
=
0.2 (𝑚𝐴)
= 250Ω

𝑉𝑜
iii. Output Resistance =
𝐼𝑜
100(𝑚𝑉)
=
5(𝑚𝐴)
= 20Ω
𝑉𝑜
iv. Voltage Gain (AV) =
𝑉𝑖𝑛
800
=
33.33
= 24.002

Precautions:
• While performing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the transistor. This may
lead to damage the transistor.
• Connect voltmeter and ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
• Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections
as per the circuit diagram.

Viva voce Question & Answers

Q1. What are the comparisons and differences between a BJT and a JFET?
Ans- BJT current controlled current device, FET voltage controlled current device, in BJT
current produced by holes and electrons, but in FET current produced due to any one only,
Q2. What is meant by a unipolar device? Why is a JFET known as a Unipolar Device?
Ans- In which device current produced due to one polarity (electron or hole), in JFET
current produced due to one only (N channel JFET- electrons, p- channel JFET- holes).
Q3. Draw the symbols of JFET?

Q4. What are the typical applications of a JFET?

Ans- Buffer, RF amplifier, cascade amplifier, variable resistor in op amps, mixer circuit,
memory cell.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
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(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)

EXPERIMENT:- 10
Aim of Experiment: - Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors: Single stage
MOSFET amplifier –plot of gain in dB Vs frequency, measurement of, bandwidth, input
impedance, maximum signal handling capacity (MSHC) of an amplifier

Apparatus Required:-

S. No. Component Specification Quantity

1 Function generator - 1
2 CRO - 1
3 Voltmeter - 1
4 Ammeter - 1
5 MOSFET 2N700 1
6 Connecting Wires - -

Theory: -
The MOSFET structure has become the most important device structure in the
electronics industry. It dominates the integrated circuit technology in Very Large Scale
Integrated (VLSI) digital circuits based on n-channel MOSFETs and Complementary n-channel
and p-channel MOSFETs (CMOS). The technical importance of the MOSFET results from its
low power consumption, simple geometry, and small size, resulting in very high packing
densities and compatibility with VLSI manufacturing technology. Two of the most popular
configurations of small-signal MOSFET amplifiers are the common source and common drain
configurations. The common source circuit is shown below. The common sources, like all
MOSFET amplifiers, have the characteristic of high input impedance. High input impedance is
desirable to keep the amplifier from loading the signal source. This high input impedance is
controlled by the bias resistors R1 and R2). Normally the value of the bias resistors is chosen as
high as possible. However, too big a value can cause a significant voltage drop due to the gate
leakage current. A large voltage drop is undesirable because it can disturb the bias point. For
amplifier operation the MOSFET should be biased in the active region of the characteristics.
Circuit Diagram:-

Figure No.- 10.1: Circuit diagram of MOSFET amplifier

 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering (NBA Accredited)
(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)

Figure No.- 10.2: Frequency Response of MOSFET

Procedure:-

Set up the circuit as shown in the figure with an input signal of 0.2V (peak-to-peak) at
1000 Hz. Observe the output on the CRO. Vary the frequency of the input signal over a range
of values (from 50Hz to a few MHz) to obtain the frequency response which is a graph between
log f (x-axis) and gain in dB (y-axis).

Observation:-

Table No.- 10.1: Observation Table for Frequency Response of MOSFET

VGS =3V VGS =6V VGS =9V VGS =12V
S.NO.
VDS(V) ID(mA) VDS(V) ID(mA) VDS(V) ID(mA) VDS(V) ID(mA)

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 2 0.21 2 2.96 2 3.24 2 3.29
3 4 0.21 4 4.68 4 6.47 4 6.55
4 6 0.21 6 4.68 6 9.58 6 9.87
5 8 0.21 8 4.68 8 9.58 8 13.16
6 10 0.21 10 4.68 10 9.58 10 16.48
7 12 0.21 12 4.68 12 9.58 12 17.83
8 14 0.21 14 4.68 14 9.58 14 17.83

Result: -
The required common source MOSFET amplifier was designed and set up to obtain the
required frequency response.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering (NBA Accredited)
(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)

Precautions:
• While performing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the transistor. This may
lead to damage the transistor.
• Connect voltmeter and ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
• Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections
as per the circuit diagram.

Viva voice Question & Answers

Q1. State the full form of MOSFET

Ans. Metal oxide field effect transistor
Q2. How many terminals the MOSFET consists of?
Ans. Three terminals : Source, Drain and Gate
Q3. Describe the main advantage of the Power MOSFET over other semiconductor
devices.
Ans. Advantages of the MOSFET
Low input power
High switching speed
Q4. Whether the MOSFET is voltage controlled or current controlled device? Why?
Ans. Voltage controlled device
The MOSFET is a voltage-controlled majority charge carrier device in the output current is
controlled by the input voltage. The conduction of current in the n channel MOSFET is done
only by electrons whereas the current conduction in the p channel is done by holes.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering (NBA Accredited)
(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)

EXPERIMENT:- 11

Aim of Experiment:- Simulation of Logarithmic amplifier circuit design and analysis.

Apparatus Required:-

S. No. Component Specification Quantity

1 Diode 1N4001 1
2 Resistance 1 KΩ 1
3 Op-amp LM741 1
4 Simulation software - 1

Theory:-

Logarithmic amplifier- The log amplifier gives an output voltage which is proportional to
the logarithm of the applied input voltage.
𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑉0 = 𝑘 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝑉𝑅𝐸𝐹
Procedure:-
Step1: Schematic creation
Draw the below circuit by using required components from component database and set the
given parameters:

Figure No.- 11.1: Schematic diagram of Logarithmic amplifier for Simulation

Step2: Simulation analysis

Now for analyzing the circuit we have to select the AC analysis from the simulation assistant
(press F9) and set the frequencies.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
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(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)

Figure No.- 11.2: Analysis of Simulation diagram for Logarithmic amplifier

Now select probes and set voltage probe for input and output.
Now click ok and select create circuit. Then start simulation and have the Result output.

Figure No.- 11.3: Waveform of Simulation diagram for Logarithmic amplifier

 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
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(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)

Viva voice Question & Answers

Q1. Draw the circuit diagram for logarithmic output amplifier.

Ans.

Q2. What is log amplifier?

Ans. It is the amp in which relationship between the input voltage vin and the output voltage
vout is given by:

Ans. where ISis the saturation current and VT is the thermal voltage.

Q3.What is the relationship between the current and the voltage for a diode?

Ans. This, when the voltage is greater than zero, can be approximated by:

Putting these two formulae together and considering that the output voltage is the negative of
the voltage across the diode (Vout = − VD), the relationship is proven.

Q4.What are other applications of op- amp?

Ans. Adder, Subtractor, Differentiator, Integrator.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
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(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)

EXPERIMENT:- BS-12
Aim of Experiment:- To study the characteristics of Uni-Junction Transistor (UJT).

Apparatus Required: -

S. No. Component Specification Quantity

1 Multimeter - 1
2 Ammeter 0-100mA and 0-100µA 1
3 Resistance 470Ω 1
4 UJT 1
5 Bread Board - 1
6 Connecting Wires Single core wire -

Theory: - Basically, UJT is a three-terminal silicon device, i.e. semiconductor device with
negative resistance characteristics. It consists of a bar of n-type silicon with a small p-type
insert (emitter) near to one of the ends. The ohmic contacts at the ends of the n-type bar
constitute two terminals base-1 and base-2. The rectifying contact is called the emitter. The
device shows negative resistance between its emitter and base 1 terminal.
The n-type bar is lightly doped and acts as a resistor. The effective resistance between the two
bases is called the inter-base resistance RBB. It may be considered as consisting of two resistors
RB1 and RB2 connected in series. The p-n junction is represented by the diode in the equivalent
circuit.
With positive voltage VBB applied between b2 and b1, the potential of point C will be n VBB,
where n, referred to as the intrinsic stand- off ratio, is determined by the relative magnitudes of
the internal resistance RB2 and RB1, as:
𝑅𝐵1 𝑉𝑅𝐵1
𝜂= =
𝑅𝐵𝐵 𝑉𝐵𝐵
Typical values of η range from 0.47 to 0.85. It differs from a FET in that it has no ability to
amplify. However, it has the ability to control a large AC power with a small signal.
As long as the emitter voltage VEB1 is less than the potential of C, the emitter base 1 diode will
be reverse biased and emitter current will be negative and equal in magnitude to the reverse
leakage current. At a point A in the figure, when the emitter voltage VEB1 is equal to VBB + VD,
where VD is the forward voltage drop of the diode, this will be positive and the emitter-base
junction will begin to conduct.

Circuit Diagram: -

Figure No.- 12.1: Circuit diagram of Uni-Junction Transistor

 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering (NBA Accredited)
(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)

Procedure: -

• Connect the circuit on the breadboard as shown in the circuit diagram.

• Measure the inter-base resistance RBB of the UJT using a miltimeters.
• Fix the voltage VBB = 20V & vary the input voltage VE in small steps.
• Note the corresponding value of IE and VE.

Graph: -

Figure No.- 12.2: V-I characteristics of Uni-Junction Transistor

Result: - We have studied the characteristics of UJT.

Precautions:
• While performing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the UJT. This may lead
to damage the UJT.
• Connect voltmeter and ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
• Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections
as per the circuit diagram.

Viva voice Question & Answers

Q1. What is inter base resistance?
Ans. The resistance of the silicon bar is called inter base resistance RBB represented by the
two resistors in series of Rb1 and Rb2. The inter base resistance is given by: Rbb = Rb1 + Rb2.
Q2. What is the mode of operation of UJT?
Ans. The operation of UJT may be explained in three different modes. 1) Cut off region; 2)
Negative resistance region; 3) Saturation region.
Q3. What are the applications of UJT?
Ans. The device has-a unique characteristic that when it is triggered, its emitter current
increases re generatively (due to negative resistance characteristic) until it are restricted by
emitter power supply. The low cost per unit, combined with its unique characteristic, have
warranted its use in a wide variety of applications. A few include oscillators, pulse generators,
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering (NBA Accredited)
(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)

saw-tooth generators, triggering circuits, phase control, timing circuits, voltage-or current-
regulated supplies and one of the most important applications of UJTs is to trigger thyristors
(SCR, TRIAC, etc.).
Q4. What are the features of UJT?
Ans. The worth noting points about UJT are given below:
1) The device, because of one P-N junction, is quite similar to a diode but it differs from an
ordinary diode as it has three terminals.
2) The structure of a UJT is quite similar to that of an N-channel JFET.
3) The N-type silicon bar has a high resistance and the resistance between emitter and base-1
is larger than that between emitter and base-2. It is because emitter is closer to base-2 than base-
1.
4) UJT is operated with emitter junction forward- biased while the JFET is normally operated
with the gate junction reverse-biased.
5) UJT does not have ability to amplify but it has the ability to control a large ac power with a
small signal. It exhibits a negative resistance characteristic and so it can be employed as an
oscillator.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering (NBA Accredited)
(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)

EXPERIMENT:- BS-13

Aim of Experiment:- Design of Power supply 220 / 230 V (AC), 5V DC, 200mA.

Apparatus Required: -

S. No. Component Specification Quantity

1 Multimeter - 1
2 Step down transformer 220/230V – 05V 1
3 Resistance 1KΩ 1
4 Capacitance 1000µF 1
5 Diode 1N4007 1
6 Bread Board - 1
7 Connecting Wires Single core wire -
8 Regulator IC 7805 1
9 CRO - 1

Theory:-

(DC Power Supply): - Electrical energy is available in homes & industries in the form of
alternating voltage (In India 230V A.C.). But for the operation of most of the devices in electric
equipment, a dc voltage is required. for instances, transistor radio requires a dc supply for its
operation. Usually this supply is provided by dry cells. But due to its limiting time a circuit was
invented Which converts the AC voltage of main supply into DC voltage. this circuit is known
as DC power supply. The block diagram of the dc power supply is given below.

(A) Transformer Section of a Supply: - A Transformer is a four-pole device based upon the
principle of electromagnetic induction. It consists of a primary winding & secondary winding
wound on iron core. The Ac current in the primary coil produces time varying magnetic lines
of force across the secondary of the transformers. Those voltage may be less than, or equal to
or greater than the primary voltages depending upon the turns ratio of the transformer. The
voltages across the secondary is given by-
V = Vm sinώt

Where Vm is the peak value of the alternating voltage. The role of a transformer in a
DC power supply is to bring the primary voltage to an appropriate value before rectification.

(B). Rectifier Section of the Supply: - This section of the supply converts the Ac voltage into
DC voltage. This function is achieved by the diode which has unidirectional conducting
property.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering (NBA Accredited)
(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)

Bridge Type Full Wave Rectifier: -

Figure No.- 13.1: Circuit diagram of Regulated Power Supply

Bridge Rectifier:- It is a type of full wave rectifier. It requires four diodes instead of two, but
avoids the need of center tapped type transformer. During the + ve half cycle of the secondary
voltage, diode D2& D3 are conducting & diodes D1& D4 are conducting. Therefore, current
flows through the secondary winding diode D3, load resistor R1 & diode D2 as shown in the
figure. During –ve half cycle of secondary voltage, diodes D1& D4 conduct & the diode D2&
D3 do not conduct the current flows through the secondary winding diode D4 load resistor &
diode D1 as shown in the fig. In both cases the current passes through the load resistor in the
same direction. Therefore, a fluctuating unidirectional voltage is developed across the load.
The output dc voltage is given by.
Vdc = 2Vm / π
Where Vm is the peak ac voltage at the input of the rectifier.

Connected across the capacitor the output wave from ideally would be a constant dc level equal
in value to the peak voltage from the rectifier circuit. T1 is charging time of the capacitor & T2
is discharging time.
Filter: - The dc output of rectifier may contain ripples these ripples are removed with the help
of filters.
Regulator: - If there is no regulator in the circuit the dc output will change if either input
voltage or load changes, therefore the function of regulator is to provide constant dc voltage or
regulated dc voltage irrespective of the change in load or input voltage.

Procedure: -

First, connect the full or half wave rectifier circuit to the high value capacitor C as shown in
fig. 13.1 & load RL also.
Connect the CRO at the output of rectifier terminals and note down the wave shape. Now
connect the CRO at the output of filter see i.e. across RL.
Measure the input ac voltage at the input of T secondary to get the peak value, multiply it by
√2 to get RMS Value.
Measure the output dc voltage when shunt capacitor is used in the ckt.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering (NBA Accredited)
(An ISO – 9001: 2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade accredited Institution by NAAC)

Result: -With the use of shunt filter is half or full wave rectifier, ripple voltage is very much.

If no load is used across the capacitor, the output waveform will ideally be a constant
dc level equal in value to the peak voltage (Vm) from the rectified circuit & if load is connected
across capacitor C, the output voltage will be Vdc.
The ripple voltage can be calculated from the given formula.
𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝑉𝑑𝑐
𝑉𝑟 (𝑅𝑀𝑆) = =4 =4
4√𝑓𝑐 𝐶 𝑅𝐿 𝐶

Where Idc is in milliamps, C is in µ farads and RL is in kΩ

Precautions:
• Make the connections carefully.
• Take the observations carefully.
• Trace should be drawn on properly.
• Switch off the power supply after completion of experiment

Viva voice Question & Answers

Q1: How to Build a Dc Power Supply?

Ans: DC Power supply consists of a Rectifier, Filter & Regulator. Rectifier converts AC into
DC. Filter removes pulsating AC components. Regulator provides regulation.
Q2: How to Test a Power Supply
Ans: A power supply is the main source of electricity for a computer. It runs the motherboard,
processor and all the key components, such as hard and CD/DVD drives. If your power supply
does not work, your computer cannot run. Usually towers or computer cases come with a power
supply. However, you can purchase a power supply without any other components. Certain
power supplies are specific for a motherboard. For example, a board might require a power
connector for the processor to function. Check your motherboard manual before you install or
test a power supply