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SYLLABUS

NIT IV Quantum Mechanics and Free electron Theory Quantum Mechanics:

2. Dual nature of matter –

3. Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle –

4. Significance and properties of wave function –

5. Schrodinger’s time independent and dependent wave equations–

6. Particle in a one-dimensional infinite potential well.

Free Electron Theory:

2. Classical free electron theory (Qualitative with discussion of merits

and demerits) –

3. Quantum free electron theory –

4. electrical conductivity based on quantum free electron theory –

5. Fermi-Dirac distribution –

6. Density of states –

7. Fermi energy

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QUANTUM MECHANICS

Quantum mechanics is a fundamental theory in physics that describes the behavior of

nature at and below the scale of atoms. It serves as the foundation for various branches of
quantum physics, including quantum chemistry, quantum field theory, quantum
technology, and quantum information science1. Unlike classical physics, which explains
matter and energy on a scale familiar to human experience, quantum mechanics delves
into the behavior of matter and its interactions with energy at the atomic and subatomic
levels2. Let’s explore some key concepts:

1. Wave-Particle Duality: Quantum mechanics reveals that extremely small objects,

such as electrons, exhibit both particle-like and wave-like characteristics. This
phenomenon is known as wave-particle duality3.
2. Uncertainty Principle: According to this principle, there are limits to how accurately
we can predict the value of a physical quantity (such as energy or momentum) prior to
measuring it. The more precisely we know one property (e.g., position), the less
precisely we can know another (e.g., momentum)1.
3. Quantized Properties: Quantum systems have properties (such as energy,
momentum, and angular momentum) that are quantized—meaning they take on
discrete values rather than continuous ones. Classical systems, on the other hand,
allow continuous measurements of these quantities1.

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4. Wave Functions: In quantum mechanics, a mathematical entity called the wave

function provides information about the probability of finding a particle at different
locations. It encodes the probabilities associated with a particle’s energy, momentum,
and other physical properties1.
5. Historical Development: Quantum mechanics emerged from attempts to explain
observations that classical physics couldn’t account for. Early contributions by
scientists like Max Planck and Albert Einstein paved the way for the full development
of quantum mechanics in the mid-1920s by luminaries such as Niels Bohr, Erwin
Schrödinger, Werner Heisenberg, Max Born, and Paul Dirac1.

In summary, quantum mechanics allows us to calculate properties and behaviors of

physical systems, especially at microscopic scales. While it has been successfully applied
to molecules, atoms, and subatomic particles, its application to larger systems (including
humans and the entire universe) remains both fascinating and speculative.

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2.) DUAL NATURE OF MATTER

The dual nature of matter is an important concept in JEE Physics and is basically the study of
the different natures that a matter possesses or exhibits. A matter can either display or have a
particle nature or wave nature. Various experiments have further been conducted to prove this
theory.

Important Topics Covering Dual Nature of Matter

Here are some of the important topics that should be learnt while dealing with this concept.

Electronic Emission

The minimum energy that is required to emit an electron from the surface of a metal can be
supplied to the free electrons by either of the methods given below:

 Thermionic Emission: Required thermal energy is provided to the free electrons by suitably heating
them so as to enable them to come out of the metal.

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 Field Emission: Electrons are kept under the strong influence of the electric field to emit the electron
out of the metal.
 Photo-electric Emission: When light of appropriate frequency is made to illuminate a metal surface,
electrons are emitted from it. These photo-generated electrons are called photoelectrons.

Photoelectric Effect

The photoelectric effect is a phenomenon that involves electrons escaping from the surface of
materials. Usually, the surface of the material is composed of both positive and negative ions.
What happens in the process is when light is made to be incident on the metal surface, some of
the electrons, which are present near the surface, will absorb enough energy from the incident
radiation, and thus overcomes the attraction of the positive ions. Further, when the electrons
gain as much sufficient energy as required, they will escape out of the metal surface into the
surrounding space. This forms the basis for the photoelectric effect.

Some related terms include:

 Work Function: The minimum energy that is required to eject an electron from a metal surface.
 Threshold Frequency: The minimum frequency of light that can force an electron to emit from a metal
surface.
 Threshold Wavelength: The maximum wavelength of light that can eject a photoelectron from the
surface of a metal.

If Work Function is denoted by Ɵ, Threshold Frequency by f, and Threshold Wavelength by ƛ,

then we have Ɵ = hf = hc/ ƛ, where h is Planck’s Constant, E = hf.

Concepts to understand

Cut-off Potential: The minimum negative or retarding potential V 0 given to a plate for which
photoelectric current becomes zero is called Cut-off or Stopping Potential.

The effect of the intensity of incident light is linear with the photoelectric current for a fixed
incident frequency, as depicted in Figure 1, given below.

The effect of potential on photoelectric current is that it increases with an increase in potential
applied to the collector for a fixed frequency and intensity of incident light, and finally attains
maximum current termed as saturation current.

Laws of Photoelectric Effect

The laws of the photoelectric effect are as follows:

1. For a given metal and frequency of incident light, the photoelectric current is directly
proportional to the intensity of incident light.

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2. For a given metal, there is a certain minimum frequency, called threshold frequency, below
which there is no photo-electric emission.

3. The maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons above a threshold frequency depends upon
the frequency of incident light.

4. The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process.

The minimum negative potential given to the anode plate at which the photoelectric current
becomes zero is called the Stopping Potential (V0).

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Figure 1 shows the plot between photoelectric current and intensity of light. Figure 2, on the
other hand, represents the diagram for the photoelectric effect, where the ejection of electrons
(marked in blue) from the metal surface is depicted when the light of suitable intensity (marked
with red) is incident over it.

To find out the relation between stopping potential (V 0) and threshold frequency f, we have,

hf = KE + W (KE is maximum kinetic energy = eV 0 and W is the work function = hf0).

KE = hf – W =hf – hf0 = h (f- f0)

Or, eV0 = h (f- f0)

V0 = (h/e) (f- f0) = (h/e) [(c/ƛ) – (c/ƛ0)] = (hc/e) [(1/ƛ) – (1/ƛ0)].

For photoelectric emission, ƛ < ƛ0 and f > f0.

De Broglie Hypothesis
With respect to the quantum theory of matter, De Broglie postulated the relationship between
momentum and wavelength. Mathematically, it is given in the form, wavelength ƛ = h/P, where P
is the momentum of the particle under study and h is Planck’s constant.

Read More: De Broglie Wavelength

De Broglie-Bohm Theory

De Broglie-Bohm Theory, which is also called Bohmian Mechanics, considers the wave nature
predominates, and thus the particle-wave duality gets vanishes. It explains wave behaviour as a
scattering with wave appearance as the particle’s expression is subjected to a guiding equation
or quantum potential.

Derivation of De Broglie Equation

hf = mc2

We know that the frequency f = c/ ƛ

It implies that hc/ƛ = mc2 or ƛ = h/mc

If c=v, then ƛ=h/mv

We also know that the momentum of a particle, P = mv.

Hence, ƛ = h/P.

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3.) Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle states that both the momentum and position of a particle
cannot be determined simultaneously.

Mathematically, it can be expressed as ∆ x ∆P ≥ (h / 4π), where ∆x represents the uncertainty in

position, and ∆P represents the uncertainty in momentum.

Read More: Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle

Planck’s Quantum Theory

When we apply heat to a black body, it results in the emission of thermal radiations having
different wavelengths or frequencies. As such, Max Planck put forward a theory called Planck’s
Quantum Theory to explain these radiations. The main highlights of the theory include the
following:

 Substances absorb or radiate energy in a discontinuous manner. This process takes place in the form
of small packets.
 The above-said process takes place in whole-number multiples of quantum as hf, 2hf, 3hf……nhfs,
where n is a positive integer.
 The smallest packet of energy is called a quantum. It is referred to as a photon in the case of light.
 The energy of a quantum is directly proportional to the radiation frequency.

Electron Under an Electric Field

Consider an electron of mass m, with a charge q being accelerated through a potential V from
rest. The kinetic energy K of the electron equals the work done on it by the electric field, which
equals to qV.

K = qV = ½ mv2 = P2/2m

P = √ 2mK = √ 2mqV

The de Broglie wavelength ƛ of the electron is given by,

ƛ = h / P = h / √2mK = h / √2mqV

Substituting the numerical values of h, m and e, we have ƛ = 1.227/ nm, where V is the
magnitude of accelerating potential in Volts.

Davisson and Germer Experiment

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Davisson and Germer’s experiment, for the first time, proved the wave nature of electrons and
verified the de Broglie equation. The results established the first experimental proof of quantum
mechanics.

The experimental setup for Davisson and Germer’s experiment is enclosed within a vacuum
chamber. Thus, the deflections and scattering of electrons by the medium are prevented. The
main parts are as given below:

 Electron Gun: It is a Tungsten filament that emits electrons via thermionic emission.
 Electrostatic Particle Accelerator: Two oppositely charged plates are employed to accelerate the
electrons at a known potential.
 Collimator: The accelerator is enclosed within a cylinder that has a narrow beam for the electrons
along its axis.
 Target: It is a Nickel crystal over which the electron beam is fired.
 Detector: It is used to capture the scattered electrons from the Ni crystal.

4.) Significance and properties of wave function

1. Definition:

The wave function (Ψ, pronounced "psi") is a fundamental concept in quantum mechanics. It's a

complex-valued mathematical function that provides information about the quantum state of a

particle, specifically the probability of finding it at a certain location and time. There aren't

different types of wave functions in the general sense, but the specific form of the wave function

depends on the quantum system being described (e.g., electron in a hydrogen atom, photon in

a light wave).

2. Formula:

The Schrödinger equation itself can take various forms depending on the system, but the

general form is:

HΨ(x, t) = EΨ(x, t)

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where:

 H is the Hamiltonian operator, representing the total energy of the system.

 Ψ(x, t) is the wave function as a function of position (x) and time (t).

 E is the total energy of the system (a constant value for a stationary state).

Solving the Schrödinger equation for a specific system provides the allowed energy levels

(possible values of E) and the corresponding wave functions.

3. Explanation:

While the wave function itself isn't a physical wave, we can visualize its relationship to

probability density. Here's a description of a common diagram:

Imagine a graph with position (x) on the horizontal axis and probability density (|Ψ(x,t)|^2) on the

vertical axis. The curve under the graph represents the probability distribution of finding the

particle at a specific position.

 Shape of the Curve: The specific shape of the curve depends on the system and the particle's

energy state. A smooth, bell-shaped curve might indicate the particle is most likely to be found

near a central region, with the probability decreasing towards the edges. This could represent a

particle confined in a potential well (a region with higher potential energy).

 Interpretation: The area under the curve between two points (a and b) on the x-axis represents

the probability of finding the particle somewhere within that region (between a and b).

4. Problem using Formula (Schrödinger Equation):

Providing a specific problem using the Schrödinger equation is challenging because it requires

detailed information about the quantum system being modeled. Solving the equation often

involves advanced mathematical techniques. However, here's a general example:

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Scenario: A physicist wants to determine the energy levels and wave functions of electrons in a

hydrogen atom.

Steps:

1. Define the system: The system is a hydrogen atom, which consists of a single proton (nucleus)

and one electron.

2. Write the Schrödinger equation: The specific form of the Schrödinger equation for the hydrogen

atom considers the kinetic and potential energy of the electron and the interaction with the

nucleus.

3. Solve the equation: Solving the equation requires advanced mathematical methods. The

solutions would provide the allowed energy levels (possible energy states for the electron) and

the corresponding wave functions for each energy level.

4. Analyze the wave functions: By analyzing the wave functions (especially their absolute value

squared), the physicist can determine the probability of finding the electron in different regions

around the nucleus, which corresponds to the electron's orbitals in the atom.

Understanding the wave function and solving the Schrödinger equation are crucial for various

applications in quantum mechanics, including:

 Understanding the structure and behavior of atoms and molecules

 Designing new materials with specific properties

 Developing quantum technologies like quantum computers

I hope this explanation clarifies the significance and properties of the wave function!

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5.) Schrodinger’s time independent and dependent wave

equations.

The Schrödinger equation is a cornerstone of quantum mechanics, describing the wave function

(Ψ) of a quantum system and its evolution over time. It comes in two main forms:

1. Time-Dependent Schrödinger Equation:

This equation describes how the wave function of a system changes with time. It's the most

general form and can be applied to various scenarios, including:

 Formula:

iħ ∂Ψ(x, t) / ∂t = HΨ(x, t)

where:

 i is the imaginary unit (√(-1))

 ħ (h-bar) is the reduced Planck constant (a very small number)

 ∂Ψ(x, t) / ∂t represents the partial derivative of the wave function with respect to time (t).

 H is the Hamiltonian operator, representing the total energy of the system.

 Ψ(x, t) is the wave function as a function of position (x) and time (t).

 Explanation: The equation states that the rate of change of the wave function with time (left

side) is proportional to the total energy of the system (Hamiltonian operator H acting on the

wave function on the right side).

2. Time-Independent Schrödinger Equation:

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This equation is a special case derived from the time-dependent equation and is applicable

when the total energy (E) of the system is constant over time (stationary state).

 Formula:

HΨ(x) = EΨ(x)

where:

 H is the Hamiltonian operator.

 Ψ(x) is the wave function as a function of position (x) only (no time dependence).

 E is the total energy of the system (a constant value for a stationary state).

 Explanation: This equation essentially separates the time-independent and time-dependent

parts of the wave function. Solving the time-independent equation provides the allowed energy

levels (possible values of E) for the system and the corresponding wave functions for each

energy level.

 Certainly! Let's derive both the time-independent and time-dependent Schrödinger equations.

 ### Derivation of Time-Independent Schrödinger Equation:

 #### Step 1: Setting Up the Problem

 We start with the time-independent Schrödinger equation, which is given by:

 H^ψ(r)=Eψ(r)

 Where:

 - \(\hat{H}\) is the Hamiltonian operator,

 - \(\psi(\mathbf{r})\) is the wave function,

 - \(E\) is the total energy.

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 #### Step 2: Using the Hamiltonian Operator

 The Hamiltonian operator \(\hat{H}\) is defined as the sum of kinetic and potential energy

operators:

 H^=−-h2/2m . ∇2+V(r)

 Where:

 - \(\hbar\) is the reduced Planck constant,

 - \(m\) is the mass of the particle,

 - \(V(\mathbf{r})\) is the potential energy function.

 #### Step 3: Substituting into the Schrödinger Equation

 Substituting the Hamiltonian operator into the Schrödinger equation:

 -ħ^2 / (2m) ∇^2 ψ(r) + V(r) ψ(r) = E ψ(r)

 #### Step 4: Simplifying

 Rearranging terms, we get:

 -ħ^2 / (2m) ∇^2 ψ(r) + (V(r) - E) ψ(r) = 0

 #### Step 5: The Schrödinger Equation

 This equation must hold for any \(\mathbf{r}\), so we can write:

 -ħ^2 / (2m) ∇^2 ψ(r) + (V(r) - E) ψ(r) = 0

 This is the time-independent Schrödinger equation.

 ### Derivation of Time-Dependent Schrödinger Equation:

 #### Step 1: Starting with the Definition

 We start with the definition of the time-dependent Schrödinger equation:

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 \[ i\hbar \frac{\partial \psi(\mathbf{r}, t)}{\partial t} = \hat{H} \psi(\mathbf{r}, t) \]

 #### Step 2: Using the Hamiltonian Operator

 Using the same Hamiltonian operator as before:

 \[ \hat{H} = -\frac{\hbar^2}{2m} \nabla^2 + V(\mathbf{r}) \]

 #### Step 3: Substituting into the Time-Dependent Schrödinger Equation

 Substituting the Hamiltonian operator into the time-dependent Schrödinger equation:

 \[ i\hbar \frac{\partial \psi(\mathbf{r}, t)}{\partial t} = \left(-\frac{\hbar^2}{2m} \nabla^2 +

V(\mathbf{r})\right) \psi(\mathbf{r}, t) \]

 #### Step 4: Simplifying

 #### Step 5: Result

 \[ i\hbar \frac{\partial \psi(\mathbf{r}, t)}{\partial t} = \hat{H} \psi(\mathbf{r}, t) \]

 This is the time-dependent Schrödinger equation.

 These derivations illustrate the foundational principles of quantum mechanics and provide

insight into the behavior of quantum systems through the Schrödinger equations.

3. Relationship Between the Equations:

The time-dependent equation is more general and can be used to find solutions for the time-

independent equation. In many cases, solving the time-independent equation is easier, and the

time-dependent solution can be obtained from the time-independent wave functions and their

corresponding energies.

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 Analogy: Imagine baking a cake. The time-dependent equation describes how the cake batter

changes over time in the oven (including rising, browning, etc.). The time-independent equation

might be like a recipe that specifies the ingredients and baking conditions to achieve a specific

final cake (representing a stationary state).

4. Applications:

 Solving the time-independent Schrödinger equation allows us to:

o Determine the energy levels of atoms and molecules.

o Understand the structure of electron orbitals in atoms.

o Calculate the properties of materials.

 The time-dependent equation is useful for problems involving:

o Time evolution of quantum systems.

o Quantum transitions between energy levels.

o Scattering processes (e.g., light interacting with matter).

In conclusion:

Both Schrödinger equations are vital tools in quantum mechanics. The time-dependent equation

provides a general framework, while the time-independent equation helps us understand the

allowed energy states and wave functions of a system. They are interrelated, with the time-

independent equation being a foundation for solving the time-dependent equation in many

cases.

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6.) Particle in a one-dimensional infinite potential

well.

A particle in a one-dimensional infinite potential well is a fundamental concept in quantum

mechanics. Here's a breakdown following the requested format:

1. Definition and Types:

A one-dimensional infinite potential well describes a particle (like an electron) confined to move

along a single line segment. The potential energy (V(x)) of the particle is infinitely high (positive

infinity) outside the segment and zero within the segment. There are no types of infinite potential

wells in the general sense, but the properties (like energy levels) depend on the well's length

(L).

2. Formula:

The allowed energy levels (E) of the particle in the well are quantified and can be calculated

using the following formula:

E_n = (n^2 * h^2 * pi^2) / (2mL^2)

where:

 E_n is the energy of the nth energy level (n = 1, 2, 3, ...)

 h is Planck's constant (can be replaced by the reduced Planck constant ħ = h / (2π))

 m is the mass of the particle

 L is the length of the well

 pi (π) is the mathematical constant pi

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3. Diagram and Explanation:

Imagine a line segment representing the well.

 Outside the Well (x < 0 or x > L): The potential energy (V(x)) is infinitely high, essentially

confining the particle within the segment (0 ≤ x ≤ L). The wave function (Ψ(x)) of the particle

must be zero in these regions because the probability of finding the particle there is zero.

 Inside the Well (0 ≤ x ≤ L): The potential energy (V(x)) is zero. The wave function (Ψ(x)) has a

specific shape for each allowed energy level (n). These shapes are typically sinusoidal waves

with specific boundary conditions (Ψ(0) = Ψ(L) = 0, meaning the wave function must be zero at

the edges of the well).

4. Problem:

Scenario: An electron with a mass of 9.11 x 10^-31 kg is confined in a one-dimensional infinite

potential well of length 1.0 nm (nanometer). Find the energy of the electron in the first excited

state (n = 2).

Solution:

1. Given:

o m = 9.11 x 10^-31 kg

o L = 1.0 nm = 1.0 x 10^-9 m

o n = 2 (first excited state)

2. Formula:

o E_n = (n^2 * h^2 * pi^2) / (2mL^2)

3. Calculation:

o We can use Planck's constant (h) or the reduced Planck constant (ħ). Here, we'll use ħ for

convenience (ħ ≈ 1.054 x 10^-34 Js).

o E_2 = (2^2 * (1.054 x 10^-34 Js)^2 * pi^2) / (2 * 9.11 x 10^-31 kg * (1.0 x 10^-9 m)^2)

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o E_2 ≈ 3.40 x 10^-19 J

Therefore, the energy of the electron in the first excited state is approximately 3.40 x 10^-

19 Joules.

This example demonstrates how the formula helps us calculate the quantized energy levels for

a particle confined in a one-dimensional infinite potential well.

Free Electron Theory

Certainly! Let’s explore the fascinating world of the Free Electron Theory in solid-state
physics.

Classical Free Electron Theory

1. Overview:
o The Classical Free Electron Theory was developed by Drude and Lorentz in 1900.
o It provides a basic model for understanding the behavior of charge carriers
(electrons) in metallic solids.
o According to this theory, metals contain a large number of free electrons that are
responsible for electrical conductivity.
o The theory assumes that electrons obey the laws of classical mechanics.
2. Assumptions (Salient Features):
o Metals have a large number of free electrons moving freely in all directions.
o These free electrons behave like gas molecules in a container, following the kinetic
theory of gases.
o The positive ion cores (nuclei) in metals are fixed, while free electrons move
randomly and collide with positive ions, other free electrons, or boundaries. These
collisions are elastic.
o Electron velocities in a metal follow the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution.

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o Free electrons move in a constant potential field, resulting in constant potential

energy.
o When an electric field is applied, free electrons accelerate in the opposite direction
to the field, leading to a drift velocity.
3. Merits (Advantages):
o Verifies Ohm’s law: The theory explains the linear relationship between current and
voltage in conductors.
o Electrical and thermal conductivities: It accounts for the electrical and thermal
properties of metals.
o Wiedemann-Franz law: The theory derives this law, which relates electrical and
thermal conductivities.
o Optical properties: It provides insights into how metals interact with light.
4. Limitations (Drawbacks):
o Semiconductors and insulators: The classical free electron theory fails to explain the
electrical conductivity of semiconductors and insulators.
o Temperature variation: It does not account for the temperature dependence of
electrical conductivity at low temperatures.

Quantum Free Electron Model

1. Quantum Free Electron Theory:

o Developed by Sommerfeld in 1928.
o Combines the classical Drude model with quantum mechanical Fermi-Dirac
statistics.
o Describes free electrons moving with a constant potential while obeying
quantum laws.
2. Zone Theory (Band Theory):
o Introduced by Bloch in 1928.
o Free electrons move in a periodic potential provided by the lattice.
o Also known as the Band Theory of Solids.

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o Provides a comprehensive study of electrons in solids.

In summary, the Free Electron Theory helps us understand the behavior of electrons in
metals, but it has its limitations. Quantum mechanics and band theory provide more
accurate descriptions of electronic behavior in materials. 🌟

For further exploration, you can dive into the quantum aspects of this fascinating
topic1234

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3.) Quantum Free Electron Theory

The quantum free electron theory is a refinement of the classical free electron theory,

addressing some of its shortcomings by incorporating principles of quantum mechanics. Here's

a breakdown following the format you requested:

1. Definition and Motivation:

The classical free electron theory, while successful in explaining some aspects of electrical

conductivity in metals, has limitations due to its reliance on classical mechanics.

The quantum free electron theory emerged to address these limitations by:

 Treating electrons as quantum mechanical particles with wave-like nature.

 Utilizing concepts like wavefunctions and energy levels to describe electron behavior.

2. Key Ideas and Improvements:

 Electrons as Waves: Electrons in a metal are no longer considered just classical particles but

also exhibit wave-like properties. Their behavior is described by wavefunctions (Ψ) that depend

on position.

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 Quantized Energy Levels: The free electrons in a metal can only occupy specific energy

levels, unlike the continuous range of energies in the classical model. These energy levels are

calculated using the Schrödinger equation.

 Fermi-Dirac Statistics: The distribution of electrons across these energy levels follows the

Fermi-Dirac statistics, which accounts for the Pauli Exclusion Principle (no two electrons can

occupy the same quantum state). This replaces the classical Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution

used in the free electron theory.

3. Significance and Advantages:

 The quantum free electron theory provides a more accurate description of electrical conductivity

in metals compared to the classical theory.

 It successfully explains the temperature dependence of conductivity observed in real metals.

 By considering the Fermi level (the highest occupied energy level at absolute zero temperature),

the theory helps explain why some insulators become conductors at high temperatures

(electrons can be excited to higher energy levels).

4. Limitations and Further Developments:

 Although improved, the theory still makes some simplifications. It often treats the positive ion

lattice as a fixed background, neglecting some interactions between electrons and the lattice.

 More advanced models like band theory consider the periodic potential of the atomic lattice,

providing a more detailed picture of electron behavior in solids.

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5. Comparison with Free Electron Theory:

Here's a table summarizing the key differences between the two theories:

Feature Free Electron Theory Quantum Free Electron Theory

Electron Model Classical particle Wave-particle duality

Energy Levels Continuous range Quantized

Electron Statistics Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution Fermi-Dirac statistics

6. Conclusion:

The quantum free electron theory offers a significant improvement over the classical theory by

incorporating quantum mechanics. It provides a better understanding of electrical conductivity in

metals and paves the way for further developments in exploring the behavior of electrons in

solids.

4.) Electrical conductivity based on quantum free

electron theory.
In the quantum free electron theory, electrical conductivity is explained by considering the movement of electrons

within a metal's energy level structure. Here's a breakdown:

Key Ideas:

 Quantized Energy Levels: Unlike the classical theory, electrons in metals can only occupy specific energy states

according to quantum mechanics. These energy levels are not continuous but rather discrete packets.

 Fermi-Dirac Distribution: This distribution function describes the probability of finding an electron at a particular

energy level. It takes into account the fact that electrons are fermions (half-spin particles) and obey the Pauli

Exclusion Principle, which states that no two electrons can occupy the same quantum state.

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 Fermi Level: This is the highest occupied energy level at absolute zero temperature (0 Kelvin). At higher

temperatures, some electrons can be thermally excited to higher energy states.

 Electrical Conductivity: When an electric field is applied to the metal, it exerts a force on the electrons. Due to the

presence of the partially filled energy levels near the Fermi level, some electrons can be accelerated by the electric

field. This movement of electrons constitutes an electric current.

Electrical Conductivity Formula:

While the classical theory relates conductivity directly to free electron density, the quantum theory provides a more

nuanced picture. The electrical conductivity (σ) in the quantum free electron theory can be expressed as:

σ = n * e * μ

where:

 σ (sigma) is the electrical conductivity (measured in S/m or Ω^-1 m^-1)

 n (eta) is the number of free electrons per unit volume (carrier concentration)

 e (epsilon) is the electron charge (constant value, approximately 1.602 x 10^-19 C)

 μ (mu) is the electron mobility (measured in m^2/Vs)

Electron Mobility (μ):

Electron mobility is a crucial factor in determining conductivity. It represents the ease with which electrons can move

through the metal lattice under the influence of an electric field. Factors affecting mobility include:

 Collisions with ions and other electrons (scattering)

 Defects and impurities in the crystal lattice

 Temperature (higher temperatures increase scattering)

Limitations of the Quantum Free Electron Theory:

 The theory assumes a perfect periodic crystal lattice, which isn't always the case in real metals.

 It doesn't account for the band structure of metals, where electrons can interact and form energy bands.

Overall, the quantum free electron theory provides a more accurate description of electrical conductivity in

metals compared to the classical theory. It highlights the role of quantized energy levels and electron

statistics in determining how readily electrons can move under an electric field.

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5.) FERMI DIRAC DISTRIBUTION

The Fermi-Dirac distribution, named after Enrico Fermi and Paul Dirac, is a cornerstone of quantum statistics. It

describes the probability of finding a fermion (a particle with half-integer spin) occupying a specific energy state in a

system at a given temperature..

Here's a breakdown of the key aspects:

Applicability:

 The Fermi-Dirac distribution applies to systems of identical fermions, which obey the Pauli Exclusion Principle. This

principle states that no two fermions can occupy the same quantum state (defined by energy, spin, and other

quantum numbers). Examples of fermions include electrons, protons, and neutrons.

Distribution Function:

The Fermi-Dirac distribution function, denoted by f(E, μ, T), gives the probability of a single energy state with energy

E being occupied by a fermion at a specific temperature T. It depends on two crucial parameters:

 Chemical Potential (μ): This parameter reflects the "fill level" of available energy states. At absolute zero (0 Kelvin),

the chemical potential coincides with the Fermi energy (highest occupied energy level). As temperature increases,

the chemical potential can shift slightly.

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 Temperature (T): Temperature plays a significant role in how electrons populate energy levels. At higher

temperatures, some electrons can be thermally excited to higher energy states.

Mathematical Form:

The mathematical form of the Fermi-Dirac distribution is:

f(E, μ, T) = 1 / ( 1 + exp( (E - μ) / (kT) ) )

where:

 k is the Boltzmann constant (a physical constant relating temperature and energy)

Interpretation:

 As the energy (E) of a state increases relative to the chemical potential (μ), the probability of finding a fermion in that

state (f(E, μ, T)) decreases according to the exponential term.

 At absolute zero (T = 0 K), the term (E - μ) / (kT) approaches negative infinity for energies below the chemical

potential (μ). This leads to f(E, μ, 0) = 1, indicating a 100% probability of states being occupied up to the Fermi level.

 Conversely, for energies above the chemical potential at T = 0 K, the term becomes positive infinity, resulting in f(E,

μ, 0) = 0. This signifies a 0% probability of finding fermions in these higher energy states, adhering to the Pauli

Exclusion Principle.

 As temperature increases, the distribution function becomes "smeared out." The probability of finding fermions in

states above the Fermi level increases slightly, while the probability for states below the Fermi level decreases

slightly.

Importance:

The Fermi-Dirac distribution is crucial for understanding various phenomena in physics and materials science:

 Electrical Conductivity: It helps explain how electrons in metals fill energy levels and contribute to electrical

conduction.

 Semiconductor Physics: Understanding how electrons populate energy bands in semiconductors based on the

Fermi-Dirac distribution is essential for designing semiconductor devices like transistors and diodes.

 Fermi Level: The Fermi level, determined by the Fermi-Dirac distribution at a given temperature, plays a vital role in

material properties like work function and carrier concentration.

In essence, the Fermi-Dirac distribution provides a powerful tool for analyzing the behavior of fermions in a

system, considering the interplay between energy levels, temperature, and the Pauli Exclusion Principle.

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6.) Density Of States

In condensed matter physics, the density of states (DOS), denoted by D(E), describes the number of allowed

quantum states per unit energy range within a system. It's a fundamental concept for understanding how electrons or

other particles distribute themselves across energy levels.

Key Points:

 Distribution, Not Quantity: The DOS doesn't tell you the total number of states in the system, but rather how many

states exist for a specific energy range (think of it like the concentration of states at different energy levels).

 Material Dependent: The DOS depends on the material's properties and crystal structure. Different materials have

unique DOS profiles.

 Units: The units of DOS depend on the dimensionality of the system:

o 3D: [Energy]⁻¹ [Volume]⁻¹

o 2D: [Energy]⁻¹ [Area]⁻¹

o 1D: [Energy]⁻¹ [Length]⁻¹

Understanding DOS through k-Space:

 Often, DOS is visualized in k-space, a reciprocal space where wavevectors (k) of electrons are represented.

 In k-space, constant energy surfaces enclose allowed states for a particular energy.

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 The density of states is proportional to the area (or volume in 3D) enclosed by the constant energy surface in k-space

for a given energy range.

Relation to Fermi-Dirac Distribution:

The Fermi-Dirac distribution (f(E, μ, T)) describes the probability of finding a fermion (like an electron) in a state with

energy E at a specific temperature T and chemical potential μ.

The product of the DOS (D(E)) and the Fermi-Dirac distribution (f(E, μ, T)) gives the number of occupied states per

unit volume at a given energy:

n(E) = D(E) * f(E, μ, T)

This occupied state distribution is crucial for calculating various material properties related to electrical conductivity,

heat capacity, and Fermi level position.

Example: Free Electron Gas Model:

A simple example is the free electron gas model, which approximates electrons in a metal as free-moving particles. In

this model, the DOS has a square root dependence on energy:

D(E) ∝ √E

This implies that as the energy increases, there are more and more available states for electrons to occupy.

Importance of DOS:

The density of states plays a vital role in understanding various phenomena in solid-state physics and materials

science:

 Electrical Conductivity: DOS helps explain how the number of available states near the Fermi level influences the

ease of electron movement under an electric field.

 Band Theory: Understanding how DOS varies within energy bands (regions of allowed electronic states) is essential

for band theory, which explains how electrons behave in solids.

 Semiconductor Doping: The DOS profile near the band edges is crucial for understanding how doping materials like

impurities introduce new states and influence conductivity in semiconductors.

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7.) Fermi energy

1. Definition and Fermi Level:

 Fermi Energy (E_F): In quantum free electron theory, Fermi energy refers specifically to the energy level

corresponding to the highest occupied state at absolute zero temperature (0 Kelvin) within a material. It marks the

"boundary" between filled and empty electronic states at this temperature.

 Fermi Level (μ): This is a more general term referring to the chemical potential of electrons in a system at any

temperature. The Fermi level coincides with the Fermi energy only at absolute zero (T = 0 K). As temperature

increases, the Fermi level can shift slightly due to thermal excitation.

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2. Connection with Fermi-Dirac Distribution (f(E, μ, T):

The Fermi-Dirac distribution describes the probability of finding an electron in a state with energy (E) at a specific

temperature (T) and chemical potential (μ). It's a crucial function for understanding electron population in energy

levels.

 Absolute Zero (T = 0 K): At this temperature, the Fermi-Dirac distribution becomes a step function.

o For energies (E) below the Fermi energy (E_F), the probability (f(E)) of finding an electron is 1 (completely filled

states).

o For energies (E) above the Fermi energy (E_F), the probability (f(E)) is 0 (completely empty states).

3. Relation with Density of States (DOS):

The density of states (DOS), denoted by D(E), describes the number of allowed quantum states per unit energy

range within a material. It essentially tells you how many states are available for electrons to occupy at different

energy levels.

By combining the DOS (D(E)) with the Fermi-Dirac distribution (f(E, μ, T)), we can calculate the number of occupied

states per unit volume at a given energy (n(E)):

n(E) = D(E) * f(E, μ, T)

At absolute zero (T = 0 K), this equation simplifies to:

n(E) = D(E) for E < E_F

This signifies that all states up to the Fermi energy (E_F) are filled with electrons (n(E) = D(E)), as indicated by the

DOS.

4. Importance of Fermi Energy:

The Fermi energy plays a significant role in various material properties and phenomena:

 Electrical Conductivity: Fermi energy influences how readily electrons near this level can be excited and contribute

to electrical current flow. Materials with a higher Fermi energy might have better conductivity due to more easily

excitable electrons.

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 Work Function: The difference between the Fermi energy and the vacuum level determines the minimum energy

required to remove an electron from a material (work function).

 Band Theory: Understanding the position of the Fermi energy relative to energy bands (allowed and forbidden

regions for electrons) is essential for band theory, which explains how electrons behave in solids. In metals, the Fermi

level typically lies within a conduction band, facilitating electrical conductivity.

 Semiconductor Doping: Doping a semiconductor introduces additional energy levels and alters the Fermi energy

position. This shift in Fermi energy can significantly affect the conductivity of the semiconductor.

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