Concurrency control in Transaction processing:

o Concurrency Control is the management procedure that is required for

controlling concurrent execution of the operations that take place on a
database.
o In a multi-user system, multiple users can access and use the same database
at one time, which is known as the concurrent execution of the database. It
means that the same database is executed simultaneously on a multi-user
system by different users.
o While working on the database transactions, there occurs the requirement
of using the database by multiple users for performing different operations,
and in that case, concurrent execution of the database is performed.
o The thing is that the simultaneous execution that is performed should be
done in an interleaved manner, and no operation should affect the other
executing operations, thus maintaining the consistency of the database.
Thus, on making the concurrent execution of the transaction operations,
there occur several challenging problems that need to be solved.
o Problems with Concurrent Execution
o In a database transaction, the two main operations
are READ and WRITE operations. So, there is a need to manage
these two operations in the concurrent execution of the transactions
as if these operations are not performed in an interleaved manner,
and the data may become inconsistent. So, the following problems
occur with the Concurrent Execution of the operations:

Problem 1: Lost Update Problems (W - W Conflict)

o The problem occurs when two different database transactions perform the
read/write operations on the same database items in an interleaved manner
(i.e., concurrent execution) that makes the values of the items incorrect
hence making the database inconsistent.

o For example:
o Consider the below diagram where two transactions TX and TY, are
performed on the same account A where the balance of account A is
$300.
 o At time t1, transaction TX reads the value of account A, i.e., $300 (only read).
o At time t2, transaction TX deducts $50 from account A that becomes $250 (only
deducted and not updated/write).
o Alternately, at time t3, transaction TY reads the value of account A that will be $300
only because TX didn't update the value yet.
o At time t4, transaction TY adds $100 to account A that becomes $400 (only added but
not updated/write).
o At time t6, transaction TX writes the value of account A that will be updated as $250
only, as TY didn't update the value yet.
o Similarly, at time t7, transaction TY writes the values of account A, so it will write as
done at time t4 that will be $400. It means the value written by TX is lost, i.e., $250 is
lost.
o Hence data becomes incorrect, and database sets to inconsistent.

Problem 2: Dirty Read Problems (W-R Conflict)

o The dirty read problem occurs when one transaction updates an item of the
database, and somehow the transaction fails, and before the data gets
rollback, the updated database item is accessed by another transaction.
There comes the Read-Write Conflict between both transactions.
o For example:
o Consider two transactions TX and TY in the below diagram performing
read/write operations on account A where the available balance in
account A is $300:
 o At time t1, transaction TX reads the value of account A, i.e., $300.
o At time t2, transaction TX adds $50 to account A that becomes $350.
o At time t3, transaction TX writes the updated value in account A, i.e., $350.
o Then at time t4, transaction TY reads account A that will be read as $350.
o Then at time t5, transaction TX rollbacks due to server problem, and the value changes
back to $300 (as initially).
o But the value for account A remains $350 for transaction TY as committed, which is the
dirty read and therefore known as the Dirty Read Problem.

Problem 3: Unrepeatable Read Problem (W-R Conflict)

o Also known as Inconsistent Retrievals Problem that occurs when in a
transaction, two different values are read for the same database item.
o For example:
o Consider two transactions, TX and TY, performing the read/write
operations on account A, having an available balance = $300. The
diagram is shown below:
 o At time t1, transaction TX reads the value from account A, i.e., $300.
o At time t2, transaction TY reads the value from account A, i.e., $300.
o At time t3, transaction TY updates the value of account A by adding $100 to the
available balance, and then it becomes $400.
o At time t4, transaction TY writes the updated value, i.e., $400.
o After that, at time t5, transaction TX reads the available value of account A, and that
will be read as $400.
o It means that within the same transaction TX, it reads two different values of account
A, i.e., $ 300 initially, and after updation made by transaction TY, it reads $400. It is an
unrepeatable read and is therefore known as the Unrepeatable read problem.

Thus, in order to maintain consistency in the database and avoid such problems that take place in
concurrent execution, management is needed, and that is where the concept of Concurrency Control
comes into role.

Concurrency Control
o Concurrency Control is the working concept that is required for controlling
and managing the concurrent execution of database operations and thus
avoiding the inconsistencies in the database. Thus, for maintaining the
concurrency of the database, we have the concurrency control protocols.

Concurrency Control Protocols

o The concurrency control protocols ensure the atomicity, consistency,
isolation, durability and Serializability of the concurrent execution of the
database transactions. Therefore, these protocols are categorized as:
 1. Lock Based Concurrency Control Protocol
2. Time Stamp Concurrency Control Protocol
3. Validation Based Concurrency Control Protocol

1. Lock-Based Protocol
o In this type of protocol, any transaction cannot read or write data until it acquires an
appropriate lock on it. There are two types of lock:

1. Shared lock:

o It is also known as a Read-only lock. In a shared lock, the data item can only read by
the transaction.
o It can be shared between the transactions because when the transaction holds a lock,
then it can't update the data on the data item.

2. Exclusive lock:

o In the exclusive lock, the data item can be both reads as well as written by the
transaction.
o This lock is exclusive, and in this lock, multiple transactions do not modify the same
data simultaneously.

There are four types of lock protocols available:

1. Simplistic lock protocol

o It is the simplest way of locking the data while transaction. Simplistic lock-based
protocols allow all the transactions to get the lock on the data before insert or delete or
update on it. It will unlock the data item after completing the transaction.

2. Pre-claiming Lock Protocol

o Pre-claiming Lock Protocols evaluate the transaction to list all the data items on which they
need locks.
o Before initiating an execution of the transaction, it requests DBMS for all the lock on all those
data items.
o If all the locks are granted then this protocol allows the transaction to begin. When the
transaction is completed then it releases all the lock.
o If all the locks are not granted then this protocol allows the transaction to rolls back and waits
until all the locks are granted.
 z

3. Two-phase locking (2PL)

o The two-phase locking protocol divides the execution phase of the transaction into three parts.
o In the first part, when the execution of the transaction starts, it seeks permission for the lock it
requires.
o In the second part, the transaction acquires all the locks. The third phase is started as soon as
the transaction releases its first lock.
o In the third phase, the transaction cannot demand any new locks. It only releases the acquired
locks.

o There are two phases of 2PL:

o Growing phase: In the growing phase, a new lock on the data item may be acquired
by the transaction, but none can be released.
o Shrinking phase: In the shrinking phase, existing lock held by the transaction may be
released, but no new locks can be acquired.
o In the below example, if lock conversion is allowed then the following phase can
happen:

1. Upgrading of lock (from S(a) to X (a)) is allowed in growing phase.

2. Downgrading of lock (from X(a) to S(a)) must be done in shrinking phase.
Example:

o The following way shows how unlocking and locking work with 2-PL.

Transaction T1:

o Growing phase: from step 1-3

o Shrinking phase: from step 5-7
o Lock point: at 3

Transaction T2:

o Growing phase: from step 2-6

o Shrinking phase: from step 8-9
o Lock point: at 6

4. Strict Two-phase locking (Strict-2PL)

o The first phase of Strict-2PL is similar to 2PL. In the first phase, after acquiring all the locks,
the transaction continues to execute normally.
o The only difference between 2PL and strict 2PL is that Strict-2PL does not release a lock after
using it.
o Strict-2PL waits until the whole transaction to commit, and then it releases all the locks at a
time.
o Strict-2PL protocol does not have shrinking phase of lock release.
 o It does not have cascading abort as 2PL does.

2. Timestamp Ordering Protocol

o The Timestamp Ordering Protocol is used to order the transactions based on their
Timestamps. The order of transaction is nothing but the ascending order of the
transaction creation.
o The priority of the older transaction is higher that's why it executes first. To determine
the timestamp of the transaction, this protocol uses system time or logical counter.
o The lock-based protocol is used to manage the order between conflicting pairs among
transactions at the execution time. But Timestamp based protocols start working as soon
as a transaction is created.
o Let's assume there are two transactions T1 and T2. Suppose the transaction T1 has
entered the system at 007 times and transaction T2 has entered the system at 009 times.
T1 has the higher priority, so it executes first as it is entered the system first.
o The timestamp ordering protocol also maintains the timestamp of last 'read' and 'write'
operation on a data.

Basic Timestamp ordering protocol works as follows:

1. Check the following condition whenever a transaction Ti issues a Read (X) operation:

o If W_TS(X) >TS(Ti) then the operation is rejected.

o If W_TS(X) <= TS(Ti) then the operation is executed.
o Timestamps of all the data items are updated.

2. Check the following condition whenever a transaction Ti issues a Write(X) operation:

o If TS(Ti) < R_TS(X) then the operation is rejected.

o If TS(Ti) < W_TS(X) then the operation is rejected and Ti is rolled back otherwise the
operation is executed.
Where,

TS(TI) denotes the timestamp of the transaction Ti.

R_TS(X) denotes the Read time-stamp of data-item X.

W_TS(X) denotes the Write time-stamp of data-item X.

Advantages and Disadvantages of TO protocol:

o TO protocol ensures serializability since the precedence graph is as follows:

o TS protocol ensures freedom from deadlock that means no transaction ever waits.
o But the schedule may not be recoverable and may not even be cascade- free.

3. Validation Based Protocol

Validation phase is also known as optimistic concurrency control technique. In the validation
based protocol, the transaction is executed in the following three phases:

1. Read phase: In this phase, the transaction T is read and executed. It is used to read the value
of various data items and stores them in temporary local variables. It can perform all the write
operations on temporary variables without an update to the actual database.
2. Validation phase: In this phase, the temporary variable value will be validated against the
actual data to see if it violates the serializability.
3. Write phase: If the validation of the transaction is validated, then the temporary results are
written to the database or system otherwise the transaction is rolled back.

Here each phase has the following different timestamps:

Start(Ti): It contains the time when Ti started its execution.

Validation (Ti): It contains the time when Ti finishes its read phase and starts its validation
phase.
Finish(Ti): It contains the time when Ti finishes its write phase.

o This protocol is used to determine the time stamp for the transaction for serialization
using the time stamp of the validation phase, as it is the actual phase which determines
if the transaction will commit or rollback.
o Hence TS(T) = validation(T).
o The serializability is determined during the validation process. It can't be decided in
advance.
o While executing the transaction, it ensures a greater degree of concurrency and also less
number of conflicts.
o Thus it contains transactions which have less number of rollbacks.

ACID Properties in DBMS

o DBMS is the management of data that should remain integrated when any
changes are done in it. It is because if the integrity of the data is affected,
whole data will get disturbed and corrupted. Therefore, to maintain the
integrity of the data, there are four properties described in the database
management system, which are known as the ACID properties. The ACID
properties are meant for the transaction that goes through a different group
of tasks, and there we come to see the role of the ACID properties.

ACID Properties
o The expansion of the term ACID defines for:

1) Atomicity
o The term atomicity defines that the data remains atomic. It means if any operation is
performed on the data, either it should be performed or executed completely or should
not be executed at all. It further means that the operation should not break in between
or execute partially. In the case of executing operations on the transaction, the operation
should be completely executed and not partially.
 o Example: If Remo has account A having $30 in his account from which he wishes to send $10
to Sheero's account, which is B. In account B, a sum of $ 100 is already present. When $10 will
be transferred to account B, the sum will become $110. Now, there will be two operations that
will take place. One is the amount of $10 that Remo wants to transfer will be debited from his
account A, and the same amount will get credited to account B, i.e., into Sheero's account. Now,
what happens - the first operation of debit executes successfully, but the credit operation,
however, fails. Thus, in Remo's account A, the value becomes $20, and to that of Sheero's
account, it remains $100 as it was previously present.

o In the above diagram, it can be seen that after crediting $10, the amount is still $100 in
account B. So, it is not an atomic transaction.
o The below image shows that both debit and credit operations are done successfully.
Thus the transaction is atomic.

o Thus, when the amount loses atomicity, then in the bank systems, this becomes a huge issue,
and so the atomicity is the main focus in the bank systems.

2) Consistency
o The word consistency means that the value should remain preserved always. In DBMS,
the integrity of the data should be maintained, which means if a change in the database
is made, it should remain preserved always. In the case of transactions, the integrity of
the data is very essential so that the database remains consistent before and after the
transaction. The data should always be correct.
o Example:
 o In the above figure, there are three accounts, A, B, and C, where A is making a transaction T
one by one to both B & C. There are two operations that take place, i.e., Debit and Credit.
Account A firstly debits $50 to account B, and the amount in account A is read $300 by B
before the transaction. After the successful transaction T, the available amount in B becomes
$150. Now, A debits $20 to account C, and that time, the value read by C is $250 (that is correct
as a debit of $50 has been successfully done to B). The debit and credit operation from account
A to C has been done successfully. We can see that the transaction is done successfully, and
the value is also read correctly. Thus, the data is consistent. In case the value read by B and C
is $300, which means that data is inconsistent because when the debit operation executes, it
will not be consistent.

3) Isolation
o The term 'isolation' means separation. In DBMS, Isolation is the property of a database
where no data should affect the other one and may occur concurrently. In short, the
operation on one database should begin when the operation on the first database gets
complete. It means if two operations are being performed on two different databases,
they may not affect the value of one another. In the case of transactions, when two or
more transactions occur simultaneously, the consistency should remain maintained.
Any changes that occur in any particular transaction will not be seen by other
transactions until the change is not committed in the memory.
o Example: If two operations are concurrently running on two different accounts, then
the value of both accounts should not get affected. The value should remain persistent.
As you can see in the below diagram, account A is making T1 and T2 transactions to
account B and C, but both are executing independently without affecting each other. It
is known as Isolation.
4) Durability
o Durability ensures the permanency of something. In DBMS, the term durability ensures
that the data after the successful execution of the operation becomes permanent in the
database. The durability of the data should be so perfect that even if the system fails or
leads to a crash, the database still survives. However, if gets lost, it becomes the
responsibility of the recovery manager for ensuring the durability of the database. For
committing the values, the COMMIT command must be used every time we make
changes.
o Therefore, the ACID property of DBMS plays a vital role in maintaining the
consistency and availability of data in the database.
o Thus, it was a precise introduction of ACID properties in DBMS. We have discussed
these properties in the transaction section also.

Serializability of scheduling
Schedule
o A series of operation from one transaction to another transaction is known
as schedule. It is used to preserve the order of the operation in each of the
individual transaction.
Example:
1. Serial Schedule
o The serial schedule is a type of schedule where one transaction is executed completely
before starting another transaction. In the serial schedule, when the first transaction
completes its cycle, then the next transaction is executed.
o For example: Suppose there are two transactions T1 and T2 which have some
operations. If it has no interleaving of operations, then there are the following two
possible outcomes:
1. Execute all the operations of T1 which was followed by all the operations of
T2.
2. Execute all the operations of T2 which was followed by all the operations of
T2.
o In the given (a) figure, Schedule A shows the serial schedule where T1 followed by T2.
o In the given (b) figure, Schedule B shows the serial schedule where T2 followed by T1.

2. Non-serial Schedule

o If interleaving of operations is allowed, then there will be non-serial schedule.

o It contains many possible orders in which the system can execute the individual
operations of the transactions.
o In the given figure (c) and (d), Schedule C and Schedule D are the non-serial schedules.
It has interleaving of operations.
3. Serializable schedule

o The serializability of schedules is used to find non-serial schedules that allow the
transaction to execute concurrently without interfering with one another.
o It identifies which schedules are correct when executions of the transaction have
interleaving of their operations.
o A non-serial schedule will be serializable if its result is equal to the result of its
transactions executed serially.

Testing of Serializability
o Serialization Graph is used to test the Serializability of a schedule.
o Assume a schedule S. For S, we construct a graph known as precedence graph. This
graph has a pair G = (V, E), where V consists a set of vertices, and E consists a set of
edges. The set of vertices is used to contain all the transactions participating in the
schedule. The set of edges is used to contain all edges Ti ->Tj for which one of the three
conditions holds:

1. Create a node Ti → Tj if Ti executes write (Q) before Tj executes read (Q).

2. Create a node Ti → Tj if Ti executes read (Q) before Tj executes write (Q).
3. Create a node Ti → Tj if Ti executes write (Q) before Tj executes write (Q).

o If a precedence graph contains a single edge Ti → Tj, then all the instructions of Ti are
executed before the first instruction of Tj is executed.
o If a precedence graph for schedule S contains a cycle, then S is non-serializable. If the
precedence graph has no cycle, then S is known as serializable.
 o For example:

Explanation:

Read(A): In T1, no subsequent writes to A, so no new edges

Read(B): In T2, no subsequent writes to B, so no new edges
Read(C): In T3, no subsequent writes to C, so no new edges
Write(B): B is subsequently read by T3, so add edge T2 → T3
Write(C): C is subsequently read by T1, so add edge T3 → T1
Write(A): A is subsequently read by T2, so add edge T1 → T2
Write(A): In T2, no subsequent reads to A, so no new edges
Write(C): In T1, no subsequent reads to C, so no new edges
Write(B): In T3, no subsequent reads to B, so no new edges

Precedence graph for schedule S1:

o The precedence graph for schedule S1 contains a cycle that's why Schedule S1 is non-
serializable.
Explanation:

Read(A): In T4,no subsequent writes to A, so no new edges

Read(C): In T4, no subsequent writes to C, so no new edges
Write(A): A is subsequently read by T5, so add edge T4 → T5
Read(B): In T5,no subsequent writes to B, so no new edges
Write(C): C is subsequently read by T6, so add edge T4 → T6
Write(B): A is subsequently read by T6, so add edge T5 → T6
Write(C): In T6, no subsequent reads to C, so no new edges
Write(A): In T5, no subsequent reads to A, so no new edges
Write(B): In T6, no subsequent reads to B, so no new edges

Precedence graph for schedule S2:

o The precedence graph for schedule S2 contains no cycle that's why ScheduleS2 is
serializable.
Multiversion Concurrency Control Techniques
o It is essential to maintain data consistency and prevent concurrency issues in database
systems. It should be multiple transactions accessing the same data simultaneously.
Multiversion Concurrency Control (MVCC) techniques provide an efficient and
effective way to achieve this.
o Multi-version protocol aims to reduce the delay for read operations. It maintains
multiple versions of data items. Whenever a write operation is performed, the protocol
creates a new version of the transaction data to ensure conflict-free and successful read
operations.
o The newly created version contains the following information −
o Content − This field contains the data value of that version.
o Write_timestamp − This field contains the timestamp of the transaction that
created the new version.
o Read_timestamp − This field contains the timestamp of the transaction that
will read the newly created value.
o By creating multiple versions of the data, the multi-version protocol ensures that read
operations can access the appropriate version of the data without encountering conflicts.
The protocol thus enables efficient concurrency control and reduces delays in read
operations.

Various Types of MVCC

MVCC Type Description Advantages Disadvantages

Creates a snapshot of the
database at the start of a Significant overhead due
Snapshot-based transaction and uses it to Easy to implement to storing multiple
provide necessary data for versions of data
the transaction
Assigns a unique
timestamp to each
More efficient than Requires additional
Timestamp- transaction that creates a
snapshot-based storage to store
based new version of a record;
MVCC timestamps
used to determine data
visibility to transactions
Stores a complete history
Provides highest
of all changes made to a Most complex of the
History-based level of data
record, allowing for easy MVCC techniques
consistency
rollback of transactions
 Combines two or more
Provides benefits of More complex to
MVCC techniques to
Hybrid multiple MVCC implement than
balance performance and
techniques individual techniques
data consistency

Benefits of multiversion concurrency control (MVCC)

o MVCC is a technique that helps databases manage multiple transactions happening at

the same time. When a DBMS implements MVCC correctly, it provides several
benefits, such as −

1. Less need for database locks: With MVCC, the database can allow multiple
transactions to read and write data without locking the entire database.
2. Fewer issues with multiple transactions trying to access the same data:
MVCC helps reduce conflicts between transactions accessing the same data.
3. Faster access to read data: Since MVCC allows multiple transactions to read
data at the same time, it improves the speed of reading data.
4. Records are still protected during write operations: MVCC ensures that data
is protected from being changed by other transactions while a transaction is
making changes to it.
5. Fewer database deadlocks: Deadlocks occur when two or more transactions
are waiting for each other to release a lock, causing the system to come to a halt.
MVCC can reduce the number of these occurrences.

Drawbacks of Multiversion concurrency control (MVCC)

o Although multiversion concurrency control (MVCC) provides several benefits, there

are two main disadvantages to this approach −

1. Concurrent update control methods can be challenging to implement.

2. The database can become bloated with multiple versions of records, which increases its
overall size.
o However, for most users and developers, the complexity involved in implementing
MVCC concurrency control methods is hidden. Database vendors provide this
functionality behind the scenes, so developers can write SQL and end-users can use
applications as usual without having to worry about the underlying details of how
MVCC works. This means that the use of MVCC is generally transparent to most users
and developers.
Comparison between MVCC and Locking

MVCC Locking
Creates a new version of a
record with an incremented Locks a record during write
Approach
version number during write operation
operation
Concurrent read operations
Concurrent read operations
can occur on the old version
Read operations are not allowed until the lock
of the record while the new
is released
version is being updated
Writes operate on a new
Only one write can occur at a
version of the record,
Write operations time, as the record is locked
allowing multiple writes to
during the write operation
occur simultaneously
No locks are needed, which
Locks are used, which can
eliminates the need for
Locks lead to contention and
contention and deadlock
deadlock issues
management
The database grows in size as The database remains the
new versions of records are same size, as no new
Record versions
created, leading to potential versions of records are
bloat created

o MVCC techniques provide an efficient and effective way to achieve data consistency.
It prevents concurrency issues in a database system. Each MVCC technique has its
advantages and disadvantages. So, appropriate techniques should be chosen based on
specific requirements and application characteristics. It is essential to consider the
performance, efficiency, and data consistency when choosing an MVCC technique.

Failure Classification
o To find that where the problem has occurred, we generalize a failure into the following
categories:

1. Transaction failure
2. System crash
3. Disk failure
 1. Transaction failure
o The transaction failure occurs when it fails to execute or when it reaches a point from
where it can't go any further. If a few transaction or process is hurt, then this is called
as transaction failure.
o Reasons for a transaction failure could be -

1. Logical errors: If a transaction cannot complete due to some code error or an

internal error condition, then the logical error occurs.
2. Syntax error: It occurs where the DBMS itself terminates an active transaction
because the database system is not able to execute it. For example, The system
aborts an active transaction, in case of deadlock or resource unavailability.

2. System Crash
o System failure can occur due to power failure or other hardware or software failure.
o Example: Operating system error.
o Fail-stop assumption: In the system crash, non-volatile storage is assumed not to be
corrupted.

3. Disk Failure
o It occurs where hard-disk drives or storage drives used to fail frequently. It was a
common problem in the early days of technology evolution.
o Disk failure occurs due to the formation of bad sectors, disk head crash, and
unreachability to the disk or any other failure, which destroy all or part of disk storage.

1. Log-Based Recovery
o The log is a sequence of records. Log of each transaction is maintained in some stable
storage so that if any failure occurs, then it can be recovered from there.
o If any operation is performed on the database, then it will be recorded in the log.
o But the process of storing the logs should be done before the actual transaction is
applied in the database.
o Let's assume there is a transaction to modify the City of a student. The following logs
are written for this transaction.
o When the transaction is initiated, then it writes 'start' log.
o <Tn, Start>
 o When the transaction modifies the City from 'Noida' to 'Bangalore', then another log is
written to the file.
o <Tn, City, 'Noida', 'Bangalore' >
o When the transaction is finished, then it writes another log to indicate the end of the
transaction.
o <Tn, Commit>
o There are two approaches to modify the database:

1. Deferred database modification:

o The deferred modification technique occurs if the transaction does not modify the database until
it has committed.
o In this method, all the logs are created and stored in the stable storage, and the database is
updated when a transaction commits.

2. Immediate database modification:

o The Immediate modification technique occurs if database modification occurs while the
transaction is still active.
o In this technique, the database is modified immediately after every operation. It follows an
actual database modification.

Recovery using Log records

o When the system is crashed, then the system consults the log to find which transactions
need to be undone and which need to be redone.

1. If the log contains the record <Ti, Start> and <Ti, Commit> or <Ti, Commit>, then the
Transaction Ti needs to be redone.
2. If log contains record<Tn, Start> but does not contain the record either <Ti, commit> or
<Ti, abort>, then the Transaction Ti needs to be undone.

2. Checkpoint
o The checkpoint is a type of mechanism where all the previous logs are removed from the system
and permanently stored in the storage disk.
o The checkpoint is like a bookmark. While the execution of the transaction, such checkpoints
are marked, and the transaction is executed then using the steps of the transaction, the log files
will be created.
 o When it reaches to the checkpoint, then the transaction will be updated into the database, and
till that point, the entire log file will be removed from the file. Then the log file is updated with
the new step of transaction till next checkpoint and so on.
o The checkpoint is used to declare a point before which the DBMS was in the consistent state,
and all transactions were committed.

Recovery using Checkpoint

o In the following manner, a recovery system recovers the database from this failure:

o The recovery system reads log files from the end to start. It reads log files from T4 to
T1.
o Recovery system maintains two lists, a redo-list, and an undo-list.
o The transaction is put into redo state if the recovery system sees a log with <Tn, Start>
and <Tn, Commit> or just <Tn, Commit>. In the redo-list and their previous list, all the
transactions are removed and then redone before saving their logs.
o For example: In the log file, transaction T2 and T3 will have <Tn, Start> and <Tn,
Commit>. The T1 transaction will have only <Tn, commit> in the log file. That's why
the transaction is committed after the checkpoint is crossed. Hence it puts T1, T2 and
T3 transaction into redo list.
o The transaction is put into undo state if the recovery system sees a log with <Tn, Start>
but no commit or abort log found. In the undo-list, all the transactions are undone, and
their logs are removed.
o For example: Transaction T4 will have <Tn, Start>. So T4 will be put into undo list
since this transaction is not yet complete and failed amid.
Deadlock in DBMS
o A deadlock is a condition where two or more transactions are waiting
indefinitely for one another to give up locks. Deadlock is said to be one of
the most feared complications in DBMS as no task ever gets finished and
is in waiting state forever.

o For example: In the student table, transaction T1 holds a lock on some rows and needs
to update some rows in the grade table. Simultaneously, transaction T2 holds locks on
some rows in the grade table and needs to update the rows in the Student table held by
Transaction T1.
o Now, the main problem arises. Now Transaction T1 is waiting for T2 to release its lock
and similarly, transaction T2 is waiting for T1 to release its lock. All activities come to
a halt state and remain at a standstill. It will remain in a standstill until the DBMS
detects the deadlock and aborts one of the transactions.

1. Deadlock Avoidance

o When a database is stuck in a deadlock state, then it is better to avoid the database rather
than aborting or restating the database. This is a waste of time and resource.
o Deadlock avoidance mechanism is used to detect any deadlock situation in advance. A
method like "wait for graph" is used for detecting the deadlock situation but this method
is suitable only for the smaller database. For the larger database, deadlock prevention
method can be used.

2. Deadlock Detection
o In a database, when a transaction waits indefinitely to obtain a lock, then the DBMS
should detect whether the transaction is involved in a deadlock or not. The lock manager
maintains a Wait for the graph to detect the deadlock cycle in the database.
3. Wait for Graph
o This is the suitable method for deadlock detection. In this method, a graph is created
based on the transaction and their lock. If the created graph has a cycle or closed loop,
then there is a deadlock.
o The wait for the graph is maintained by the system for every transaction which is
waiting for some data held by the others. The system keeps checking the graph if there
is any cycle in the graph.
o The wait for a graph for the above scenario is shown below:

4. Deadlock Prevention

o Deadlock prevention method is suitable for a large database. If the resources are
allocated in such a way that deadlock never occurs, then the deadlock can be prevented.
o The Database management system analyzes the operations of the transaction whether
they can create a deadlock situation or not. If they do, then the DBMS never allowed
that transaction to be executed.

5. Wait-Die scheme
o In this scheme, if a transaction requests for a resource which is already held with a
conflicting lock by another transaction then the DBMS simply checks the timestamp of
both transactions. It allows the older transaction to wait until the resource is available
for execution.
o Let's assume there are two transactions Ti and Tj and let TS(T) is a timestamp of any
transaction T.
o If T2 holds a lock by some other transaction and T1 is requesting for resources
held by T2 then the following actions are performed by DBMS:

1. Check if TS(Ti) < TS(Tj) - If Ti is the older transaction and Tj has held some resource,
then Ti is allowed to wait until the data-item is available for execution. That means if
the older transaction is waiting for a resource which is locked by the younger
transaction, then the older transaction is allowed to wait for resource until it is available.
2. Check if TS(Ti) < TS(Tj) - If Ti is older transaction and has held some resource and if
Tj is waiting for it, then Tj is killed and restarted later with the random delay but with
the same timestamp.

6. Wound wait scheme

o In wound wait scheme, if the older transaction requests for a resource which is held by
the younger transaction, then older transaction forces younger one to kill the transaction
and release the resource. After the minute delay, the younger transaction is restarted but
with the same timestamp.
o If the older transaction has held a resource which is requested by the Younger
transaction, then the younger transaction is asked to wait until older releases it.