Chapter (3)

History of Native American Poetry

Native Americans inhabited what is now known as the United States of America
long before any European colonists ever landed at Plymouth Rock. The rich history
of Native American oral traditions includes art and music that is likened to poetry.
Many Native American oral poems were used to commemorate special events,
invoke healing, or communicate with spiritual beings. Contemporary Native
American poets often draw upon their cultural history in their poems, as well as
themes such as the natural world and life.

The 1960s onwards is considered a Native American Literary Renaissance given the
increased visibility of Native American literary works, including poetry, that
explored Native American identity and history in the broader context of the United
States. Duane Niatum (1938-present) and James Welsh (1940-2003) are two leading
poets of the Native American Renaissance. Our current Poet Laureate is Joy
Harjo (1951-present) of the Muscogee Nation, who is also the first Native American
poet to hold the honor. Her poem 'From Calling the Spirit Back from Wandering the
Earth in Its Human Feet' (2015) refers to the history of Native American culture and
the legacy of colonialism in the United States.

History of American Poetry by Women

Throughout America’s poetic history, women have penned poetic verse, often to
great acclaim. One of the earliest American poets was Anne Bradstreet (1612-1672),
who wrote about religion, family life, and love. It wasn’t until the 20th century that
much of her poetry was discovered and published for the first time. Emily Dickinson
(1930-1886) is credited with revolutionizing American poetry by contributing to a
style of poetry removed from the rigid formality of her English poet predecessors.
Modern American poets include Gwendolyn Brooks (1917-200), Maya Angelou
(1928-2014), and Louise Glück (1943-present) who served as the Poet Laureate of
the United States from 2003-2004 and has won a Nobel and Pulitzer Prize for
literature.

History of Chicano Poetry

Chicano refers to people of Mexican descent living in the United States. Thus,
Chicano poetry is poetry written by authors of Mexican descent or relating to
Mexican-American identity in the United States. The Chicanismo movement in the
United States developed in the Southwest in the 1930s and, in the 1970s, the Chicano
movement extended strongly to literature and poetry. Chicano poets wrote about
Chicano identity in America. Chicana women often wrote about cultures of
machismo and patriarchy within the United States and their communities.
Juan Felipe Herrera (1948-present) served as the Poet Laureate of California in 2012
and in 2015 became the first Chicano poet to serve as the Poet Laureate of the United
States. His poem 'Borderbus' (2015) explores the experience of migrants crossing
the U.S. Border from Mexico. Alberto Rios (1952-present) served as the first poet
laureate of Arizona in 2013 and holds this position to the present day.

Themes of American Poetry

As you have probably discovered this far, American poetry is diverse and varied.
Various themes have stood the test of time and inspired and challenged American
poets from the colonial period to the present day.

American Identity
One common theme in American poetry is that of the country itself and American
identity. Ideals such as independence and freedom are extolled in poems penned by
Americans. One of the prime examples is 'The New Colossus' (1883) by American
poet Emma Lazarus (1849-1887). She penned this sonnet to raise money for the
construction of the Statue of Liberty. After the statue's construction, her poem was
engraved on its pedestal and serves as a welcome song to immigrants arriving in the
United States. It serves as a message of freedom and hope and highlights the integral
role immigrant identity plays in the construction of American identity.

Another 19th-century poet, Walt Whitman, often wrote about the shortcomings of
an idealized America when compared to the reality of life in America. He
exemplifies how poets writing about America and American identity also do so to
confront and challenge prevalent issues in American society.

The Inner Self

In contrast to much of the poetry written in England, American poetry developed a

distinct theme of individuality concerned with the construction of a ‘self’ in poetry.
American poets write in a way that has proven that the inner life of a person is just
as rich and worthy of artistic merit as the public persona. Emily Dickinson was one
of the first prominent poets to write about her inner life, and Walt Whitman did so
famously and boldly with his poem 'Song of Myself' (1855).

The Natural World

Nature is an enduring theme in American poetry. As previously mentioned, the

transcendentalist movement had a huge impact on the development of a uniquely
American voice in poetry. Transcendentalists were fundamentally interested in the
relationship between man and nature and the rejection of the conventions and
conveniences of modern society. From Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882) to Mary
Oliver (1935-2019), the natural world has served as a muse for American poets for
centuries.

Time

Additionally, the passage of time has captured the imagination of American poets.
Walt Whitman wrote 'Pioneers! O Pioneers' in 1865 as a call for westward expansion
to usher in a new era in American history. Robert Frost (1874-1963), one of the
quintessential American poets, was interested in the passing of time and the
importance of how we spend time - whether this was in the consideration given to a
friend in 'A Time to Talk' (1916) or the imagery of a luminary clock in the sky from
'Acquainted with the Night' (1928).

While these themes are not present in every American poem, they can be consistently
identified in American poetry throughout the years.

Importance of American Poetry

One defining aspect of American poetry is perhaps, ironically, its indefinability.

Because it spans such a large time period and so many different cultural perspectives,
it is difficult to distill American poetry into one definition. At its core, American
poetry showcases the continuities and changes that America has undergone over the
years and the way that art can reflect, challenge, and contribute to society. American
poetry developed its own unique tone distinct from its European predecessors and
continues to serve as an illustration of American identity and all of its inherent
complexities and contradictions.
 Chapter (4)

Walt Whitman (1819 –1892)

I Hear America Singing

I hear America singing, the varied carols I hear,

Those of mechanics, each one singing his as it should be, blithe and strong,
The carpenter singing his as he measures his plank or beam,
The mason singing his as he makes ready for work, or leaves off work,
The boatman singing what belongs to him in his boat, the deckhand singing on the
steamboat deck,
The shoemaker singing as he sits on his bench, the hatter singing as he stands,
The wood-cutter's song, the ploughboy's on his way in the morning, or at noon
intermission or sundown,
The delicious singing of the mother, or the young wife at work, or of the girl
sewing or washing,
Each singing what belongs to him or her and to none else,
The day what belongs to the day - at night the party of young fellows robust,
friendly,
Singing with open mouths their strong melodious songs
 The Poet

Regarded as one of America's greatest poets, Walt Whitman joins the ranks of
Dante, Shakespeare, Virgil, and Homer in terms of artistry and exceptional skill in
the written words. One of Whitman's finest works - Leaves of Grass, published in
1855, featured various themes including friendship, nature, democracy, and love.
It is also worth noting that the themes in this book were "out of the ordinary" during
that time. The Longman Anthology of Poetry commented that the poet used stylistic
innovations. Other critics claimed that Whitman did not make use of the regular
rhyme and meter in his works. Whitman is among the most influential poets in the
American canon, often called the father of free verse. His poetry often focused on
both loss and healing. On the death of Abraham Lincoln, whom Whitman greatly
admired, he wrote his well known poems, "O Captain! My Captain!" and "When
Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd", and gave a series of lectures.
Walt Whitman was also deeply affected by the slavery in New Orleans, which he
discovered when he got a job as an editor in one of the local newspapers. This
inspired him to create more poems that delved into the sufferings of these slaves,
which also opened the eyes of his readers. However, his works were also criticized
by others who were not quite in favor of his personal thoughts and feelings about
this subject matter. His poetry and works endured even after his death, and he was
praised for his remarkable talent that influenced other poets of the 20th century such
as Allen Ginsberg, William Carlos Williams, and D.H Lawrence, to name a few.
Today, Walt Whitman is considered one of the most influential and iconic American
poets of the 19th century. Modernist poet Ezra Pound called Whitman "America's
poet ... He is America."
Meaning of I Hear America Singing
The poet hears the "varied carols" of all the people who contribute to the life and
culture of America. The mechanic, the carpenter, the mason, the boatman, the
shoemaker, and the woodcutter all join in the chorus of the nation. The singing of
the mother, the wife, and the girl at work expresses their joy and their feeling of
fruition. These are highly individualistic men and women. Each person sings "what
belongs to him or her and to none else."

This poem underscores Whitman's basic attitude toward America, which is part of
his ideal of human life. The American nation has based its faith on the creativeness
of labor, which Whitman glorifies in this poem. The catalog of craftsmen covers not
only the length and breadth of the American continent but also the large and varied
field of American achievement. This poem expresses Whitman's love of America —
its vitality, variety, and the massive achievement which is the outcome of the creative
endeavor of all its people. It also illustrates Whitman's technique of using catalogs
consisting of a list of people.

Poetic Form

Walt Whitman was an experimental poet, toying with forms of poetry. He is also
known as the father of free verse poetry. He deemed himself above rigors
of rhyme and meter since Whitman used free verses freely. However, his poetry is
not a bunch of non-rhyming lines as ‘I Hear America Singing’ is a decent, tightly
moderated poem. The poem is a listing of manual workers, their work content, and
singing along the way.

The carpenter singing his as he measures his plank or beam

The mason singing his as he makes ready for work, or leaves off work
The boatman singing what belongs to him in his boat, the deck-hand singing on the
steamboat deck

As is the case, Walt Whitman’s poems tend to get lengthy as they progress, whereas
they are tightly managed in the beginning. This phenomenon is
called anaphora as repetition keeps recurring. It is the polar opposite of traditional
poetry norms where verses are controlled tightly in order to maintain the rhyming
sequence. In the case of Walt Whitman, he aspired to seek freedom of self-
exploration and discovery, rising above conventional forms like a true American.

Poetic Structure

Before doing into the nitty-gritty of his poetry, it’s imperative to note certain aspects
of his poetry. Noted as a pioneer of free-verse poetry, Walt Whitman wasn’t the
original inventor. Free verse is a poetic form, having an inherent absence of meter,
rhyme, and rhythm. However, the verses have rhyme and meter, the poem itself is
erratic. Rhythm is invoked by using poetic devices such as repetition, alliteration,
and such mechanisms. The form harmonizes well with the content. The poetic
structure breaks shackles of European adhered poetic standards. It is similar to
Romantic-era poetry which revered individualism.

Stanza Analysis of I Hear America Singing

Stanza One
I hear America singing, the varied carols I hear,

Those of mechanics, each one singing his as it should be blithe and strong,

The carpenter singing his as he measures his plank or beam,

The mason singing his as he makes ready for work, or leaves off work,

As the patriotic poem initializes, Walt Whitman seems fixated with the working-
class of American society. The poet embarks on praising the working populace of
the American society, highlighting individualistic traits in sheer emotion. As a result,
the poem resonates with a chirpy mood, inducing affirmative notes of
encouragement towards its addressed subjects. The words, ‘I hear American singing’
is imperative to ongoing praise for the American labor class, envisioning them as
equally important roles in contributing to American society.

Stanza Two

The mason singing his as he makes ready for work, or leaves off work,

The boatman singing what belongs to him in his boat, the deckhand singing on
the steamboat deck,

The shoemaker singing as he sits on his bench, the hatter singing as he stands,

Now, the poet sets himself in chronicling a variety of members embroiled in

participating in their respective methods to American society. Each particular
character/ professional is seen going on his destined path merrily, feeling prized in
playing his role in the bigger picture. Each character defines their own uniqueness
as he sings with his occupation. In the grand scheme of things, all of these singing
characters are depicted as Americans. Creating a socio-economic divide, it’s clear
that the poet visualizes his personalized vision of America, one founded upon the
hard work of the proletariat class. The primary idea of the government hypothesized
by Walt Whitman is that of, “for the people, by the people”. Very cleverly, Walt
Whitman has removed the upper echelons of societal individuals from his magnum
opus. It’s his own vision of future America, an America embracing with open arms
bourgeoisie class in day-to-day roles of government.

Stanza Three

The wood-cutter’s song, the ploughboy’s on his way in the morning, or at noon
intermission or at sundown,

The delicious singing of the mother, or of the young wife at work, or of the girl
sewing or washing,

Each singing what belongs to him or her and to none else,

The day what belongs to the day — at night the party of young fellows, robust,
friendly,

Singing with open mouths their strong melodious songs

It’s interesting to take into consideration the historical connotations mentioned

herein. He has specifically dedicated two lines to the female populace of thriving
America, entailing a sewing girl, a wife, and a mother. He deems their respective
contribution in an emerging American nation as vital pivots necessary for driving
prosperity and change. It’s an allegorical linkage to a time when women were barred
from national voting. They had no consequent say in government machinery or
elected officials.

Walt Whitman had a polar opposite vision of American as opposed to the prevalent
scenario. In this vision, women working domestically, as well as professionals, are
deemed as equals, busied in contributing to society on the whole. Parenting is
deemed as a noble profession, pivotal for securing a prospective future generation.

Walt Whitman appreciates and seems inclined towards individualism. The notion of
individuals singing their personalized songs is worth appreciating and respecting.
Singing is an outright allegory to individualism. Each individual is a cog in the
American system, and pivotal to democratic machinery in general. As a result, Walt
Whitman feels prized and proud of the dedication and due diligence the middle-class
section puts in cultivating a society founded on respect and rights.

As the poem concludes, he hints at the right to celebrate and party after a long day’s
work. He ends his swansong on a bright, chirpy note, after highlighting
individualistic contributions and all sundry professionals tied in a mechanized
system.

Literary Devices in the Poem

1. Alliteration: Alliteration is the repetition of consonant sounds in the same

line in quick succession such as the sound of /h/ in “Each singing what belongs
to him or her and to none else”.
2. Imagery: Imagery is used to make readers perceive things involving their five
senses. The entire poem is imagery because it describes the activity of each
working men and women. The reader can visualize each profession while
reading.
3. Personification: Personification is to give human qualities to
inanimate objects. For example, “I hear America singing, the varied carols I
hear.” America is personified as if it can sing like a human.
 4. Symbolism: Symbolism is using symbols to signify ideas and qualities,
giving them symbolic meanings that are different from the literal meanings.
Here, “Singing” symbolizes oneness, dignity, and freedom.

Analysis of Poetic Devices Used in I Hear America Singing

Poetic and literary devices are the same, but a few are used only in poetry. Here is
the analysis of some of the poetic devices used in this poem.

1. Stanza: A stanza is a poetic form of some lines. The poem comprises only
one stanza having eleven lines in it.
2. Free Verse: Free Verse is a type of poetry that does not
contain patterns of rhyme or meter. This is a free-verse poem with no
strict rhyme scheme or metrical