The Origin and Development of Educational Management

Educational management, as a distinct field of study and practice, has its roots in the broader
field of management and organizational theory. Its emergence as a specialized area can be traced
back to the late 19th and early 20th centuries, coinciding with the industrial revolution and the
growth of large-scale organizations.

Key Influences and Developments:

1. Industrial Revolution: The rise of large-scale industrial organizations created a need for
efficient management practices. This led to the development of management theories and
principles that were later adapted to educational settings.
2. Scientific Management: Pioneers like Frederick Winslow Taylor and Frank and Lillian
Gilbreth introduced scientific methods to improve efficiency and productivity in the
workplace. These principles were applied to educational institutions to streamline
operations and optimize resource allocation.
3. Bureaucracy: Max Weber's theory of bureaucracy emphasized the importance of formal
rules, procedures, and hierarchical structures in organizations. This concept influenced
the development of educational administration systems, which often adopted bureaucratic
models.
4. Human Relations Movement: This movement highlighted the importance of human
factors in organizational success. It emphasized the need to consider employee morale,
motivation, and satisfaction. This led to a shift in educational management towards a
more people-centered approach.
5. Systems Theory: Systems theory provided a framework for understanding organizations
as complex systems with interrelated components. This perspective helped educators to
analyze and manage educational institutions as interconnected entities.

Key Developments in Educational Management:

 Professionalization: The emergence of educational management as a distinct field led to

the development of professional organizations, specialized training programs, and
research journals.
 Research and Theory: Educational management research has contributed to the
development of theories and models related to leadership, decision-making,
organizational culture, and other key areas.
 Policy Development: Educational managers play a crucial role in developing and
implementing educational policies at various levels, from local to national.
 Technology Integration: The integration of technology into education has presented
new challenges and opportunities for educational managers, requiring them to adapt their
practices to a digital age.

In conclusion, educational management has evolved significantly over time, drawing on insights
from various fields of management and organizational theory. It continues to be a dynamic and
complex field, adapting to the changing needs and challenges of education.
General Principles of Management Applied to US School
Systems in 1913
The early 20th century, particularly the year 1913, was a time of significant growth and change
in the United States. The school system was no exception. As the country experienced rapid
industrialization and urbanization, there was a pressing need to improve the efficiency and
effectiveness of education. General principles of management, emerging from the industrial
revolution, were applied to address the challenges faced by the US school system.

Here are some of the key principles of management that were relevant to the problems of the US
school system in 1913:

1. Scientific Management:

 Efficiency and Productivity: This principle emphasized the importance of using

scientific methods to improve efficiency and productivity. In education, this meant
applying standardized procedures, time and motion studies, and performance
measurement to optimize teaching and learning processes.
 Division of Labor: By breaking down tasks into smaller, more specialized components,
it was believed that workers could become more efficient. In schools, this might have led
to the specialization of teachers in particular subjects or grade levels.

2. Bureaucracy:

 Hierarchy and Rules: Bureaucracy emphasized the importance of a hierarchical

structure and clear rules and procedures. In schools, this meant establishing a clear chain
of command, from the superintendent to teachers, and implementing standardized
policies and procedures.
 Impersonality: Bureaucracy sought to eliminate personal biases and favoritism in
decision-making. In schools, this might have led to the creation of standardized testing
and evaluation systems to ensure fair and objective assessment.

3. Human Relations:

 Employee Morale: This principle recognized the importance of employee morale and
satisfaction. In schools, this meant creating a positive and supportive work environment
for teachers, providing professional development opportunities, and fostering a sense of
community.

4. Systems Theory:

 Interconnectedness: Systems theory emphasized the interconnectedness of different

components within an organization. In schools, this meant recognizing the
interdependence of students, teachers, administrators, and the broader community.
Specific Problems Addressed:

 Standardization: The application of management principles helped to standardize

curriculum, teaching methods, and assessment practices across the country, ensuring a
more equitable education for all students.
 Efficiency: By streamlining administrative processes and improving the efficiency of
teaching and learning, schools were able to better serve a growing student population.
 Professionalization: The application of management principles also contributed to the
professionalization of teaching, with the development of standardized teacher training
programs and certification requirements.

While these principles provided a valuable framework for improving the US school system in
1913, they also faced criticism for their emphasis on efficiency and standardization at the
expense of individual needs and creativity. Over time, the focus of educational management has
shifted towards a more humanistic approach that emphasizes the importance of student-centered
learning and personalized instruction.

Educational Administration as a Social Policy in the USA in

1934
The Great Depression, which ravaged the United States from 1929 to 1939, had a profound
impact on the nation's social policies. Education, as a cornerstone of American society, was not
immune to these changes. In 1934, educational administration emerged as a crucial social policy
tool, designed to address the economic and social challenges of the time.

Key Social Policy Goals:

 Economic Recovery: The Great Depression led to widespread unemployment and

poverty. Education was seen as a means to equip individuals with the skills and
knowledge needed to re-enter the workforce and contribute to economic recovery.
 Social Justice: The Depression also highlighted social inequalities. Education was
viewed as a vehicle for promoting social justice by providing equal opportunities for all,
regardless of socioeconomic background.
 Civic Engagement: In a time of political and social unrest, education was seen as a way
to foster civic engagement and promote democratic values.

Educational Administration as a Policy Tool:

 Federal Funding: The federal government played a more active role in education during
the Great Depression, providing funding to support schools and universities. This funding
helped to ensure that all students had access to basic education, even in times of
economic hardship.
 Curriculum Reform: Educational administrators worked to reform curricula to make
them more relevant to the needs of the times. For example, vocational training programs
were expanded to prepare students for entry-level jobs.
  School Construction: Federal funding also supported the construction of new schools
and the renovation of existing facilities. This helped to improve access to education and
provide students with better learning environments.

Challenges and Limitations:

 Economic Constraints: Despite federal funding, economic constraints limited the scope
of educational reforms. Schools were often forced to make do with limited resources.
 Social Inequalities: While education was seen as a means of promoting social justice,
deep-rooted social inequalities persisted. Access to quality education remained uneven,
particularly for students from disadvantaged backgrounds.
 Teacher Shortages: The Depression led to a shortage of qualified teachers, which
further limited the effectiveness of educational reforms.

In conclusion, educational administration played a vital role in shaping American social policy
during the Great Depression. By providing funding, supporting curriculum reform, and
improving school facilities, educational administrators helped to address the economic and social
challenges of the time. However, the limitations imposed by economic constraints and social
inequalities made it difficult to achieve the full potential of education as a social policy tool.

Democracy in School Administration in the USA in 1934

The concept of democracy in school administration in the United States in 1934 was a complex
and evolving one, influenced by both national and local factors. While the nation was grappling
with the Great Depression, there were growing calls for greater democratic participation in
educational governance.

Key Factors Influencing Democratic School Administration:

1. Progressive Era Reforms: The Progressive Era (roughly 1890-1920) had laid the
groundwork for democratic reforms in education. This included the establishment of
school boards, which were often elected by the public, and the promotion of local control
over education.
2. Great Depression: The economic hardship of the Great Depression led to increased
public scrutiny of government institutions, including schools. This created a climate
where there was greater demand for accountability and transparency in educational
governance.
3. Social Movements: Social movements, such as the labor movement and the civil rights
movement, were also advocating for greater democratic participation. These movements
sought to empower marginalized groups and give them a voice in decision-making
processes.

Democratic Practices in School Administration:

  School Boards: School boards, as elected bodies, were central to democratic governance
in education. They were responsible for setting educational policy, approving budgets,
and hiring and firing superintendents.
 Parent-Teacher Associations (PTAs): PTAs were voluntary organizations that provided
a forum for parents and teachers to discuss educational issues and advocate for their
interests. They often played a role in shaping school policies and practices.
 Student Government: Some schools began to experiment with student government
organizations, which gave students a voice in school affairs. These organizations could
provide opportunities for students to develop leadership skills and learn about democratic
processes.

Challenges to Democratic School Administration:

 Social Inequalities: Despite the efforts to promote democratic governance, social

inequalities persisted. Students from disadvantaged backgrounds often had limited access
to quality education and were less likely to be involved in decision-making processes.
 Economic Constraints: The Great Depression made it difficult for schools to allocate
resources to democratic initiatives. This limited the ability of schools to provide
opportunities for student participation and involvement.
 Bureaucratic Influences: The growing influence of bureaucracy in education could
sometimes undermine democratic principles. Bureaucratic procedures and regulations
could make it difficult for schools to respond to the needs of their communities.

In conclusion, while the concept of democracy in school administration was gaining momentum
in the United States in 1934, it was still a work in progress. The challenges posed by social
inequalities, economic constraints, and bureaucratic influences made it difficult to fully realize
the potential of democratic governance in education. However, the seeds of democratic reform
had been sown, and they would continue to shape the future of American education.

A Practical Handbook of School Management by Teachers

in the UK in the 1960s
The 1960s was a period of significant educational reform in the UK. The Butler Act of 1944
had laid the groundwork for a more comprehensive and equitable education system, and the
decade saw further developments in this regard. Teachers, as key stakeholders in the educational
process, played a crucial role in shaping school management practices during this time.

A practical handbook of school management by teachers would likely have covered a wide range
of topics, reflecting the challenges and opportunities faced by schools in the 1960s. Here are
some potential themes:

1. Curriculum and Pedagogy:

  Subject-Based Curriculum: The 1960s saw a shift towards a more subject-based
curriculum. The handbook would have provided guidance on selecting appropriate
textbooks, resources, and teaching methods for different subjects.
 Progressive Education: Progressive education, which emphasized child-centered
learning and experiential learning, was gaining popularity. The handbook might have
discussed the principles of progressive education and how they could be applied in the
classroom.

2. School Organization and Management:

 Class Size: The handbook could have addressed the issue of class size, which was a
concern in many schools. It might have provided strategies for managing large classes or
for organizing small group work.
 Discipline: Discipline was a major challenge for many teachers. The handbook would
have offered advice on classroom management techniques, conflict resolution, and
behavior modification strategies.
 School Facilities: The handbook might have discussed the importance of well-
maintained and appropriate school facilities, including classrooms, laboratories, and
playgrounds.

3. Teacher Professional Development:

 Continuing Education: The handbook could have emphasized the importance of

continuing professional development for teachers. It might have provided information on
available courses, workshops, and conferences.
 In-Service Training: In-service training programs were becoming more common in the
1960s. The handbook could have discussed the benefits of in-service training and how
teachers could participate in such programs.

4. School-Community Relations:

 Parent Involvement: The handbook might have encouraged teachers to involve parents
in school activities and decision-making. It could have provided tips on effective
communication with parents and the community.
 Community Partnerships: Schools were increasingly forming partnerships with local
businesses, organizations, and institutions. The handbook could have discussed the
benefits of such partnerships and how to establish them.

In addition to these topics, a practical handbook of school management in the 1960s would
likely have addressed specific challenges faced by schools during that period, such as:

 The impact of the Comprehensive Education Act of 1965

 The growing role of technology in education
 The challenges of teaching in a rapidly changing society
By providing guidance on these and other relevant topics, a practical handbook of school
management could have helped teachers to navigate the complexities of the educational
landscape in the 1960s and to provide a high-quality education for their students.