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Material Science
General classification of materials Fatigue When a material is subjected to
repeated stresses, it fails at stresses
below the yield point stresses. Such
type of failure of a material is known
as fatigue.
Hardness It embraces many different properties
such as resistance to wear, scratching,
deformation and machinability etc.
• It also means the ability of a metal
Important mechanical properties of metals– to cut another metal.
Strength Ability of a material to resist the Remember
externally applied forces without • Decreasing order of the ductility of metals–
breaking or yielding. Mild steel > Copper > Aluminium > Nickel > Zinc
Stiffness Ability of a material to resist > Tin > Lead.
deformation under stress. • Decreasing order of the malleability of metals–
Elasticity Property of material to regain its Lead > Soft steel > Wrought iron > Copper >
original shape after deformation when Aluminium.
the external forces are removed.
Various types of material & its properties–
Plasticity Property of a material which retains
the deformation produced under load Material Properties
permanently. Aluminium Lightness, conductive
• This property useful for metal
forming work. Rubber Elastic, insulative
Ductility Property of a material enabling it to be Ceramics Thermal resistive
drawn into wire with the application
Cast iron High damping capacity
of a tensile force.
Brittleness Property of breaking of a material Copper High conductive, high corrosion resistive
with little permanent distortion.
Lead Highly malleable, high density
• Cast iron is a brittle material.
Malleability Special case of ductility which permits Steel High strength
materials to be rolled or hammered
into thin sheets. Iron ore Iron
Toughness Property of a material to resist fracture content
due to high impact loads like hammer i. As oxides (a) Magnetite 72%
blows. (Fe3O4)
(b) Hematite 70%
• This property is desirable in parts
(Fe2O3)
subjected to shock and impact
(c) Limonite 60-65%
loads.
(2Fe2O3.H2O)
Resilience Property of a material to absorb
ii. As carbonates Siderite (FeCO3) 48%
energy and to resist shock and impact
iii. As sulphides Pyrite (FeS2) 30-40%
loads. It is measured by the amount of
General classification of Ferrous metals–
energy absorbed per unit volume
within elastic limit. (This property is
useful for springs).
Creep When a part is subjected to constant
stress at high temperature for a long
period of time, it will undergo a slow
and permanent deformation called
creep.

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Ferrous metals Carbon Production process 1. First stage ⇒ Charging

percentage furnace position
Pig iron 4-6% Blast furnace 2. Second stage ⇒ Blowing
Cast iron 2-4.5% Cupola furnace position
Wrought iron 0.017% Pudding process 3. Third position ⇒ Pouring
Steel 0.15-1.5% Crucible, position
Bessemer, open • Pig iron converted in steel.
hearth process etc. • Produced steel by this method
1. Pig Iron • Crude form of iron and is used as have good strength and
a raw material for the production ductility.
of various other ferrous metals. 4. Open hearth • Also known as Siemens–
Ex.– Cast iron, wrought iron, steel process Martin process
etc. • This process is more suitable
• Carbon content → 3.8-4.7% when a large quantity of mild
2. Wrought • Purest form of iron. steel, with definite quality and
Iron • Carbon content→ 0.02-0.03% composition, is required
• It is tough, ductile and can easily 5. Duplex • This steel making process is a
be forged. process combination of Bessemer and
basic open hearth process.
3. Cast Iron • Obtained by remelting of pig iron
with coke and lime stone in a • This process is in operation at
cupola furnace. Tata iron and steel works
Jamshedpur (Jharkhand)
• Carbon content → 2 to 4.5%.
Effect of alloying element in Cast iron–
• The cast iron also contains small
amounts impurities such as Silicon Up to 4%, Free graphite formation
silicon, sulphur, manganese and makes iron soft, and easily
phosphorous. machinable
Sulphur Makes hard and brittle, 0.1% for
Type of Cast Carbon Ductility Obtained most foundry purposes
Iron form by Manganese Makes white and hard, kept below
White cast Cementite No Fast cooling 0.75%
iron rate
Phosphorous Fusibility and fluidity, induces
Grey cast iron Flake No Slow cooling
brittleness, it is rarely allowed to
rate
exceed 1%.
Nodular cast Nodular Yes Additions of
iron (Spheroid) magnesium Steel Alloy of iron and carbon
element • Plain carbon steel can be further subdivided into low
made so carbon steel, medium carbon steel and high carbon steel.
nodular of Types of Steel Carbon %
graphite • Dead mild steel Upto 0.15%
form instead
of flakes • Low carbon steel or mild steel 0.15% - 0.3%
Malleable cast Flake to Yes White cast • Medium carbon steel 0.3% – 0.8%
iron Nodule iron by • High carbon steel 0.8% – 1.5%
annealing Effect of alloying element in steel–
heat Sulphur Increases machinability
treatment
Molybdenum Forms abrasion resisting
Principal methods of manufacturing steel–
particles/improves creep properties,
1. Cementation • Blister steel is produced. also increases red hardness.
process • Wrought iron converted in to Phosphorous Improves machinability in free
cemented steel. cutting steel.
2. Crucible • Produced steel by this method Cobalt Contributes to red hardness by
process is very homogeneous and hardening ferrite
much superior to cement steel. Chromium Corrosion resistance/increase
3. Bessemer • Steel is produced in 3 stages– hardness
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Nickel Hardenability Cu and its alloys

Tungsten Heat resistance Cu & Zn Cu Zn other Application
Silicon Magnetic permeability/Increase Alloy
resistance to high temperature Brass 70% 30% - Bush musical
oxidation. instrument
Vanadium Hardenability/Increases strength Dutch metal 80% 20% -
Muntz Metal 60% 40% -
Manganese Hardness
Delta Metal 55% 41% 4% Fe
Designation of steel–
Gun metal 88% 2% 10% Sn Journal
2xxx → Ni 3xxx → Ni-Cr bearing
4xxx → Mo 5xxx → Cr
3213 → Stainless steel 31xx → Had field Cu & Sn Cu Sn other Application
Alloy
Stainless steel Bronze 88- 4- Sculptures,
• Steel which when correctly heat treated and finished, 96% 12% Medal
resists oxidation and corrosive attack from most Bell Metal 80% 20% Bells
corrosive media. Phosphor 87- 8- 0.1- Spring,
Martensitic Ferritic Austenitic bronze 90% 10% 0.3% P bearing
Al bronze 92% 8% Al Coin,
stainless steel stainless steel stainless steel
Jewellery
• Chromium • Chromium • Chromium Cu & Ni Cu Ni Other Application
= 12 to 14%, = 16 to 18%, = 18%, Alloy
Monel Metal 30% 70% Marine
Carbon Carbon Nickel = 8%,
bearing
= 0.12 to = 0.12%, German 60% 4% 35% Zn Jewellery
0.35%, Silver ornament
Rest-iron Rest-iron Rest-iron Constanton 55% 45% Thermocouple
Nickel Alloy
• Easily • Better • Non-magnetic
Nickel Composition Application
welded and corrosion • Also called 18/8 alloy
machined resistance steel Hastelloy 57% Ni + 23% Acid resistance
property
Fe + 20% Mo
• Magnetic Inconel 80% Ni + 14% High temperature
Free cutting steel (or Free machining steel) - Cr + 6% Fe heating element
• It contains sulphur and phosphorus. Nichrome 65% Ni + 15% Electric resistance
• Used where rapid machining and high quality Cr + 20% Fe
surface finish required. Invar 36% Ni + 64% Pendulum Clock,
• More liable to corrosion Fe High precision
• Have high tensile strength & low ductility. instrument
Nimonic Gas turbine
Non Ferrous metals Alloy
Aluminium Alloy
Alloy Composition Application
Duralumin Cu 4.0% + Al Al Alloys are
94.8% + Mn 0.5% extensively used
+ Mg 0.4-0.7% in making
automobile and
aircraft
components.
Y-Alloy Cu 4% + Mn 1.2-
1.7% + Ni 1.8-
2.3% + Si, Mg,
iron - 0.6% + Rest
Incoloy, Hastelloy, Inconel & Nimonic are high Al
temperature alloy.
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Magnalium Mg 2-10% + Cu • A unit cell may also be defined as the smallest

1.75% + Rest Al parallel piped which could be transposed in three
Hindalium anodized utensil coordinate direction to build the space lattice. The
manufacture space lattice of various substances differ in size and
shape of their unit cells.
Alloy Application
Babbit alloy (Cu base Bearing, excellent • Any points defined in space, 6 variable parameters
alloy having Sn, Pb) embeddability are required.
Low carbon steel (mild Wire nails, crane hooks Three unit vector ⇒ a, b, c
steel) rolled steel section Mutual angle between axis ⇒ α, β, γ
Medium carbon steel Screw, shaft and axles System Definition Structure type
High carbon steel Commercial beams, Cubic system a = b = c Simple, BCC,
springs, cold chisels α = β = γ = 90º FCC
Hadfield Mn steel Buldozer rolls Tetragonal a=b≠c Simple
T- series  Milling cutter, drills,
α = β = γ = 90º Tetragonal, Body
W = 18%,Cr = 4%,  Lathe tools, taps,
  centred tetragonal
broaches, saw
V = 1%  Orthorhombic a ≠ b ≠ c Simple
HSS  
M- series  α = β = γ = 90º orthorhombic
Mo = 5%,Cr = 4%,  BCO, FCO, ECO
 
V = 2%,, W = 6%  Monoclinic a≠b≠c Simple
Tool steel Making die, ball bearing α = β = 90º ≠ γ monoclinic,
Silicon steel Transformer lamination BCM, ECM
Commercial bronze Forging and stamping Triclinic a≠b≠c Simple Triclinic,
(10% Zn) α ≠ β ≠ γ ≠ 90º BCT, ECT
Red brass (15% Zn) Radiator Hexagonal a=b≠c Simple
Al brass (22% Zn, 2% Condenser tubes, heat α = β = 90º Hexagonal, BCH,
Al) exchanger ECH
γ = 120º
(Admirality brass)
Spring steel Non sparking character
Structure of solids– Characteristic BCC FCC HCP Simple
Crystalline In crystalline solid, the atoms Cubic
solids making up the crystals arrange Relation 4r a = 2 2r a= 2r a = 2r
between 'a' and a=
themselves in a definite and orderly 3
'r'
manner and form. All solid metals
such as iron, copper, aluminium, etc. Co-ordination 8 12 12 6
are crystalline Number
Semi In the amorphous solids, the atoms Average 2 4 6 1
crystalline are arranged chaotically. i.e. the number of
solids atoms are not arranged in a atoms
(Amorphous) systematic order. Ex-wood, plastic, Atomic 0.68 0.74 0.74 0.52
glass. Packing factor
(A.P.F.)
Non- –
Examples Na, K, Ca, Ni, Be, Po
crystalline
V, Mo, Cu, Ag, Mg,
• Space lattice or crystal lattice–The definite and
Ta, W Pt, Al, Zn
orderly manner and form of atoms producing a
Pb, Al Cd,
geometrical shape in the aggregate is called space
Te
lattice or crystal lattice.
Atomic packing density/factors (APD/APF)
• A crystal is composed of unit cells. A unit cell
Volume of effective number of atom
contains the smallest number of atoms, which when =
taken together have all the properties of the crystals Volume of unit cell
of the particular metal. Void ratio = 1 – APF
Mechanical Engineering Capsule 47 YCT
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Crystal Imperfection– • A phase diagram has temperature as its ordinate and

Types of Examples alloy composition as abscissa.
Imperfection
(i) Point defect • Vacancy defect
• Interstitial defect
• Substitution defect
• Frenkel defect
• Schottkey defect
(ii) Surface defect • Grain boundary defect
• Twist boundary defect
• Tilt boundary defect
• Staking faults
(iii) Line defect • Edge dislocation defect
• Screw dislocation defect
1150ºC
Recrystallization and melting temperatures for • L ↽ 4.3%C ⇀ γ + Fe3 C [Eutectic reaction]
various metals– 725ºC
Metal Recrystallization Melting temp • γ ↽ 0.8%C ⇀ α + Fe3C [Eutectoid reaction]
temp (oC) (oC) 1495ºC
• δ + L ↽ 0.18%C ⇀ γ (Solid) [Peritectic reaction]
Tin –4 232
Remember
Zinc 10 420
Hypo-eutectoid C < 0.83%
Aluminium 80 660
steel Consist of ferrite + pearlite
Copper 120 1085
Eutectoid steel C = 0.83%
Brass 475 900
Consist of pure pearlite
Nickel 370 1455
Hyper-eutectoid C > 0.83% (but C < 2%)
Iron 450 1538
steel Consist of cementite + pearlite
Tungsten 1200 3410
Hypo-eutectic cast C < 4.3%
Corrosion iron Consists of α + Fe3C
• Corrosion is when a refined metal is naturally Eutectic cast iron C = 4.3%
converted to a more stable form such as its oxide, Hyper-eutectic C > 4.3%
hydroxide or sulphide state. This leads to cast iron
deterioration of the material.
Ex.- Fe + O + 2CO 2 + H 2 O ⇌ Fe ( HCO3 )2 Paramagnetic Electrons are unpaired and exhibit
material colour. Ex. - Earth, Alkline
(Ferrous bicarbonate)
Ferromagnetic Iron behaves paramagnetic as well
Fe ( OH ) CO3 + H 2 O ⇌ Fe ( OH )3 + CO 2 as diamagnetic. Ex.- Fe, Co, Ni
(Hydrated Ferric Carbonate) Diamagnetic Electrons are paired and such
• Method to prevent corrosion– alloys are colourless Ex. - Silver,
Process Description Gold, Bismuth
Galvanising Depositing a protective layer of Allotropic forms of pure iron-
zinc on iron or steel
Electroplating Deposition of metal over any
metallic or non-metallic surface.
Perkerizing Phasphate Coating
Cementation Sheradizing Zinc Coating
Process Cloradizing Al Coating
Chromizing Cr Coating
Iron-carbon equilibrium diagram
• Change of phase means either there is a change in
microstructure or there is change in the lattice Curie point (768ºC)–There is no change in phase and
structure. only magnetic properties are disappearing.

Mechanical Engineering Capsule 48 YCT

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Micro constituents of iron and steel

Name Carbon Temperature Structure Other characteristics
Content
Ferrite (α) 0.022% Below 725ºC BCC • Softest Structure
• Interstitial solid solution of
Carbon in α-iron
Austenite (γ) 2.14% 910-1410ºC FCC Solid solution of Carbon in γ-
iron
Cementite 6.67% Below Orthorhombic Hardest structure on Fe-C
(Fe3C) 1175ºC diagram.
Pearlite 0.8% 723ºC Ferrite (87%) + Pearl like structure when viewed
Cementite (13%) through microscope.
Martensite Tetragonal • Needle like structure
• Supersaturated solid solution
of carbon in α-iron
Ledeburite 4.3% 1130ºC Austenite + Cementite

Heat Treatment hard lamellar or critical

network carbides temperature
of high carbon
steels into
globular or
spherical shapes.
o o
Diffusion • To homogenize 1100 C–200 C
Annealing the chemistry of temperature
material
1. Annealing –
Quenching medium → Furnace • Used for large
Types of Description Temperature castings
Annealing Range 2. Normalizing
Full • Ductility and • 50oC above • Temperature range : 30º-50ºC above the upper
Annealing toughness the upper critical temperature for hypo eutectoid and hyper
increases critical eutectoid steels
• For soften the temperature – • Quenching medium : Air
metal, refine the for hypo • To refine the grain structure of the steen to improve
grain structure eutectoid steel machinability, tensile strenght and structure of
• Adopted for • 50oC above weld.
steel casting and the lower 3. Hardening–
ingots critical • The object of hardening is to produce the
temperature – martensite.
for hyper • Temperature range : 30º-50ºC above the upper
eutectoid steel critical temperature for hypo eutectoid steels
Process • Stress relieving • Below or • 30º–50º C above the lower critical temperature
Annealing • Usually, cold close to the for hyper eutectoid steels.
worked steel has lower critical • Quenching medium–
high hardness and temperature
• Water-vapour blanket forms (HT ↓ 2) Non uniform
low ductility cooling.
making it difficult • Salt bath – Decreases the tendency of vapour
to work
blanket formation.
Spheroidise • Machinability • Close below • Oil bath – Uniform cooling
Annealing increases or close above
Types of Hardening process–
• Conversion of the lower
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Austempering • Known as isothermal quenching. Other types of case hardening process–

• Temperature range → above Cyaniding • C and N are added to the
upper critical temperature about surface
875ºC • Steel is heated in a molten
• Final structure → Bainite cyanide bath maintained at
Martempering • Stepped quenching or interrupted 950ºC, followed by water or oil
quenching.
quenching.
Nitriding • Heating the steel in atmosphere
• Temperature range - above upper
of NH3 gas
critical temperature.
• quenching is not required
Remember–
Carbonitriding • When cyaniding process is
• Only medium carbon steels can be hardened. carried out in a gas atmosphere.
• Age hardening is related to hardening of alloys of • Natural gas (70-80)% + NH3
Al, Mg, and Ni. (20-30)%
4. Case Hardening– Flame • Localised heating with gas
• Process of increasing the hardness of only surface Hardening flames (acetylene, propane or
by the process of diffusion of carbon and nitrogen. natural gas)
• Quenching medium : Furnace • Complex shapes can be
processed (gears, tool bed)
Induction • Fastest method of case
hardening hardening
• Medium carbon steel can be
hardened by this technique
Decreasing order of hardness–
Nitriding > Cyaniding > Carburizing
Tempering
• Process of introducing toughness.
Carburizing
• High temperature tempering (500-650ºC) : Sorbite
Types of Description
• Medium temperature (350-500ºC) : Troostrite (in
Carburizing
spring and dies).
Pack • Components packed in a box with • Low temperature (on 250ºC) : Martensite is healed
Carburizing carburizing agent (e.g. Charcoal) at (in 250ºC) 250ºC and cooled slowly to
and an energiser (e.g. barium relevance internal speed.
carbonate) Time Temperature Transformation (T-T-T)
• Heated to 850ºC-950ºC for Diagram–
• T-T-T diagram is also referred as isothermal
diffusion of carbon in a furnace for
transformation diagram, S-curve, C-curve or Bain's
12 to 72 hours. curve.
• Good for one-off components.
Liquid • Heated in container filled with a
Carburizing molten salt (e.g. sodium carbonate)
• If only selected portions of the
components are to be carburized,
then remaining portions are
covered by copper plating
• Heated to 950ºC
Gas • Components are heated and
Carburizing Cooling Medium Structure
surrounded by a hydrocarbon gas Furnace Coarse pearlite
(such as methane, ethane, carbon Air fine pearlite (Sorbite)
monoxide etc) in the furnace Oil Very fine pearlite (Troostite)
• Partial carburizing not possible Water Martensite

Mechanical Engineering Capsule 50 YCT

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