1/ Discuss in detail TWO factors affecting processes of SLA?

Two significant factors affecting the processes of Second Language Acquisition

(SLA) are motivation and age:

1. Motivation

Motivation is a key factor in SLA, influencing the effort and persistence learners
invest. It can be divided into:
• Intrinsic Motivation: Driven by personal interest or enjoyment in
learning the language.
• Extrinsic Motivation: Influenced by external rewards, such as career
advancement or academic success.
Highly motivated learners are more likely to engage in practice, seek out
opportunities for interaction, and overcome challenges. Conversely, lack of
motivation can hinder progress.

2. Age

Age significantly impacts SLA due to cognitive and neurological factors.

• Younger Learners: Tend to acquire native-like pronunciation and fluency
more easily due to the plasticity of their brain during the Critical Period.
• Older Learners: May learn more quickly initially due to advanced
cognitive skills but often struggle with accent and implicit grammar acquisition.
Age affects not only the ability to learn but also the methods and pace of
instruction suitable for learners.

2/ Briefly present the three among 5 constructs in Krashen’s Monitor Model. Highlight
ONE weakness inherent in his hypotheses. Discuss part of his theory that can apply
to classroom practice.

Three Constructs in Krashen’s Monitor Model

1. Input Hypothesis
Language is acquired when learners are exposed to comprehensible input (i+1),
which is slightly above their current level of understanding.
2. Monitor Hypothesis
Learners use their conscious knowledge of grammar (the “monitor”) to edit or
correct their language production, mainly in written or rehearsed contexts.
3. Affective Filter Hypothesis
Emotional factors such as anxiety, motivation, and self-confidence influence the
success of language acquisition. A low affective filter enhances learning, while a
high filter blocks input.

Weakness of Krashen’s Hypotheses

One weakness is the lack of empirical evidence for the Input Hypothesis. Critics
argue it oversimplifies SLA by neglecting the importance of output and
interaction in language learning.

Application to Classroom Practice

The Input Hypothesis can inform teachers to provide comprehensible input that
is slightly above learners’ current level, using visuals, scaffolding, or context clues
to aid understanding. Reducing anxiety through a supportive environment aligns
with the Affective Filter Hypothesis, fostering better learning outcomes.

3/ Identify the role of input and interaction in SLA and discuss the implications for L2
Learning

The Role of Input in SLA

Input refers to the language that learners are exposed to in their environment. In
SLA, comprehensible input (language slightly beyond the learner’s current
proficiency level, or i+1, as per Krashen) is crucial for acquisition. Input provides
the linguistic data necessary for learners to internalize vocabulary, grammar, and
syntax. Without sufficient exposure to meaningful input, language acquisition is
unlikely to occur.

The Role of Interaction in SLA

Interaction facilitates language learning by providing opportunities for learners

to use the language in communicative contexts. Michael Long’s Interaction
Hypothesis emphasizes the importance of negotiation of meaning during
conversations. Through interaction, learners receive modified input, feedback,
and chances to practice production, which helps refine their language skills and
promotes acquisition.

Implications for L2 Learning

1. Input in L2 Learning:
• Teachers should provide rich and varied input tailored to learners’
proficiency levels.
 • Using authentic materials, visual aids, and contextualized language helps
make input comprehensible.
2. Interaction in L2 Learning:
• Classroom activities like group discussions, role-playing, and pair work
foster interaction.
• Feedback during interaction (e.g., recasts, clarification requests) helps
learners notice errors and adjust their output.

Combining meaningful input with interactive opportunities ensures that learners

engage in both comprehension and production, leading to more effective SLA.

4/Can second language learners become native-like in their proficiency? Discuss this
question in light of the theories of SLA you have studied.

Whether second language learners can achieve native-like proficiency is a

complex issue influenced by factors such as age, exposure, motivation, and
individual differences. Theories of SLA provide varying perspectives:

1. Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH)

CPH suggests that there is a biologically determined period (typically before

puberty) during which language acquisition occurs most easily. After this period,
achieving native-like proficiency, especially in pronunciation and intonation,
becomes challenging. While older learners can achieve high levels of proficiency,
they often retain subtle differences in accent or grammar, supporting the idea
that complete native-like mastery is rare.

2. Input Hypothesis (Krashen)

Krashen’s theory emphasizes the importance of comprehensible input for

acquisition. Learners with ample exposure to rich and meaningful input over
time may approximate native-like proficiency, particularly in environments
where the second language (L2) is actively spoken. However, the theory does not
explicitly address individual variability in ultimate attainment.

3. Skill Acquisition Theory

This theory likens language learning to developing motor skills. Through

practice, learners can automatize language use and achieve high levels of fluency.
However, the fossilization of errors (a common phenomenon in SLA) may
prevent some learners from becoming entirely native-like.
4. Sociocultural Theory

This theory posits that language learning occurs through interaction and
mediation within a social context. Learners immersed in a native-speaking
environment with rich interaction may develop near-native proficiency.
However, cultural integration and identity also play a role in how “native-like” a
learner becomes.

Conclusion

While some second language learners achieve near-native proficiency, complete

native-like mastery is rare due to biological, cognitive, and social factors.
However, motivated learners with sustained exposure, practice, and interaction
can excel in communicative competence, which may be more important than
perfect mimicry of native speakers.

5/Give a brief description of these three constructs (input, interaction, feedback) in

SLA and a clear explanation of how each of them impacts L2 learning and teaching.

Constructs in SLA
1. Input
Input refers to the language learners are exposed to, which serves as the
foundation for acquisition. According to Krashen’s Input Hypothesis,
comprehensible input (i+1) is essential for language learning.
Impact on L2 Learning and Teaching:
• Teachers should provide rich, meaningful, and accessible language
exposure through reading, listening, and classroom activities.
• Visual aids, gestures, and scaffolding techniques can make input more
comprehensible for learners.
2. Interaction
Interaction involves the exchange of language between learners and others (e.g.,
peers, teachers, or native speakers). Long’s Interaction Hypothesis highlights that
negotiation of meaning during interaction promotes language acquisition.
Impact on L2 Learning and Teaching:
• Interactive activities like group discussions, role plays, and pair work
encourage learners to actively use the language.
• Interaction allows learners to process input more deeply and practice
output in a meaningful context.
3. Feedback
Feedback refers to responses to learners’ language use, often correcting errors or
guiding improvement. Feedback can take forms such as recasts, explicit
correction, or clarification requests.
Impact on L2 Learning and Teaching:
• Feedback helps learners notice gaps in their knowledge and refine their
language use.
• Teachers should balance feedback to avoid discouraging learners while
ensuring accuracy and progress.

Integration in Teaching

Effective language instruction incorporates input (comprehensible materials),

interaction (collaborative activities), and feedback (supportive corrections) to
create a dynamic and engaging learning environment that fosters acquisition.

6/Briefly describe two major theories of first language acquisition and explain how
those theories affect your teaching practice.

Two Major Theories of First Language Acquisition

1. Behaviorist Theory
Proposed by B.F. Skinner, this theory emphasizes that language is learned
through imitation, reinforcement, and conditioning. Children acquire language by
imitating sounds and words they hear, and correct usage is reinforced through
rewards or positive responses.

Impact on Teaching Practice:

• Teachers may use repetition, drills, and positive reinforcement to help
learners develop accuracy in language use.
• Emphasis is placed on structured practice and habit formation, especially
for beginners.

2. Nativist Theory
Proposed by Noam Chomsky, this theory argues that language acquisition is
innate and governed by a Language Acquisition Device (LAD)—a biological
mechanism enabling children to acquire the rules of language naturally. Chomsky
emphasizes the role of universal grammar and the ability to generate novel
sentences.

Impact on Teaching Practice:

 • Teachers focus on creating opportunities for natural language use and
exploration.
• Grammar instruction is less rigid, as learners are believed to have an
innate capacity to understand underlying structures with sufficient
exposure.

Summary of Effects on Practice

• Behaviorist theory informs practice through structured activities and
rewards.
• Nativist theory encourages fostering natural interaction and exposure to
meaningful language use, promoting learners’ innate capacities. A balanced
approach may integrate both theories for effective teaching.

7/Discuss in detail TWO individual Learner factors affecting the processes of second
language acquisition.

Two Individual Learner Factors Affecting SLA

1. Motivation
Motivation is a key factor in SLA, determining the effort and persistence learners
dedicate to acquiring a second language. It can be classified into:
• Intrinsic Motivation: Learners are driven by personal interest,
enjoyment, or satisfaction in learning the language.
• Extrinsic Motivation: Learners are motivated by external rewards such as
better job prospects, grades, or social recognition.
Impact on SLA:
• Highly motivated learners are more likely to engage in meaningful
practice, seek additional learning opportunities, and persevere through
challenges.
• Low motivation can lead to disengagement and slower progress.
Teaching Implications:
• Teachers can enhance motivation by connecting lessons to learners’
interests and goals.
• Incorporating real-world tasks, positive reinforcement, and a supportive
learning environment can sustain motivation.
2. Age
Age significantly influences SLA due to cognitive, neurological, and social factors.
• Young Learners: Tend to acquire pronunciation and fluency more
naturally due to brain plasticity during the Critical Period.
 • Older Learners: Often have advanced cognitive skills, enabling them to
grasp explicit grammar rules quickly, but they may struggle with native-like
pronunciation or implicit acquisition.
Impact on SLA:
• Younger learners excel in implicit acquisition through immersion, while
older learners benefit from explicit instruction and structured practice.
• Age affects the pace and focus of language learning strategies.
Teaching Implications:
• For young learners, teachers should prioritize immersive, playful, and
interactive activities to facilitate natural acquisition.
• For older learners, structured lessons with explicit grammar explanations
and opportunities for meaningful practice are essential.

By addressing motivation and age appropriately, educators can tailor their

teaching strategies to meet the diverse needs of language learners.

8/Give definitions of input and output and explain their roles in the SLA process.

Input: Input refers to the language that learners hear or read in their
environment. It serves as the linguistic data needed for acquisition, especially
when it is comprehensible and slightly beyond the learner’s current level (i+1).
Output: Output is the language that learners produce, either in speech or
writing, as they attempt to communicate.

Roles in SLA:
• Input: Provides the foundation for acquiring vocabulary, grammar, and
pronunciation. Comprehensible input allows learners to internalize linguistic
structures and develop comprehension.
• Output: Helps learners test their hypotheses about language use, notice
gaps in their knowledge, and refine their skills through feedback from others.
Encourages active engagement with the language.

9/Describe the critical period hypothesis and discuss its implications for SLA
regarding learning success and teaching strategies.

Definition:
The Critical Period Hypothesis suggests that there is a biologically determined
window, typically ending around puberty, during which the brain is optimally
equipped for language acquisition. After this period, acquiring a language,
especially to native-like proficiency, becomes more challenging.
Implications for SLA:
• Learning Success: Younger learners are more likely to achieve native-like
pronunciation and fluency due to greater brain plasticity. Older learners can
achieve high proficiency but often retain an accent or grammatical errors.
• Teaching Strategies:
• For young learners: Use immersive, play-based methods that replicate
natural language exposure.
• For older learners: Provide explicit instruction, focus on functional
communication, and use corrective feedback to target persistent errors.

While the critical period affects ultimate attainment, factors like motivation and
practice can help learners of any age achieve effective communication skills.

10/Discuss why "communicative competence" has become such an essential focus of

second language teaching and suggest how it can be developed in the classroom.

Importance of Communicative Competence in SLA

Definition: Communicative competence is the ability to use a language

effectively and appropriately in various social and cultural contexts. It includes
grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic competencies.

Why It Is Essential:
• Practical Use: Traditional methods focused on grammar and vocabulary
often failed to prepare learners for real-life communication. Communicative
competence emphasizes practical, real-world application.
• Integration of Skills: It goes beyond accuracy to include fluency,
appropriateness, and adaptability in communication.
• Globalization: The need for effective cross-cultural communication has
made communicative competence a priority for learners in academic,
professional, and social settings.

Developing Communicative Competence in the Classroom

1. Task-Based Learning:
• Use activities like role plays, simulations, and problem-solving tasks that
mimic real-world situations.
2. Interactive Activities:
 • Incorporate group discussions, interviews, and collaborative projects to
encourage meaningful interaction.
3. Focus on Context:
• Teach language within cultural and social contexts to help learners
understand appropriateness and pragmatics.
4. Authentic Materials:
• Use videos, articles, and dialogues from native speakers to expose learners
to natural language use.
5. Feedback and Reflection:
• Provide corrective feedback during communication to address errors
while maintaining fluency. Encourage self-assessment and reflection on
performance.

By prioritizing communicative competence, teachers ensure learners are not just

linguistically proficient but also capable of navigating diverse social and cultural
interactions.