This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access.

This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3301329

Date of publication xxxx 00, 0000, date of current version xxxx 00, 0000.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/ACCESS.2023.0322000

Energy Recovery and Energy Harvesting in

Electric and Fuel Cell Vehicles, a Review of Recent
Advances
SEYED MOHAMMAD HOSSEINI1,2 , MEHDI SOLEYMANI1,2 ,(Member, IEEE),SOUSSO
KELOUWANI1,2 , (Senior Member, IEEE) and ALI AMAMOU1,3 , (Member, IEEE)
1
Institut de Recherche sur l’Hydrogène, Université de Québec à Trois-Rivières, Trois-Rivières, QC G9A 5H7, Canada
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Université de Québec à Trois-Rivières, Trois-Rivières, QC G8Z 4M3, Canada
3
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Université de Québec à Trois-Rivières, Trois-Rivières, QC G8Z 4M3, Canada
Corresponding author: Seyed Mohammad Hosseini (e-mail: seyed.mohammad.hosseini.uqtr.ca).

ABSTRACT This review article examines the crucial role of energy harvesting and energy recovery in the
design of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles (FCHEVs) as these vehicles
have limited onboard power sources. Harvesting energy and recovering energy from onboard systems can
significantly improve energy efficiency, increase range, and reduce fuel consumption. The latest advances in
vehicular energy recovery and harvesting, including regenerative braking, regenerative suspension, solar and
wind energy harvesting, and other recovery methods are studied and the impact of the energy storage system
and powertrain architecture on energy harvesting is investigated. Regenerative brake control strategies and
driver behaviour’s effect on energy recovery are reviewed, and the potential of energy harvesting in electric
vehicles is discussed, including experimental and low-power harvesting methods. The importance of using
perception and navigation technologies in autonomous vehicles to enhance energy efficiency is highlighted.
The article identifies critical research gaps, challenges, and future directions for research in this field. This
review stands out from previous papers by covering overlooked subjects such as driver behaviour and
deceleration planning in autonomous vehicles, low-power harvesting methods, and experimental techniques
applicable to electric vehicles.

INDEX TERMS Autonomous vehicles, Electric vehicles, Energy harvesting, Energy dissipation, and Fuel
cell vehicle.

I. INTRODUCTION in that era turned the tide. The reappearance of electrified

vehicles in the market was first in the form of hybrid elec-

F OR For many years the energy market has been dom-

inated by fossil fuels as the first choice for the trans-
portation industry. However, the fossil fuel shortage and its
tric vehicles (HEVs) in the 1990s. These vehicles benefit
from electric and fossil power sources, for instance, the very
successful Toyota Prius model [3]. HEVs combine the drive
price, alongside the environmental crisis, have shifted the powers of an ICE and an electrical machine to achieve higher
focus of the automotive industry toward a new generation of fuel efficiency than ICE-only vehicles [4]. There are two
vehicles [1]. The recent rise in the EV market in China is a basic configurations for the HEV powertrain: Parallel and
good example of it (Fig.1). This shift is happening in not only Series. In the series HEV topology, a generator, driven with
the automotive industry but also in the aerospace and marine ICE provides the electrical power alongside a power storage
industries. This change of trend is in favour of electrical unit for an electric motor that drives the wheels. In parallel
vehicles (EVs). The term EV refers to vehicles that fully or HEV, the power generated by an ICE and an electric motor
partially use electric motors for traction. Surprisingly, the idea is merged to drive wheels. In the combined configuration
of employing electric motors to drive a car emerged many of the HEV powertrain called series-parallel (SP-HEV), the
years ago. From 1897 to 1900, 28 percent of the total vehicle vehicle combines the advantages of both series and parallel
in the market were of an electric type and were preferred configurations, but it has a more complex powertrain and
over internal combustion engine (ICE) ones [2]. However, the power flow control [5].
lower price of oil and the limited range of electric vehicles

VOLUME 11, 2023 1

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4
 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3301329

Author et al.: Preparation of Papers for IEEE TRANSACTIONS and JOURNALS

FIGURE 1. The rise in the EV market in China [6].

In a different classification, HEVs can be classified into FIGURE 2. The classification based on dedicated traction.
four types based on their degree of hybridization: mild HEV,
medium HEV, full HEV, and plug-in hybrid electric vehicle
(PHEV). Mild HEVs use electricity during stopping and brak- demand cause problems, for instance, fuel cells should be
ing events, allowing the ICE to turn off, but do not have a fully sized for the maximum power demand [11]. Hybrid energy
electric mode. Medium HEVs can run in fully electric mode source facilitates high power demands and store regenerative
for a limited time, in addition, the electric motor (EM) can braking energy, so FCEVs are also called Fuel Cell Hybrid
operate in parallel with ICE. The main difference between a Electric Vehicles (FCHEV) [12]. Table 1 compares different
medium HEV and a full HEV is the battery size. Full HEVs types of EVs. To keep the table as productive as possible
have larger battery packs so they can run long distances. some categories are not considered in the table and only
PHEV applies both ICE and an electrical powertrain like a widely accepted terminologies are mentioned. Fig.2 shows
normal HEV, but the electric drive acts as the main drive the classification based on dedicated traction.
which means PHEVs tend to have batteries with more capac- Despite the promising prospect of using BEVs and FCEVs
ity compared to other HEVs. The difference between PHEV on a large scale, there are also other barriers ahead of their
and full HEV is the capability of PHEVs to be connected to widespread application. Considering BEV, the charge station
the power grid for charging [7]. infrastructure is not well-developed yet. This includes a lim-
An EV, that only relies on an electric drivetrain is called ited number of charge stations, especially in rural areas, and
a full electric vehicle (FEV). Today battery electric vehicles the electric network power shortage in peak hours. Moreover,
(BEVs) that only rely on batteries to drive electric motors the charging time of a typical electric car is still much more
are very popular. An additional source of electricity can be than the refueling time of a conventional vehicle. Further-
obtained from a fuel cell which acts as an onboard unit for more, as electric vehicles utilize numerous battery cells with
electricity generation. A fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) a limited lifetime, the recycling of degraded batteries is an
relays on hydrogen as a fuel with high specific energy to environmental concern. The available resource of Lithium is a
generate electricity and this gives it the advantage of nearly controversial topic and while some researchers have indicated
net zero emission [8]. Fuel cell (FC) technology includes insufficient resources for BEV, others have found this claim
different types and among them, proton exchange membrane questionable. Despite these opposing ideas, approximately
fuel cell (PEMFC) is more promising in terms of applications 74 percent of known lithium resources are located in South
related to the vehicle industry [9]. In general, a chemical America and the market is very vulnerable to geopolitical
reaction results in ionized hydrogen atoms with a positive risks [13]. Finally, the limited range is one of the most critical
electrical charge, and, by providing electrons with a negative obstacles for BEVs.
charge a current will be produced through the circuit. The FCEVs have some advantages over BEVs, for instance, it
produced electricity is used to propel the vehicle or it is stored only takes 3-5 minutes to refuel a FCEV which is signifi-
in an energy storage unit such as a battery or ultracapacitor cantly quicker than BEVs and satisfies customer needs for
or a combination of both [10]. It is possible to consider normal applications [14]. Nevertheless, there are even more
FC as the only source of energy, but it could be applied to challenges compared to the BEVs. Fuel cell low durability
only a limited sort of applications, because changing power is a major consideration since current commercial FCEVs
2 VOLUME 11, 2023

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4
 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3301329

Author et al.: Preparation of Papers for IEEE TRANSACTIONS and JOURNALS

TABLE 1. Characteristics of Different EV Types

Subgroups of EVs Traction Element Energy Source Characteristics

• Complex space packaging due to the need to couple EM and ICE
Battery
Parallel HEV EM and ICE • Smaller energy loss than series HEV
Ultracapacitor
• Relatively cheap drive train

Hybrid Electric • Some complex mechanical parts are replaced since the wheels are
Vehicle (HEV) driven by an EM
Battery
Series HEV EM and ICE • Smaller and more efficient ICE that acts as a generator
Ultracapacitor
• Conversion of energy from electrical to mechanical reduces the
overall system effectiveness
Battery (large) • The longer range on the battery than other HEV
PHEV EM and ICE
Ultracapacitor • The cost of battery replacement is high

Battery • Very complex power train

SP-HEV EM and ICE
Ultracapacitor • Optimized function

• No need for fossil fuel

Battery
BEV EM • High cost
Full Electric Ultracapacitor
• Charging time is considerably long
Vehicle (FEV)
• No need for fossil fuel
Fuel Cell
• High cost of fuel cell
FCEV EM Battery
• Availability of fueling stations
Ultracapacitor
• Better energy management and fuel consumption

offer a fuel cell life span that is considerably lower than

other competing technologies. The high cost of fuel cells and
hydrogen is another barrier to the widespread use of these
vehicles. The majority of hydrogen production relies on the
hydrocarbon reforming process [15]. So, in terms of cost-per-
kW, it is more expensive than the direct use of fossil fuel and
without a renewable source, it is not clean energy. In addition,
hydrogen refueling infrastructure and storage systems are the
bottlenecks for its fast development [16]. Lastly, the slow
dynamics of the fuel cell limit the characterization of the
system.
To tackle these problems a wide variety of solutions are
investigated in the scientific community. One solution would
be a photo-voltaic hybrid electric vehicle (PVHEV) that uses FIGURE 3. Energy loss in the electric vehicle based on city and highway
solar energy to charge batteries. However, PVHEVs are still in driving cycles based on the data provided in [30]–[34].

the developing phase [4] and are inefficient in areas with low
sunlight. Investigating new battery chemistry to maximize
energy density has been an attractive field for many studies these varying numbers, a general idea about energy flow can
[17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22]. In addition, research regarding be illustrated. When a vehicle moves due to friction and air
optimizing the fuel cell stack is an answer to overcome fuel drag, it dissipates energy. Also, when a vehicle is turned on
cell-related shortcomings [23] [24] [25] [26]. Besides, the there is a minor power use for applications like controls, dash
optimization of energy management contributes to facilitating lights, etc. For an EV driving on a highway energy loss in
the implementation of BEVs and FCEVs [27] [28] [29]. an electric drive system is 15 percent, 5 percent less than an
Recovering the dissipated energy in vehicles is an efficient EV in stop-and-go drive cycles. Energy loss in accessories on
approach to decreasing energy consumption in BEVs and the highway is 2 percent compared to 4 percent in the city.
FCEVs. Auxiliary electrical devices are responsible for 0 percent to
To have a better understanding of energy harvesting advan- 2 percent of energy loss on the highway and 0 percent to 6
tages, it is necessary to break down the energy usage in an percent in the city. Finally, 71 to 73 percent of the energy is
EV. To measure energy loss and use in an EV, it is important delivered to wheels on the road. This number is approximately
to consider the vehicle type, because these factors may vary 60 to 66 percent for an EV in stop-and-go scenarios [30] [31]
from one vehicle to another. Furthermore, different driving [32] [33] [34]. Fig.3 illustrates the average dissipated and
patterns can affect energy requirements in an FEV. Despite used energy in an EV based on the drive cycle.
VOLUME 11, 2023 3

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4
 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3301329

Author et al.: Preparation of Papers for IEEE TRANSACTIONS and JOURNALS

Harvesting and recovering energy can be implemented

in various types of transportation, including marine vessels,
UAVs, trains, and vehicular applications. However, the chal-
lenges and opportunities to harvest and recover energy in each
type of transportation vary. In the automotive context, energy
can be obtained through different methods such as regener-
ative braking, regenerative suspension, solar harvesting, RF
energy harvesting, and more. One crucial aspect of energy
harvesting and recovery systems is their compatibility with
established protocols and industry guidelines. These guide-
lines comprise safety standards, durability, reliability, and
ride comfort. In this paper, the possibility and the amount of
available energy to harvest energy marks regenerative braking
as the most promising source, and a comprehensive review of
strategies and challenges regarding regenerative braking will
be presented. Moreover, a short review of other harvesting
potentials will be carried out. In the majority of published re-
view papers, the differences between FCEV and BEV are not
taken into account as they apply different energy management
strategies. In addition, the battery size in FCEV and BEV are
not the same and this makes a huge difference in the ways
they use the harvested energy which will be explained in the
next sections.

A. SEARCH STRATEGY AND ARTICLE SELECTION

To conduct a comprehensive review of energy harvesting and
energy recovery in BEVs and FCEVs, electronic databases
were searched using specific keywords. Articles older than
2010 were excluded (note that some references older than this
date have been used in this article for general explanations).
The selected studies focused on EVs and FCEVs, or their
findings were applicable to these vehicle types. The process
and criteria for selecting references are illustrated in Fig. 4.
Although topics such as heat energy recovery or aerodynamic
design of vehicles were related to the scope of this review pa-
per, they have been excluded due to extensive previous studies
and their similarity to both conventional and alternative fuel
vehicles.

B. CONTRIBUTIONS
Several works have been done on energy harvesting in ve- FIGURE 4. The process of selecting references.

hicles. However, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, no

comprehensive study has been carried out in this regard which
mainly focuses on BEVs and FCEVs. Hybrid vehicles include FCHEVs is another difference between the proposed study
an IC which converts only the friction of fuel energy to useful and similar works. In addition, the impact of human drivers’
work and the rest is lost as heat. There are various approaches behaviour and autonomous navigation on energy harvesting
for recovering heat from IC and it has been already studied is presented. Moreover, the methods of low-power energy
in numerous works. In this paper, we are not covering IC harvesting such as radio frequency energy harvesting or rim-
heat recovery, and readers are referred to existing research. mounted devices are presented. Table 2 compares recent re-
Excluding ICE and thermal energy recovery (TER) helps this lated review papers with this review.
review in two steps. First, it allows us for looking deeper at
the relationship between EVs architecture and energy har- C. THE STRUCTURE OF THE REVIEW
vesting. And second, we can focus on more recent energy Before investigating the potential sources for energy harvest-
recovery methods. For instance, in recent years there is an ing, there will be a review of the energy storage systems
increasing trend toward energy harvesting in autonomous in EVs and the related architectures in BEVs and FCEVs.
EVs. Covering energy harvesting in autonomous BEVs and Covering energy harvesting methods begins with regenera-
4 VOLUME 11, 2023

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4
 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3301329

Author et al.: Preparation of Papers for IEEE TRANSACTIONS and JOURNALS

TABLE 2. Comparison between the presented review and recent related reviews

Driver Considering
Cover Cover Focus Focus Considering Solar Wind Experimental
Review impact on energy
Year regenerative regenerative on on autonomous and and low-power
papers energy storage
braking suspension BEVs FCEVs vehicles harvesting harvesting harvesting
recovery system
[35] 2021 ✔ ✔ ✔ ✘ ✘ ✘ ✔ ✔ ✘ ✘
[36] 2021 ✔ ✔ ✘ ✘ ✔ ✔ ✘ ✘ ✘ ✘
[37] 2018 ✔ ✘ ✘ ✘ ✔ ✔ ✘ ✘ ✘ ✘
[38] 2018 ✔ ✔ ✘ ✘ ✘ ✘ ✘ ✘ ✘ ✘
[39] 2022 ✔ ✔ ✔ ✘ ✘ ✘ ✘ ✘ ✘ ✔
[40] 2021 ✔ ✔ ✘ ✘ ✘ ✘ ✘ ✘ ✘ ✔
The presented
– ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
review paper

tive braking considering different influential factors such as indicate that its usage will be limited in many applications
control strategy and inputs, driver behaviour, and autonomous including FEVs [44].
driving. It follows with a review of energy harvesting in the NIMH : NiMH battery is capable of rapid charge which is
suspension system and specific applications in EVs. In the an interesting feature for EVs. Being maintenance-free and
next section solar, wind, and other harvesting methods are having long life makes it a typical choice for HEVs including
analyzed. Finally, current challenges and gaps are mentioned. PHEVs [45]. However, their storage capacity is lower than
Li-io batteries and they are more expensive compared to lead
II. FEV ARCHITECTURE acid batteries.
The powertrain architecture of FEV may include batteries, Li-io: Li-ion batteries first appeared in 1985 and six years
ultracapacitors, fuel cell stacks, converters, and inverters. The later they were commercially available. These batteries have a
combination of these parts results in different architectures high energy storage capacity and considerable energy density,
and developing a deeper understanding of them helps to also Like NiMH, they are capable of rapid charging. Cur-
realize energy loss in FEV. rently, the ESS market for FEVs is dominated by li-ion tech-
nology [46]. The other important characterization regarding
A. BEV ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEM (ESS) Li-ion batteries is the low self-discharge rate and a wide range
The ESS of a BEV may include a battery, UC, or both and it of operating temperatures.
may contain different types and numbers of DC converters. Lithium-ion Polymer: With its higher energy density, this
battery technology has quickly gained popularity in the
1) BATTERY portable electronic device market and has even surpassed
There are various types of batteries available and widely other types of batteries in terms of usage. However, despite
accepted in the market: Lead-acid batteries, Nickel-Cadmium these benefits, certain factors have prevented its widespread
(NiCd), Nickel-Metal-Hydride (NiMH), Lithium-ion (Li- application in larger-scale implementations, such as in fully
ion), Lithium-ion Polymer, and Sodium Nickel Chloride electric vehicles (FEVs). Safety issues, as well as concerns
(NaNiCl) [41]. surrounding the overall cell life and performance of these
Lead-acid: Lead-acid batteries are the earliest form of batteries, have hindered their adoption in this context [47].
battery technology and are still widely used today due to Nevertheless, efforts are underway to address these issues and
their low cost of production and impressive power-to-weight explore the potential of this technology for broader applica-
ratio. However, when it comes to batteries for use in fully tions.
electric vehicles (FEVs), lead-acid batteries may not be the NaNiCl: These batteries also referred to as Zebra battery
best choice. This is because FEV batteries need to be able has been reported as the best choice regarding energy con-
to operate at a partial-state-of-charge (PSOC) in order to sumption since they have a high energy density [48] but the
efficiently accept rapid charging, something that traditional current problem in terms of operational safety is stopping
lead-acid batteries are not designed to do [42]. As a result, the them from being widely used.
energy harvesting capacity of these batteries can be reduced,
making them less than ideal for use in FEVs. 2) ULTRACAPACITOR
NiCd: This technology has also been around for more than Ultracapacitors (UC) are energy storage units that store en-
a century. Its long-life cycle sounds promising in terms of ergy without any chemical reactions. Therefore, they have a
use in the FEV industry, but it has low energy density. More long-life cycle and higher power density compared to batter-
importantly, it contains a highly toxic element of cadmium ies. This makes UC a good candidate for capturing regener-
[43]. It can cause environmental problems and threats to all ation braking energy in EVs as they are capable of quickly
living organisms, even in very low amounts. These issues capturing and delivering electric energy peaks. However, they
VOLUME 11, 2023 5

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4
 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3301329

Author et al.: Preparation of Papers for IEEE TRANSACTIONS and JOURNALS

suffer from a high discharging rate and low energy density. 1) FUEL CELL
These characteristics affect their effectiveness choice as the The characteristic of FC is ideal for providing constant power
sole component in an ESS. On the other hand, batteries have in applications like forklifts, submarines, and buses which are
a high energy density and a hybrid energy storage system considered slow-speed vehicles [55]. FC has slow dynamics,
(ESS) including the combination of batteries and UCs is very and it is also affected by other factors like temperature and
promising in terms of designing a well-rounded ESS for EVs fuel delivery system performance. Therefore, it cannot satisfy
with greater efficiency [49] [4]. rapid load demands without voltage drop known as the fuel
starvation phenomenon. Consequently, it is necessary to have
3) BEV ARCHITECTURES an auxiliary power source to help with peak power and store
harvested energy [56]. Based on that, FC acts as the main
An ESS only consisting of a battery results in two architec-
source of energy for the vehicle, and another auxiliary source,
tures: the battery is directly connected to the AC inverter, or it
that is capable of delivering and storing extra power is also
is connected to the DC converter, and the converter is linked
used. Batteries and ultracapacitors are the most common ones
to the inverter. In the former architecture, the DC-link voltage
in FCEV and different configurations of these sources have
varies greatly but in the latter one, the bidirectional DC/DC
been studied in the literature.
converter controls the power flow [50]. The combination of
The combination of FC, battery, UC, and DC/DC converter
the battery and UC results in different configurations which
results in six topologies that have been studied in the literature
are: Passive parallel, fully active, and semi-active. The semi-
[57] [55] [29]. Fig.6 depicts these topologies. Direct use of
active configurations are UC/battery and battery/UC, and the
both FC and ESS without a DC/DC converter (T2) is not
fully active configurations are cascade (series), parallel, and
common in vehicles because ESS and FC must operate at the
multiple input converter configurations. Fig.5 shows different
same voltage, this setup is used in aircraft applications [58].
hybrid ESS configurations. The passive parallel configuration
Other topologies are suitable for vehicular applications but
is very simple and since there is no control between two units
the mainstream design for most FCEVs is the combination of
the utilization of UC is not completely effective [51].
fuel cell and battery (T2 and T4 in Fig.6) [59]. Topologies
Regarding the semi-active configurations, in UC/battery including both battery and UC suffer from losses of power
configuration the DC/DC converter is interfaced with UC, and flow and as a result, they are complex in terms of control,
the battery is connected directly to the DC link. In this setup, but it has been reported that they have the highest energy
the battery is protected yet, but the UC operates inefficiently. conversion efficiency among others [60].
In battery/UC configuration the direct connection of UC to
the DC link results in the working of UC as a low pass filter 2) DIRECT AND INDIRECT
and the DC link voltage is allowed to vary [52]. Although mentioned topologies cover all configurations,
In fully active configurations decoupling UC and battery many studies have preferred to categorize the hybridization
leads to more accurate control. In the cascade or series topol- of FCEVs into direct (passive) and indirect (active) classifi-
ogy stabilizing the terminal voltage of the battery pack is sim- cations [61]. The key difference between these two classifica-
pler. In parallel fully active topology, the battery and UC are tions is the use of DC/DC converters for the FC system. In the
connected to the DC bus with separate bidirectional DC/DC direct configuration, FC is connected to the DC bus or battery
converters that grant considerable flexibility. The multiple- with a direct link while in the indirect type, FC (or ESS) firstly
input converter configuration decreased the cost of parallel is connected to the unidirectional DC/DC converter, and then
while maintaining the separate control of the battery and UC it connects to the DC bus alongside the ESS [28].
[53]. DC/DC converters shift the level of voltage in addition
As it was mentioned the control advantage of applying to stabilizing their output with unstable input. In the FC, it
a converter comes with the cost of energy loss, which can increases the voltage level from the fuel stack output to the
happen during spending or harvesting the energy. Considering voltage available at the DC bus. Based on the high voltage
the energy architecture of the EV or FCEV we can employ and low voltage demand, different DC/DC converters are used
strategies that minimize energy loss. For instance, for vehicles in an EV or FCEV and a DC/AC inverter converts the DC
with hybrid energy sources, it is beneficial to limit the number input into three phases of voltage suitable for the EM [62].
of occasions on which the IC or FC charges the ESS and The direct type offers low power loss and lower cost due to
should rely on energy harvesting to do so. removing a DC/DC converter but as it was mentioned the
operation procedure is very limited as discrepancies in the
B. FC AND ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
voltage-current behaviour of FC and ESS may occur [63].
Implementing a high gain converter in the indirect type gives
To highlight the different approaches regarding BEV and control and is the best solution to the problem of low voltage
FCEV, it needs to have a deeper look at FCEV and the and high current of FCs but the trade-off is energy loss at
different architectures studied in the literature as they are in voltage converters [61]. Fig.7 shows the structure of indirect
the early phase of development [54]. hybridization indicating the energy loss in the most common
configuration in FCEVs. The DC/DC converter connected to
6 VOLUME 11, 2023

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4
 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3301329

Author et al.: Preparation of Papers for IEEE TRANSACTIONS and JOURNALS

FIGURE 5. Hybrid ESS configurations in EVs [52].

FIGURE 7. The most common architecture of FCEV and energy loss in

converters.

FIGURE 6. Different architectures of FCEVs [57].

energy is lost by a considerable amount during the process
of braking. The kinetic energy is converted to heat between
the ESS is bidirectional, so in the occasion of capturing the the brake pads and the wheel. In cities with heavy traffic,
braking energy, it can be used to charge the battery during more than half of the energy is dissipated in stop-and-move
cold start or high-power demand it supplies the system. patterns [66]. Recapturing this wasted kinetic energy is the
It is noteworthy to mention plug-in fuel cell electric ve- main idea of regenerative braking. During the regenerative
hicles (PHFCEV or PFCEV) that apply FC and battery hy- braking process, the EM acts as a generator and produces a
bridization. PFCEVs have a battery with a higher capacity negative torque on the wheels. In this way, part of the kinetic
to run on pure battery mode for a longer time and they can energy is converted to electrical energy stored in the ESS [67].
be charged from the electric grid similar to conventional Fig. 8 depicts the process of regenerative braking. The EM is
PHEVs mentioned before [64]. The combination of hydrogen not the only means to conserve energy and a hydraulic pump
fuel cells and BEVs offers many benefits as it facilitates the motor can also be used to store energy in a high-pressure
refueling process but a more complex design is required [65]. accumulator. The flow between a low-pressure accumulator
and a high-pressure accumulator can apply the stored energy
for driving the vehicle in time of demand [68].
III. REGENERATIVE BRAKING
Based on the information provided in Fig.3, the major part The longitudinal vehicle dynamic can be used to present the
of the energy is directed to the wheels to accelerate the amount of regenerative brake power. According to Newton’s
vehicle and drive at a desirable speed. A moving vehicle’s second law of motion:
VOLUME 11, 2023 7

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4
 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3301329

Author et al.: Preparation of Papers for IEEE TRANSACTIONS and JOURNALS

FIGURE 8. Regenerative braking in an EV.

FIGURE 9. Example of EM efficiency map [72].

dv
m = FT (t) − Fres (t) − Fb (t) (1)
dt
In this equation, m = m0 + mr , is the total effective mass,
including the total sum of the vehicle’s mass,m0 , and mr Tw = g0 Tm (5)
which shows the inertia of all rotating parts. FT is the traction
force , and Fb is the applied braking force. Fres represents the 1
ωm ωw = (6)
road loads and it can be shown as [69]: g0
The motor map depends on the type of machine. Fig.8
ρa ACD v(t)2 depicts an example of a motor efficiency map. based on
Fres = mg(sinθ(s(t)) + Crr cosθ(s)) − (2) the reversible application of EM, it can operate as a motor
2
(Tm > 0) or as a generator (Tm < 0). The battery power, Pb ,
In the given equations, various factors contribute to the can be shown as Pb = Vc Ic , where vc and Ic are the charging
overall resistance experienced by the vehicle. These include voltage and charging current of the battery respectively. In
the coefficient of rolling resistance, Crr , the road slope repre- the regenerative mode, the relation between the charging
sented as a function of position s, denoted by θ, the vehicle’s power of the battery and the motor power can be described
front area, represented by A, the drag coefficient, denoted as motor-to-battery regenerative efficiency η, which is shown
as CD , the air density, denoted as ρa , and the vehicle speed, in equation 7 [71].
represented as v(t). Additionally, the cornering resistance can
2
v(t)4
be expressed as Cr mR(s(t)) , where R(s(t)) represents the radius η=
Vc Ic
(7)
of curvature out of the plane of the image, and Cr represents Tm ωm
the cornering coefficient. However, the cornering resistance
A. ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEM FOR REGENERATIVE
is usually considered negligible due to the relatively small
BRAKING
magnitude of Cr , which is typically on the order of 10−5 [69].
The total braking force(Fb ) is comprised of friction braking ESS plays a principal role in regenerative braking. The pos-
force and regenerative braking force as shown in equation 3 sibility of using the recaptured energy depends on ESS and
[70]: it is important to consider its limits to maximize the har-
vested energy. Storing the braking energy in a high-pressure
accumulator in refuse collection vehicles and buses has been
Fb = FFrc + FRgn (3)
investigated [73] [74]. A combination of a hydraulic drive
Several factors affect regenerative braking, including the system and a braking strategy is reported to be effective
vehicle’s mass, speed, road slope, air resistance, rolling resis- regarding energy regeneration [75]. In other types of en-
tance, and the allocation of friction brakes. The electric power ergy storage systems, like the spring energy storage system,
delivered to the EM or generated during regenerative braking, the kinetic energy during the braking process is stored in
Pm , is a function of motor torque (Tm (t)) and rotational speed a compressed spring and the potential energy of the spring
(ωm (t) ) as it is shown in equation 4. It is generally tabulated converts back into kinetic energy when required. Hydraulic
as the EM efficiency map or "motor map" [69]: energy storage systems, spring energy storage systems, and
flywheel energy storage systems that store the kinetic energy
Pm = f (Tm (t), ωm (t)) (4) of a rotating flywheel have been discussed comprehensively
in the literature [39]. Since this paper’s focus is on FEVs, the
There are a variety of configurations for the drivetrain of focus is on batteries and ultracapacitors which have shown
EVs. In a simplified model we can assume that the EM and high efficiency in this type of vehicle [76]. Table 3 presents a
wheels are connected through a transmission with a fixed comparison of various ESS utilized for capturing regenerative
ratio g0 . The rotational speed and torque of the wheels can brake energy. The table provides examples of references that
be calculated as: have applied these ESS.
8 VOLUME 11, 2023

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4
 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3301329

Author et al.: Preparation of Papers for IEEE TRANSACTIONS and JOURNALS

TABLE 3. Various ESS for Regenerative Braking System

Type of ESS References Advantage Disadvantage

• High energy density

Battery [77], [71], [78] • Already available for BEVs • Limited charging current
and FCHEVs • Pollution from battery
• Mature technology

• Some complex mechanical parts are replaced since the

wheels are driven by an EM
UC [79], [80], [81] • Fast response and charging
• Smaller and more efficient ICE that acts as a generator
• High power density
• Conversion of energy from electrical to mechanical re-
duces the overall system effectiveness

Flywheel [82], [83], [84] • High energy density • Heavy weight and needs extra space
• Eco-friendly • Not possible to save energy for long periods

• High power density

High-pressure ac- [73], [74], [85] • Need space, not suitable for passenger vehicles
• High charging and discharg-
cumulator • Heavy weight
ing rate

• Complex mechanism
Spring [86], [87], [88] • No energy loss in conversion • Heavy weight
• Limited energy recovery

As it was mentioned before, batteries are the most common gies, as a solution for FEVs in cold temperatures, have been
form of ESS in FEVs and play a significant role as the regen- reviewed in the literature [92]. In [93], a novel approach has
erative braking generates a high power as it is active. Battery been suggested to harvest braking energy not only to charge
capacity which is shown and measured in ampere-hours (Ah), the battery but also to heat the battery. A control strategy was
voltage level, and battery power vary based on the different applied to activate the self-heating of Li-ion batteries during
types of battery. The other important factor in batteries is braking and rest intervals in driving.
the state of charge (SOC) which is very important in the
For the batteries with smaller capacity, the ability to recap-
process of regenerative braking. For all types of batteries and
ture the energy is limited and this is the case in the FCEVs as
in particular lead-acid batteries, SOC strongly affects charge
the charging current is also limited. Toyota Mirai and Hyundai
acceptance which is a significant factor during regenerative
Nexo are two commercially available FCEVs in the market,
braking [89]. Besides the SOC, the other challenge for regen-
Mirai has a battery capacity of 1.2 kWh and Nexo has a
erative braking regarding batteries is temperature. These two
1.6 kWh battery. These numbers are considerably lower than
factors strongly impact the FEV’s ability to harvest braking
the battery capacity of BEVs, for example, Tesla Model 3
energy.
has a 60 kWh battery pack. Many researchers have assumed
batteries with large capacity in their research, close to BEV’s
Li-ion batteries have a wide range of operational temper-
capacity. In [94], 25 kW was considered to design a fuzzy
atures but in fact, considering charging operations, there is a
logic power management strategy for an FCEV. In [95], an
major obstacle that deeply affects battery function and hence
energy management system (EMS) has been proposed to
energy harvesting. Low temperature causes several issues for
improve fuel economy in an FCEV having a battery with a
Li-ion batteries and regarding energy harvesting capability;
capacity of 38 kWh, furthermore, a 13 kWh battery was part
reduction in the available energy of the battery is the main
of the model specification in [96] where a sub-optimal EMS
problem [90]. This issue limits the energy harvesting poten-
was studied on FCEV.
tial in countries with many sub-zero temperature days, for
example, Canada, Norway, and Russia. The application of It is worth mentioning that the effect of energy harvesting
lithium-ion batteries in cold weather has been reviewed in in the brake system in Li-ion batteries has been investigated
the literature comprehensively [91]. Battery preheating strate- and no detrimental effect on battery life has been reported
VOLUME 11, 2023 9

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4
 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3301329

Author et al.: Preparation of Papers for IEEE TRANSACTIONS and JOURNALS

[97]. In fact, as limiting the depth of discharge extends the

battery life [98], regenerative braking supports longer battery
life. In section 2, the benefits of hybrid ESS were covered. In
[99], a hybrid energy storage system (HESS) of battery and
ultracapacitor with a switching algorithm is used to provide
a simple and highly efficient method for energy regeneration
of brakes. The method is reported to improve efficiency by
about 20 percent. Also, a HESS has been tested alongside a
multi-object optimization problem to extend the battery life
[100]. In [101], the effect of using UC in HESS in FCEVs
has been explored and it was found that the use of UC
increases the performance to recapture more kinetic energy
of FCEV during a braking event. In the mentioned research,
the application of batteries with low capacity in a commercial FIGURE 10. Serial and parallel regenerative braking [104].
FCEV was considered.
From a safety standpoint, proper maintenance and reg-
ulation of ESS (Energy Storage Systems) is crucial. It in- 10 km/h and should be considered as a barrier to energy
volves managing charging capacity, temperature, SOC (State harvesting [106] [107].
of Charge), and state of health. Poor control of these param- From this perspective, energy harvesting efficiency is in-
eters can hinder RBS (Regenerative Braking Systems), harm fluenced by the control strategy employed to decide the allo-
the ESS, and vehicle and passenger safety. Fire accidents in cation of regenerative and friction braking. A reliable control
the formula one vehicle with regenerative braking and electric strategy is needed to guarantee the safety and stability of the
ESS is an example of it [39]. vehicle in braking events and maximize regenerative braking.
In addition, driving comfort is another important factor that
should be considered alongside braking performance and en-
B. REGENERATIVE BRAKING CONTROL STRATEGY
ergy recovery rate [108]. Stability, safety, and energy recovery
Electric vehicles with regenerative braking systems are also can be considered the main goals of a regenerative braking
equipped with conventional friction brakes and based on this system (Fig.11).
configuration there are three states during the braking pro- Different control strategies and controllers have been in-
cess: vestigated in the literature [109] [39] [110] [7] [111]. The
First: EV may only depend on regenerative braking to stop, most common classification is by considering employed con-
and all the braking energy is recaptured. In this case, the trollers and thereby fuzzy logic controllers, sliding mode con-
friction brake is not used. when the demand for deceleration trollers, PID controllers, neural network controllers, model
is not high and immediate, vehicles could operate in this state. predictive controllers, supervisory rule-based control, multi-
Second: EV uses both friction and regenerative braking layer controllers, and other methods are discussed.
simultaneously and each brake has a different share of total
braking force which is called blending. Regarding blending, 1) REGENERATIVE BRAKING IN A CONVENTIONAL HEV AND
there are two classifications, serial, and parallel [102]. In par- BEV
allel regenerative braking, both brakes are applied simultane- Based on The National Highway Traffic Safety Administra-
ously. In serial regenerative braking, brake force is generated tion (NHTSA), autonomous vehicles are defined in levels
by regenerative braking unless the needed brake force exceeds from 0 to 5. In level 0 the human driver has full control of
a particular point [103]. Fig. 10 shows different classifications the vehicle and in level 5 the vehicle is completely indepen-
of braking and their effect on energy harvesting in a vehicle dent for driving which is called full automation. In level 1,
with only friction brakes on the rear wheel and both friction acceleration, braking, and steering are assisted by the system
and regenerative brakes on the front wheel. In the serial, driver is fully in control of the vehicle. Additional features
friction brakes on the rear and front wheels are applied when like highway pilot are the difference between level 1 and level
the required braking force exceeds a specified force. 2. In level three, the vehicle can perform a driving task, but
Third: EV only applies friction brake to stop the car. The the driver should be ready to get engaged. Level 4 is similar
emergency stop is one reason for this braking scenario be- to level 5 but the service area in level 4 is limited [112]. Today
cause of insufficient resistance torque produced by EM. With conventional EVs belong to levels 1 and 2. Level 3 vehicles
fully charged batteries also there is no need for harvesting are emerging and research on upper levels is an interesting
braking energy. In addition, at low speeds, it is a challenging and popular topic for researchers. In this paper, conventional
task for EM to act as a generator, therefore a low-speed electric vehicles refer to levels 1 and 2.
threshold is considered, and at speeds below that, regenerative The basic input for the control strategy of regenerative
braking is inefficient and also harms the total performance braking is signals from the brake pedal. A human driver
of an EV [105]. The low speed in literature is considered creates this signal by the pedal travel and the force he applies
10 VOLUME 11, 2023

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4
 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3301329

Author et al.: Preparation of Papers for IEEE TRANSACTIONS and JOURNALS

FIGURE 12. Different inputs of a regenerative braking control strategy.

Ko et al. [119] introduced cooperative control of regenerative

and friction braking force allocation by considering pedal
stroke, gear step, and vehicle step. Xiao et al. [120] integrated
brake strength, SOC, and motor speed into their fuzzy logic
controller, considering emergency situations with mechanical
braking and EBD in a BEV. Ji et al. [121] developed a regener-
ative braking strategy considering accelerator and brake pedal
inputs, SOC, and vehicle speed, demonstrating an increase
in energy recovery. Wen et al. [122] used an adaptive fuzzy
controller for single-pedal regenerative braking, considering
stroke change and gradient as inputs. These studies highlight
the utilization of fuzzy logic control in early regenerative
braking strategies, incorporating multiple inputs to improve
FIGURE 11. Main goals in the regenerative braking system.
energy recapture in electric vehicles.
In their work, Ruan et al. [108] proposed a cooperative
algorithm that integrated regenerative braking with driving
to the pedal which results in the calculation of the requested assistance features like ABS and EBD. The algorithm con-
brake force and the activating anti-lock system, if applicable. sidered brake signals, regenerative braking limitations, mo-
As it was mentioned before, the SOC of the battery is an tor torque, gear ratio, and battery charge. It included three
important characteristic during regenerative braking. In ad- blending strategy modes prioritizing energy saving, anti-lock
dition, there are many other inputs from different sensors that capability, and safety.
have been applied, for instance, speed, the slope of the road A regenerative braking control strategy was proposed by
in real-time, feedback from hydraulic brakes, etc [110]. The [123] based on nonlinear model predictive control (NMPC)
three most frequent factors for the control strategy are brake to ensure stability and maximum braking energy recovery.
pedal force, speed, and SOC [113]. Fig.12 shows different The stability was ensured by distributing braking force on
inputs that can be considered to design a regenerative braking the front wheels with pneumatic brakes and rear wheels with
control strategy. pneumatic and regenerative brakes. The distribution of brake
In [114], a regenerative braking control strategy based on force between pneumatic and regenerative was also optimized
fuzzy logic control was proposed, considering inputs such as to maximize the recovered energy. A longitudinal model with
required braking force, vehicle speed, and SOC. The output seven degrees of freedom was developed and input variables
was regenerative braking allocation in total braking force, for NMPC were vehicle speed, front wheel rotation speed,
leading to increased vehicle system efficiency. Lv et al. [115] rear wheel rotation speed, desired vehicle speed, and coeffi-
studied a similar control strategy for an HEV with the EM on cient of the ground.
the rear axle, where the fuzzy controller determined the share In [77], a hierarchical braking control was introduced and
of regenerative brake force in the total braking force. Xu et in its lower-level controller, a frequency-depended braking
al. [116] [117] applied the same approach to a four-in-wheel allocator was applied to distribute braking force into regen-
motors EV, considering SOC, brake force, and vehicle speed erative and friction brakes. The brake pedal travel with linear
as inputs. Saradalekshmi et al. [118] utilized SOC, brake preset ratios was the input for the regenerative braking control
force, and vehicle speed as inputs for their fuzzy controller in strategy but a braking supervisor was used to switch to fric-
a BEV, with the output serving as the input for a PI controller. tion brake based on the wheels slip ratio and vehicle speed
VOLUME 11, 2023 11

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4
 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3301329

Author et al.: Preparation of Papers for IEEE TRANSACTIONS and JOURNALS

condition. The state of the charge and other characteristics 2) REGENERATIVE BRAKING IN A CONVENTIONAL FCEV
relating to ESS was not considered in this paper. A three- FCEVs have fundamental differences from BEVs. Having a
level regenerative control strategy was introduced by [124], smaller-size battery and the presence of a fuel cell as the main
taking brake pedal, tire road adhesion, and SOC as input power source need a complex energy management system.
for the highest level. A multi-object optimization method Unlike the BEV’s battery, the smaller battery size of FCEV
was applied to balance the braking performance, regenerative limits the amount of storable energy. The presence of FC is
braking loss efficiency, and battery loss in EVs with a front- also a challenge. FC feeds the traction system mostly and
wheel-drive system. It was reported that optimization objects in the event of braking, the battery might be fully charged.
presented a clear conflict, and they cannot be optimized at the In this case, the vehicle is not able to store regenerated
same time. Another hierarchical regenerative braking control energy. Regenerative brake strategy in an FCEV appeared in
strategy by [72] targeted minimizing the aging of the battery a limited number of works and the majority of researchers
alongside maximizing recovered energy and establishing a have discussed regenerative braking in FCEVs in the context
secure emergency brake in its up-level controller for a PHEV. of energy management systems without further looking into
A predictive model in this layer took desired braking force brake control strategy. For instance, in [130], the energy
which was calculated using pedal opening and a look table management strategy for a FCEV with a hybrid ESS including
as main input and considering SOC, battery temperature and battery and UC was studied. The control system considered
charging limit, and limitation of braking force in the EM. SOC to select the battery or UC for storing energy of the
The control of EM for recovering the energy and pressure brake. The system decides to charge UC if the battery is
controller of the pneumatic brake were presented at the lower charged, But, the braking strategy and blending of friction
level. In [125] a parallel HEV with a two-layer control strat- and regenerative brake were not included. it seems the crucial
egy was studied. The braking force distribution between the link between energy management and regenerative braking
front and rear axle was calculated in the first layer regarding needs more study. Discussing details of energy management
braking strength, the fuzzy controller with three inputs of systems is out of the scope of this article and we keep the
SOC, vehicle speed, and braking strength was presented in the focus on the energy recovery strategies implemented in the
second layer to realize the coordinated control of mechanical regenerative braking system.
braking. The regenerative braking of a FCEV with a permanent
To enhance overall vehicle efficiency, disabling regenera- magnet motor was presented in [131] and a UC was used
tive braking below a low-speed boundary is crucial. Heydari to capture braking energy. A fixed ratio was used to allocate
et al. [126] utilized a dynamic detection of the low-speed the regenerative braking and friction braking with no safety
boundary to shift the EM operating point, improving energy or stability considerations. In [132], a regenerative braking
recapturing capability in EVs. In their subsequent work, they control algorithm was introduced for an FCEV with a brake-
aimed to maximize the recaptured energy through braking by by-wire system and regenerative braking on the front wheels.
considering the traction motor regenerative braking perfor- The input was the brake pedal signal, and the use of friction
mance map [127]. Another study by Xu et al. [71] proposed brakes was planned to accrue only when the deceleration
a novel holistic series regenerative brake control strategy for demand was higher than a preset value. The negative effect
a four-in-wheel motor EV. They optimized the allocation of of low speed on the regenerated energy and driving comfort
brake torque based on factors such as SOC, the normal force was reduced by defining a weight factor. A fuel-cell hybrid
on the tires, EM rotary velocity, and vehicle longitudinal electric bus with rear-wheel-drive was studied in [133]. A
velocity. Simulation results demonstrated enhanced energy coordinated strategy of regenerative braking was applied to
recovery and improved regenerative braking efficiency. These distribute force between regenerative braking force and me-
findings contribute to the advancement of regenerative brak- chanical braking force on the rear and front wheels consid-
ing technology in electric vehicles. ering the brake pedal travel. The fuel economy improvement
Zhu et al. [78] introduced a regenerative braking strategy in was reported using this strategy compared to a bus without
a front-drive BEV that utilized multi-object optimization of a control strategy.
switched reluctance generator drive system. The aim was to Designing regenerative brake control strategies alongside
enhance driving range, battery life, and braking comfort. The an energy management system, and evaluating it as a unified
strategy considered vehicle speed, SOC, and brake pedal in- system, gives the opportunity to have a broad view of hydro-
put to allocate regenerative and mechanical brakes effectively. gen consumption, vehicle safety and stability, and regenera-
A regenerative control strategy for a rear-driven minivan was tion efficiency.
discussed by [128]. A modified control strategy based on
increasing the regenerative braking force on the rear wheels 3) DRIVER BEHAVIOR IMPACT ON REGENERATIVE BRAKING
is introduced in this paper to increase recovered energy as the Driving style affects the energy consumption and vehicle
driver pushes the braking pedal. An optimized regenerative range in electric vehicles [134] [135]. In a conventional EV or
brake control strategy algorithm considering brake signal FCEV, the brake signal from the driver is the most important
strength, SOC, and EM rotary speed was suggested by [129] input for the braking strategy so the driving style also affects
to increase regenerated energy and vehicle stability. recovered energy. A four-year study on EVs showed aggres-
12 VOLUME 11, 2023

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4
 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3301329

Author et al.: Preparation of Papers for IEEE TRANSACTIONS and JOURNALS

sive driving increases specific energy consumption by 165 4) REGENERATIVE BRAKING IN AUTONOMOUS VEHICLES
percent compared to passive driving [136]. The writers did Regenerative braking strategy in vehicles with autonomy
not specify the rule of regenerative braking in this research. In level 3 and above which is referred to as autonomous EVs
another research, it was concluded that an aggressive driving in this paper, will be reviewed in this section. Implemen-
style leads to more energy consumption but it results in a tation of GPS and offline road maps alongside a fusion of
220 percent higher potential for regenerative braking [137]. sensors including radar, lidar, cameras, and ultrasonic sensors
However, it was reported the increase in energy consumption for real-time environment perceptions provide data beyond
is higher than the potential harvested energy. It was neglected what a human driver can achieve. Furthermore, connectivity
that the capacity of ESS for storing the recovered energy in vehicles such as vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) or vehicle-to-
is limited and the total amount of potential energy cannot infrastructure (V2I) that results in connected and automated
be recovered. In [138] the effect of various driving pattern vehicles extend the potential of automated driving [146].
parameters, such as speed and acceleration, on the energy Since in autonomous vehicles, there is control over both
consumption of BEVs was studied. It was concluded that acceleration and deceleration, the output of speed planning
regenerative braking’s ability to recover energy decreases the replaces the driver’s brake pedal signal. The other type of
effects of most parameters. Improving driver behaviour effect using smart regenerative braking is by automating only the
on the energy efficiency of the EV can be studied on three brake in the car-following scenarios which will be covered
levels: reports and feedback, driver-aware control strategies, in this paper. The focus in autonomous vehicle studies has
and educating drivers. been on energy-efficient driving strategies and eco-driving
Providing Reports and online feedback to the driver is strategies to reach the optimal speed and acceleration to de-
regarded as a helpful approach to improving efficiency [139]. crease energy consumption. In [37], it is shown that to travel
The optimal speed trajectory for an EV was studied in [140] between two stop points the most efficient way is to accelerate
and the authors suggested an eco-driving system to provide with maximum power and then coast with no brake to stop.
online assistance for drivers. A similar system to find the However, coasting is not possible or safe in all situations
optimized speed profile and communicate with the driver [36], especially in urban areas. Based on our review many
using an interface was proposed in [141]. In [142], it was researchers have overlooked the capability of regenerative
reported that displaying kinetic energy resources and energy braking to recover energy in intelligent EVs or FCEVs and
flow in HEVs could help the driver. The development of its potential and limits are neglected.
autonomous vehicles puts intelligent systems in charge of Regenerative braking limitations, such as the maximum
decision-making and planning and provides excellent oppor- regenerative braking capability and the inability to harvest
tunities to increase regenerated energy. In [143], it was shown mechanical energy at very low speeds, were discussed in a
that the energy consumption in an EV could drop by one-third study on eco-driving by Mohammadi et al. [147]. A car fol-
as a result of giving driver feedback. They suggested a mobile lowing a control strategy for an intelligent BEV was proposed
application based on the concepts of echo driving to guide by [148] including a regenerative braking strategy to increase
drives. The impact of driving style on energy efficiency has energy efficiency and safety. The proposed adaptive cruise
encouraged automakers such as Toyota to introduce an echo control framework had two levels and the brake intensity
driving indicator in their products. was calculated based on the desired acceleration which was
In addition to guiding the driver, it is also beneficial to the output of a higher level. In the lower-level controller, by
develop driver-aware control strategies. The application of considering the available regenerative power and adhesion
considering driver behaviour in vehicle control was discussed coefficient, a braking strategy was developed.
in [144], where a driver model predicts upcoming power In [149], a car-following scenario was proposed with man-
demands applied to the energy management of series HEV. ual acceleration and a smart regenerative system for BEV.
It seems that examining driver-aware brake control strategies The applied deceleration planning in this research takes the
and energy regeneration requires more attention. accelerator pedal position, brake pedal position, acceleration,
Regarding an educational approach, drivers can be edu- velocity, relative distance, and relative velocity as inputs to
cated about tips and rules to gain higher recovered energy. calculate a reference deceleration. This acceleration com-
For instance, in [145], directions for eco-driving are provided. mand results in the torque output of an acceleration controller
Tips such as “brake gently” with a short description can help and a feedback-and-feedforward controller. In [150], a front-
drivers to adopt driving styles that increase regenerated brake wheel drive BEV with an ultracapacitor as an auxiliary power
energy. But even in highly motivated drivers for echo driving source was the subject of a study for optimal speed planning.
the difference is substantial and an efficient user-energy in- The brake force is distributed between the rear and front
teraction is very helpful to guide the driver. The development wheel and a fuzzy controller with three inputs of SOC of UC,
of autonomous vehicles puts intelligent systems in charge of brake intensity and vehicle speed, generates the regenerative
decision-making and planning and provides excellent oppor- brake force coefficient like a conventional vehicle. Since it
tunities to increase regenerated energy. So, with autonomous is a connected and automated vehicle, signal lights status,
driving, there will be control over driving patterns and energy and timing information from infrastructure are considered
efficiency is likely to increase. constraints for optimization speed trajectory at the signalized
VOLUME 11, 2023 13

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4
 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3301329

Author et al.: Preparation of Papers for IEEE TRANSACTIONS and JOURNALS

intersection. another method to reduce the complexity of co-optimization

In [151], a smart regenerative brake was developed for was introduced and in the speed planning layer, the limits of
autonomous vehicles to take control of deceleration situa- EM to regenerate energy on a sloped road were taken into
tions without the driver’s intervention. After determining the account. Authors in [158] proposed a co-optimization for the
driving state, a reinforcement learning algorithm manages the intelligent FCHEV. The work was continued in [159] by con-
output desired acceleration by considering two deceleration sidering regenerative brake and the urban traffic setting, fol-
planning. The driving data used for this approach were driver lowed by another study [160] with considering dynamic road
acceleration and brake pedal input, vehicle speed and acceler- curve. In [161] and [162] the studies for the co-optimization
ation, preceding vehicle speed, relative distance, EM torque, did not include the effect of regenerative braking on the upper
and EM speed. layer speed planner.
In [152], the limitation of low-speed regenerative braking, Despite the differences between FCEVs and other types
maximum braking force available on the axle with regenera- of EVs, research on autonomous FCHEVs is very lim-
tive braking, and maximum charging current was considered ited. In addition, using perception and online detection ap-
for optimized speed planning for an autonomous and con- proaches while considering regenerative braking applications
nected EV in a signalized roadway with intersections. has emerged in a limited number of studies.
In [153], a speed planning algorithm for the rule of driving
assistance system or part of autonomous vehicle control was C. REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS ON REGENERATIVE
proposed. It was assumed that the intersection traffic data is BRAKING
collected by V2I and an optimized speed planning algorithm, It is important to note commercial application regenerative
based on information was applied to increase energy recovery braking systems must undergo rigorous tests and meet safety
and drive comfort. A genetic-based eco-driving technique and stability standards. These regulations and standards aim
was studied by [154], putting regenerative braking into ac- to ensure the proper functioning, efficiency, and safety of
count. In [70], an optimal deceleration planning system was regenerative braking technology (as a part of the vehicle brak-
presented for connected and automated electrified vehicles ing system), including aspects like energy recovery, braking
facing an upcoming deceleration event. The inputs of de- performance, electromagnetic compatibility, system integra-
celeration planning were initial speed, final speed, residual tion, and adherence to environmental and safety regulations.
distance, and required time. The objective of the optimal While covering all the regulations on braking in a study is
control problem was to maximize regenerative braking energy not feasible, the safety measure could be vital as they may
apprising the regenerative power limit of EM. For the decel- directly affect the regenerated energy.
eration, vehicle dynamics and forces were taken into account. The majority of studies have limited their study to the
When a driver is in charge of controlling a vehicle, accel- energy efficiency aspect of regenerative braking without con-
eration commands are the inputs of the regenerative braking sidering regulations and related standards, while some studies
strategy. The driver can be guided to use pedals more effi- have ensured that the braking strategy complies with regula-
ciently, but it is still a challenge to obtain the best inputs. In the tions. There are several standards available related to braking
autonomous vehicle, there is a chance to look one step back such as FMVSS 135, ECE R13, and ISO 6469. ECE R13, also
and calculate the best acceleration or deceleration commands. known as Regulation No. 13 of the United Nations Economic
Then, the optimized speed would be the input for the braking Commission for Europe (UNECE), is a worldwide accepted
strategy to guarantee the vehicle’s safety and stability. This standard that specifies uniform provisions concerning the
shows the great potential to increase energy efficiency in braking system of motor vehicles. This regulation is acknowl-
autonomous vehicles. edged as a valid braking standard under the 1958 agreement
Connected and automated fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles and is adhered to by all United Nations (UN) members,
(CAFHEVs) represent the next generation of FC-based road including Australia, Austria, Japan, Germany, Italy, Switzer-
transport. Recent studies have focused on co-optimization by land, Norway, the Russian Federation, the United Kingdom
merging speed planning and EMS to enhance the performance (UK), and the United States of America (USA) [120].
of these vehicles. This method involves calculating the opti- Among reviewed references, all the works that considered
mal speed at the upper level and optimizing the EMS based compatibility with a standard considered, have used ECE R13
on the calculated speed. In a study by Jinquan et al [155] a [115] [119] [120] [108] [124] [125] [78] [128] [129] [148].
co-optimization fuel cell bus with regenerative braking was The Chinese GB/T B594-2033 regulation was used by one
studied to reduce hydrogen consumption. The upper level reference [133].
used dynamic programming for the speed planning on the
road with intersections and the lower level used MPC for the IV. ENERGY HARVESTING FROM SUSPENSION SYSTEMS
EMS. The computation time and load in the co-optimization When a vehicle moves on a road there is a chance to harvest
problems is an important factor and in [156] a bi-level convex vertical vibrations caused by uneven roads and convert them
co-optimization method for a CAFHEV was suggested in this into electrical energy. Traditionally shock observers in paral-
regard. Authors reported improved computational time, but lel with suspension springs are applied to decrease vibration
the effect of regenerative brake was not discussed. In [157] by dissipating that energy as heat but a regenerative suspen-
14 VOLUME 11, 2023

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4
 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3301329

Author et al.: Preparation of Papers for IEEE TRANSACTIONS and JOURNALS

sion system (RSS) provides a prospect to harvest vertical

vibrations [163] [164]. Fig.12 shows the general idea of an
RSS. When a vehicle crosses the road, there is linear move-
ment in the suspension system. This movement is used to
produce electricity in a direct or indirect approach. Finally, the
electricity is stored in an ESS. A typical mid-sized passenger
car there is the potential to harvest energy ranging from 100
W to 400 W on a good road with approximately 96 Km/h
[163]. This harvesting approach has been studied by many
researchers before, both on conventional and electric vehicles,
but it was reported to be more effective in HEVs and EVs
[165]. The fuel improvement for a conventional passenger car FIGURE 13. The scheme of RSS.
with regenerative suspension was reported to be between 2 to
3 percent while numbers for the EVs vary between 7 to 10
percent. The suspension system of an EV and a conventional
vehicle could be the same (despite some topologies such as
in-wheel-motor). Still, it should be noted that EVs have a
proper ESS to store any regenerated energy, but when it comes
to conventional vehicles the storage and use of it should be
considered. The harvested energy in a conventional vehicle
should come alongside an auxiliary ESS or the energy must
be directed to feed auxiliary devices. In this paper, we did not
limit the review on RSS to works that have expressed EVs as
the main target of their study.
It should be noted that potential harvestable power in liter-
ature has been reported in a very wide range and these results
may suffer from using a simple quarter-car model, using tire-
road point contact model, and testing on the simulated road
that is too rough in comparison with the real roads [166]. The
dissipated instant power by a passive suspension system can
be calculated according to [167]:
FIGURE 14. Piezoelectric (up) and electromagnetic (down) regeneration

2 [172].
Żs (t) − Z˙u (t) = C Żs (t) − Z˙u (t)


Pi (t) = Fd (8)
The instant power denoted as Pi is determined by the
multiplication of the damping force Fd and the suspension power. On the other hand, ride comfort is affected by suspen-
velocity denoted as Żs (t) − Z˙u (t). C represents the damping sion stiffness [163].
coefficient. The load of the vehicle: In heavier vehicles such as trucks
The equation gives a basic idea of dissipated energy, how- and buses, there is higher vibration intensity.
ever, the regenerated energy depends on the implemented The suspension of a vehicle can be classified as passive,
method. The regenerated energy in the suspension system semi-active, and active. Because of reliability and the simple
depends on four basic factors depending on the vehicle or the structure, most vehicles are equipped with passive suspension
road [168]: [171]. In the passive suspension, the harvested energy will
The condition of the road and its roughness: the oscillation be stored to be used based on vehicle demand. Since semi-
created on a very plane surface does not create considerable active and active suspension uses power to deliver more riding
vibration, hence bumpy roadways are more suitable for the comfort, the harvested energy can be used as a means to
regenerative suspension system (RSS). In [169], an energy reduce their energy demand.
recovery system for a mild HEV including regenerative sus-
pension was studied. A linear motor was used to harvest A. ENERGY HARVESTING IN PASSIVE SUSPENSION
vibration. The harvested energy on the C-class road was SYSTEMS
considerably higher than on A-class roads. There are three approaches to harvesting mechanical energy
Vehicle moving speed: In [170], it was shown that a higher and vibration: a piezoelectric transducer, an electromagnetic
traveling speed of vehicle results in higher harvested energy. transducer, and an electrostatic transducer. The first two
Damping and stiffness of the tire and suspension: The methods have been applied and tested in numerous studies.
power in the vehicles’ suspension depends on tire stiffness, Fig.14 shows the basic scheme of piezoelectric and electro-
the higher stiffness in the wheel results in higher regenerative magnetic regeneration.
VOLUME 11, 2023 15

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4
 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3301329

Author et al.: Preparation of Papers for IEEE TRANSACTIONS and JOURNALS

An autonomous new energy bus was the subject of a study

to regenerate energy from vibration on the road [184]. The
autonomous bus could benefit from 17 W regenerated power
which was enough to feed a LIDAR for 323 days. EVs with in-
wheel motors have larger unsprung mass in their suspension
and this results in more discomfort and safety on uneven
FIGURE 15. Classification of electromagnetic-based harvesting. roads [185]. In [186] writers in the search for a regenera-
tive suspension suitable for the setups of in-wheel electric
vehicles investigated a suspension system embedded with an
electromagnetic-tuned mass damper (TMD). The results of
In general, piezoelectric offers power density, compact the simulation on the 11 DOF model of the vehicle indicated
size, and ease of use, but electromagnetic transducers outper- maximum RMS power of 58 W at 30 m/s and on a D-class
form them in terms of a lower strain, low resonant frequency, road.
and higher displacement. The last factor is very important The design method of the hydro-magneto-electric regen-
since there is a maximum displacement of 10 cm in passenger erative shock absorber was reported in [187] to increase
vehicles. Regarding these differences, electromagnetic-based ride comfort in parallel with harvesting energy. The design
RSS has attracted more studies [168]. included a hydraulic cylinder-tube system, gear system, hy-
The electromagnetic regenerative suspension includes di- draulic motor, and electric generator. The measured power
rect (linear) and indirect (rotary) types. In a direct setup, the output of the prototype was between 7 W to 14 W (with an
shock absorber’s cylinder contains permanent magnets and input frequency of 1 and 1.5 respectively), smaller than the
coils. It produces electricity when a relative linear movement maximum of 18 W in the simulation. A hydraulic integrated
between coils and magnets happens. The basic design suf- interconnected regenerative suspension was studied in [188].
fers from limited damping and limited power density, and It was shown with a half-car model that an off-road vehicle on
studies have suggested the use of parallel hydraulic damper a C-class road at the speed of 72 K/h can harvest the power of
and considering new designs to address these shortcomings 417.40 W. A compact design of an electro-hydraulic system
[173]. The indirect type needs a mechanical or hydraulic was suggested in [189]. The highest regenerative power of 75
mechanism to convert the linear motion to a unidirectional W was obtained in the hard-driving tests compared to 5 W in
rotary motion with desirable velocity and then uses a DC gen- normal-driving tests. Bench test results for another electro-
erator to produce electricity. Mechanical mechanisms such as hydraulic interconnected RSS indicated a potential of harvest
rack and pinion, ball screws, and algebraic screws have been 525 W at the speed of 8 Km/h on a D-class road for an SUV
mentioned in the literature. The indirect type suffers from [190]. To increase the safety of the vehicle an electromagnetic
energy loss due to friction in the complicated mechanism harvester co-existing with a conventional passive shock ab-
[174]. Fig.15 shows the classification of electromagnetic- sorber was introduced [191]. The test results of the prototype
based suspension systems. showed power output ranging from 0.64 W to 1.08 W at the
In [175], a half-scale prototype of a direct actuator gen- frequency of 10 Hz and amplitude of 2 mm.
erated 16-64 W of power. Another study [176] introduced To increase the safety of the vehicle an electromagnetic har-
a direct electromagnetic energy harvester with four config- vester co-existing with a conventional passive shock absorber
urations, achieving 2.8 W at 0.11 m/s. For range-extended was introduced [191]. The test results of the prototype showed
EVs, [177] proposed an indirect mechanical RSS with dual- power output ranging from 0.64 W to 1.08 W at the frequency
overrunning clutches, yielding 44.24 percent efficiency and of 10 Hz and amplitude of 2 mm.
4.302 W power output. [178] presented a non-contact piezo- A piezoelectric energy harvester for an electric truck was
magneto harvester, with regenerative power ranging from 16 designed [193] and the RMS of harvested power was reported
W to 242 W at 120 km/h. In [179], a twin ball screw mech- to be 18.83 W. The maximum of 102.24 W was obtained on
anism achieved 36.4 percent efficiency and 3.701 W output a pulse road drive at the speed of 30 km/h. A mathematical
power at 1 Hz frequency and 3 mm amplitude. To address model for dual mass piezoelectric bar harvest was developed
issues with traditional mechanisms, [180] proposed an alge- by [194], and for specific material and geometry parameters,
braic screw linkage mechanism. [181] studied a double-sided the possibility of harvesting 738 W was announced. Simu-
arm-toothed indirect RSS for semi-trailer trucks, obtaining lation outcome of another piezo harvester in parallel with
power levels of 0.33 W, 1.33 W, 5.24 W, and 21.3 W for road the conventional suspension system calculated 322.4 W of
classes A, B, C, and D respectively. In [182], a linear elec- regenerative power [195].
tromagnetic generator-based RSS provided continuous power
regardless of position or speed, with 39.46 percent efficiency B. ENERGY HARVESTING IN SEMI-ACTIVE AND ACTIVE
at 2.5 Hz and 7 mm amplitude. Additionally, [183] proposed a SUSPENSION SYSTEMS
mechanical electromagnetic harvester using helical gears and Active suspension needs considerable energy to run which is
dual tapered roller clutches, achieving 40 percent efficiency a barrier to widespread use of it [163] and regenerative active
and 270 W power output at 2.5 Hz and 5 mm amplitude. suspension provides the opportunity to act as a partly self-
16 VOLUME 11, 2023

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4
 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3301329

Author et al.: Preparation of Papers for IEEE TRANSACTIONS and JOURNALS

TABLE 4. References that Have Considered the Application of Proposed RSS in an EV

Energy Harvesting Road Regenerated Power

No. References Vehicle type
Technology Disturbance (Total)
1 [185] In-wheel Motor BEV Active Direct Electromagnetic Road Class B 10 W
2 [192] In-wheel Motor BEV Active Indirect Electromagnetic Road Class C 4*(49.2) W
3 [184] Electric Bus Passive Indirect Electromagnetic 2.5 Hz with 7 mm Amplitude 4*(4.25) W
4 [186] In-wheel Motor BEV Passive Direct Electromagnetic Road Class D 58 W
5 [183] Not Specified Passive Indirect Electromagnetic 2.5 HZ with 5 mm Amplitude 270 W
6 [177] PHEV Passive Indirect Electromagnetic 2.5 Hz with 7.5 mm Amplitude 4*(4.302) W
7 [179] PHEV Passive Indirect Electromagnetic 1 Hz with 3 mm Amplitude 4*(3.701) W
8 [178] Not Specified Piezoelectric Energy Harvester Road Class E 242 W

delivered to ESS. In [198], a semi-active regenerative suspen-

sion with an adjustable shock absorber and a linear motor was
introduced. The system contained a UC to store generated
energy and the motor was capable of controlled damping
resulting in 15 percent improved riding comfort. A series of
tests on an electro-hydraulic semi-active damper prototype
for off-road vehicles [199] resulted in an average of 110.6 W
regenerative power.
In [192], a regenerative active suspension applied on an in-
wheel motor-driven BEV was introduced with dual actuators
to increase comfort. Based on the road type used for the test,
the regenerated energy ranged between 4.9 W to 45 W. An
FIGURE 16. 2-DOF quarter model of the regenerative active suspension
system. ESS including an onboard low-voltage battery pack and a UC
was proposed to increase the harvesting efficiency. Another
study of in-wheel EVs was in [185] and an unmanned ground
powered damper that offers better ridding and road handling vehicle (UGV) with active electromagnetic suspension was
[167]. The idea of using regenerative active suspension in proposed. Based on the simulation the system was able of
HEV was investigated [196], and based on the simulation regenerating 10 W on a B-class road at high speed. Table
results the fuel economy will improve with this method. Fig. 4 reports the references that have considered applying the
16 illustrates a basic quarter model of an active suspension suggested RSS in an EV.
system with a regenerative force actuator. The Zs and Zu are Regarding the harvestable output power, it will be the same
the vertical displacements of the sprung mass and un-sprung for any type of vehicle with the same weight and RSS and
mass respectively, and Zr is road excitation.ms represents the from the same class, so it seems not necessary to conduct
varying sprung mass, and mu refers to the un-sprung mass. kt different research for FCEVs. That might be the reason for
is the tire damping coefficient and ct stands for the damping the lack of studies (to the best of our knowledge) on RSS
coefficient of the tire. The actuator force is represented with in FCEVs. The only notable point to consider is the weight
U . The equations of vertical motion can be described as of FCEVs, which tends to be slightly higher compared to
followed [197]: same-class HEVs and BEVs. For example, the Toyota Mirai
is approximately 300 kg heavier than the Tesla Model 3. As
discussed, heavier weight can contribute to a higher amount


ms (t)Z̈s (t) = ks (Zs (t) − Zu (t)) − Cs Żs(t) − Żu (t) + U (t)
(9) of harvested energy. In addition, there was no research includ-
ing a field test of RSS in FCEV in the literature.


mu (t)Z̈u (t) = ks (Zs (t) − Zu (t)) + Cs Żs (t) − Żu (t) − kt

V. OTHER SOURCES FOR ENERGY HARVESTING
(Zu (t) − Zr (t)) − Ct Żu (t) − Żr (t) + U (t) There are other minor opportunities to harvest energy in a
(10) BEV or FCEV, and recovered energy can be stored or used
And the active suspension power, PAS , is calculated as: for running sensors and electrical devices. In this section, we
will review these methods that have not been widely studied.
PAS = U (Żs − Żu ) (11)
Some of the works are not proposed exclusively for EVs and
When the system is working in the power recovery mode are applicable in any type of vehicle, but because an EV
the power is negative and the regenerated energy could be always comes with an ESS, it is simpler to apply these works
VOLUME 11, 2023 17

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4
 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3301329

Author et al.: Preparation of Papers for IEEE TRANSACTIONS and JOURNALS

to an EV. Considering the nature of these methods, which

are independent of the drivetrain and do not exert additional
pressure on the energy storage system (ESS), their application
to FCEVs and EVs is generally similar in most cases.

A. HARVESTING HEAT AND BODY VIBRATION

HEVs have ICs to run alongside an EM and in the IC engine
there is considerable energy loss. Recovering heat energy in
IC engine have been studied and reviewed in many works [53]
[200] [201] [202], and the nature of the current paper is not
circling around HEVs, so this part is not covered in the present
paper. Regarding other heat sources in [203], recovering heat
from brake disks using a thermoelectric generator was pro-
posed, and based on the simulation results, 4 W of harvested
energy is available at a minimum.
Other than regenerating energy in the suspension system
the opportunities to harvest energy from general body vibra-
tion or the energy during steering have been studied in the
literature. In [204], the design of a piezoelectric harvester
to recapture energy from an autonomous vehicle’s vibration
was presented and tested. A hybrid kinetic energy harvester
(KEH) for an autonomous bus was presented in [205]. The
KEH harvests inertial kinetic energy during accelerating and
turning in the vehicle using a small generator and piezoelec-
tric beam in an uneven table and base (Fig.17). The highest
power out of the KEH was 8.31 mW at 8 m/s2 acceleration
and it is capable of powering 54 LED lights.

B. ENERGY HARVESTING FROM WHEELS AND TIRES

In driving a vehicle, the rolling speed of the tire changes,
and the tires are under load. Considering this situation there
is a harvesting potential by implementing triboelectric and
piezoelectric harvesters [206]. The harvested energy from the
tires can be used to power pressure and speed sensors on
the wheel [207] offering no need for battery replacement and
longer durability.
In [208], it was estimated that more than 1 kW of energy
FIGURE 17. KEH energy harvester [204].
wastes as the pneumatic tire in a passenger car deflects and
the authors presented a piezoelectric harvester, capable of
recovering 42 mW. Another piezoelectric harvester was stud-
ied in [209] to act as a power source for strain sensing and cation of stochastic resonance was attached to the wheel.
wireless data transfer. The recovered energy was sufficient to The mechanism included piezoelectric film and a magnet
feed 78 LED lights. A rainbow-shape piezoelectric material shown in Fig.19. Another wheel-attached piezo harvester was
layer for mounting on the internal side of a pneumatic tire proposed in [214] for an intelligent vehicle wheel system with
was proposed in [210] and simulation data indicated 5.85 mW sensors inside such as temperature, pressure, deformation,
harvesting power is achievable. and torque sensors. The design was capable of harvesting
To monitor the pressure of a tire, a triboelectric nanogener- between 0.61 to 6.28 mW at speeds of 40 to 120 km/h. A
ator was proposed in [211]. The harvested power of 22.3 mW weighted pendulum was studied in [215] to recapture energy
was reported at the speed of 100 rpm. A hexagonal-shaped from a rotating wheel with the pick converted power of 0.9-
triboelectric harvester was suggested in [212] to power a 2.6 mW. The authors reported approximately 0.2 to 0.3 mW
wireless tire pressure sensor (Fig.18). It was reported that of harvested energy from the physical model in [216].
applying 500 units of this harvester to a standard tire at the
speed of 100 km/h would result in 1.2 W recovered power. C. WIND ENERGY HARVESTING
In some references, the implementation of energy har- As was shown before, based on the drive cycle between 30
vesters on the wheel (rim-mounted harvesters) has been pre- to 47 percent of the energy directed to the wheels is lost due
sented. In [213], a piezoelectric harvester with the appli- to wind resistance. One solution to this problem is to opti-
18 VOLUME 11, 2023

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4
 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3301329

Author et al.: Preparation of Papers for IEEE TRANSACTIONS and JOURNALS

with the current market trend in the price of photovoltaic

(PV) modules, solar-powered EVs (PVHEV) is getting more
serious attention [221]. However, with the current efficiency
of available PV panels, even at midday with the highest
sunlight profile, the PVHEV with the 8 m2 PV panel can gen-
erate a maximum of 11 horsepower [222]. Hence, considering
EVs with commonly over 100 kW traction EMs, a full solar
electric vehicle is not practical, but Hybrid solar vehicles are
beneficial [223]. The roof of the vehicle as the main space to
apply solar panel needs should be designed with proper geom-
etry and a moving solar roof increase harvested solar power
in most cases [224]. Non-uniformity of solar irradiation and
changes in temperature also affects PV efficiency and are a
challenge for this type of HEV [225].
The contribution of applying solar panels to increase the
travel distance of EVs was discussed in [226] and a significant
FIGURE 18. Energy harvesting from the tire [212]. increase in the driving range on urban roads was reported.
An off-road solar-powered electric vehicle was designed in
[227]. The increase in vehicle range and less carbon footprint
were reported as pros of the design. A battery/PV/wind hybrid
power vehicle with a 19.2 kWh Li-ion battery was proposed
in [228] and authors reported a 19.6 km extended range for a
PHEV. The application of solar harvesting alongside regener-
ative braking in a through-the-road HEV was studied in [229].
Hybrid vehicles have the capability to utilize a combination of
fuel cells, batteries, and solar panels as simultaneous energy
sources. The modeling and simulation of HEV in MATLAB
Simulink with FC, battery, and solar panels were presented in
[230]. A hybrid vehicle with an integrated energy system in-
cluding fuel cells and PV was studied in [231]. The proposed
HEV was compared with an FCHEV without the solar panel
and the use of PV resulted in less fuel cell destruction. In [232]
FIGURE 19. Rim-mounted energy harvester [213].
a Zero-Fuel-Zero-Emission (ZFZE) electric vehicle with FC,
PV panels, and wind turbine was introduced. Based on the
simulation the authors reported a travel distance of 260km in
mize the aerodynamic design of the vehicle, which has been 4.7 hours. However, the study did not include the analysis of
studied comprehensively before and is beyond the frames of optimal energy management.
this paper. In some references, the application of a vehicle- Overall, PVHEVs are in the developing phase with clear
mounted wind turbine (VMWT) has been investigated [217] advantages, and with future development and progress, they
[218] [219], but since the VMWT has weight and increases might gain more market share as the PV panel gets cheaper
the drag force, it reduces vehicle efficiency. So, reporting the and their efficiency is increased. Utilizing advanced look-
power produced by VMWT without considering the drop in ahead techniques are required to tune the energy management
vehicle efficiency is misleading, and it might be the case in and control for maximizing the harvested energy from the
[35]. panels [233]. Solar charging stations are another solution
In [220], a flutter piezo-electromagnetic hybrid harvesting to power electric vehicles with clean energy that shifts the
structure was proposed to recover wind and vibration during harvesting unit from the vehicle to the infrastructure [234].
vehicle movement. Its structure included a piezoelectric beam
with a tip magnet, a rigid airfoil, and an electromagnetic E. RADIO FREQUENCY ENERGY HARVESTING
harvester fixed in front of the airfoil. The experimental result Electromagnetic waves offer diverse opportunities for energy
showed the harvested power of 14.5 mW in the piezo har- harvesting, including visible light, ultraviolet rays, and more.
vester and 31.8 mW in the electromagnetic harvester at the One notable application is the conversion of radio waves
wind speed of 18 m/s. into direct current (DC) power. A prime example of this is
radio frequency identification (RFID) tags, which exemplify
D. SOLAR ENERGY HARVESTING a straightforward utilization of this technology [235]. There
Harvesting solar energy and converting it into electricity for are two approaches to RF energy harvesting. First, it can
different applications has been studied for many years and be obtained from dedicated sources that are intended for
VOLUME 11, 2023 19

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4
 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3301329

Author et al.: Preparation of Papers for IEEE TRANSACTIONS and JOURNALS

this specific application. The roadside charging units can be tions and challenges are presented in the following.
connected to the existing power grid, allowing them to draw
electricity from conventional sources. Alternatively, they can A. REGENERATIVE BRAKING IN AUTONOMOUS ELECTRIC
be integrated with renewable energy systems, such as solar VEHICLES
panels, enabling the use of clean and sustainable energy. Many references have worked on the increased energy recov-
This versatility makes roadside charging units a practical ery as the driver pushes the brake pedal but when it comes
solution for providing electric vehicle charging infrastructure to autonomous vehicles the focus is on optimized speed plan-
in remote and environmentally conscious areas. Exploring the ning without considering regenerative braking. The potential
subject of wireless charging falls outside the scope of this pa- of regenerative braking during autonomous navigation has
per but can be further investigated, particularly within the area been overlooked in most cases by researchers. In addition,
of wireless charging technologies. In the second approach, in real-world situations, the driving process gets interrupted
the focus is on harvesting ambient RF signals for energy by different unpredicted events such as pedestrians or other
harvesting. These signals, which include transmissions from vehicles’ maneuvers, and considering only stop signs and
TV and radio towers, are primarily intended for other appli- traffic lights for regenerative braking is not enough. The infor-
cations. However, they can still serve as valuable sources of mation from LIDAR, cameras, radar, and other sensors can be
energy that can be harvested and utilized for various purposes. utilized not only to conduct safe braking but also to optimize
[236] [237]. The ambient RF energy harvesting is promising, the recovered energy through regenerative braking. Based on
particularly in urban areas characterized by a high density of echo-driving principles, it is better to limit braking situations,
radio waves. but relying only on coasting is not safe and practical. Using
RF energy harvesting has the potential to supply energy look-ahead technologies and long-term road anticipation can
for low-power applications in EVs as well as other forms be employed to improve energy efficiency in an EV in braking
of transportation, such as unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). events.
However, ambient sources have some disadvantages, for in-
stance, low energy density [238]. RF energy harvesting has B. REGENERATIVE BRAKING IN FUEL CELL ELECTRIC
been a subject of investigation in numerous studies, including VEHICLES
research on simultaneous wireless information and power Based on our current knowledge, there is a limited number of
transfer (SWIPT) [239] [240] [241]. However, its specific studies available on regenerative braking in fuel cell electric
application for electric and autonomous vehicles has not been vehicles (FCEVs), particularly in the context of autonomous
extensively studied and comprehensively explored. FCEVs. One area of focus that scholars have been explor-
ing is co-optimization. Table 6 provides a compilation of
VI. FUTURE TRENDS AND RESEARCH GAPS recent studies conducted on this topic and Highlights co-
Research on energy harvesting and recovery methods presents optimization in CAFHEVs as the emerging trend. However,
a valuable opportunity for automakers to improve the energy mentioned studies in Table 6 do not investigate the potential
efficiency of vehicles available on the market. By explor- of switching between battery and FC before braking in terms
ing and implementing these innovative methods, automakers of increasing recovered energy. By taking into account the
have the potential to revolutionize the way vehicles utilize fundamental differences between BEVs and FCEVs, The
and conserve energy. In fact, several energy harvesting and battery in the FCEV has a lower capacity compared to BEV.
recovery methods have already found their way into vehicles Regenerated energy from braking, must be stored in ESS and
that are currently available in the market. These methods the smaller battery limits its capacity. Because recovering
are highlighted in Table 5, which provides a comparative the energy while it cannot be stored in ESS is pointless.
analysis of different vehicle models and their energy recov- Therefore, further research on co-optimization in CAFHEVs
ery capabilities. One notable example of such technology is to maximize regenerative braking and improve efficiency
regenerative braking, which has been successfully integrated presents an interesting area of study. The presence of The
into EVs for a long time. While regenerative braking has FC is an important factor. Using look-ahead data can be
become a standard feature in many EVs, it is important to note used to optimize hydrogen usage as the vehicle can rely on
that information regarding the maximum regenerative braking upcoming braking events. In Autonomous FCEV, with the
capacity is not always readily available for every product on data of upcoming braking events, the FC can be switched off
the market. As mentioned earlier, it is important to consider to save fuel. With running on the battery pack, the vehicle
that energy recovery is influenced by a multitude of factors. can harvest more energy. Since the battery pack will be
Consequently, the energy numbers presented in Table 5 may charged at a predicted point, the vehicle is able to switch
vary across different situations and conditions. from hydrogen to battery. In the next steps, the impact of
In the previous sections, this paper reviewed energy loss this approach alongside other factors such as FC health could
in a vehicle, the architecture of FEVs, energy harvesting be investigated. The low temperature in winter affects the
potentials in BEVs and FCEVs from different sources, and capacity of some battery types and this is more important in
various opportunities to recover energy in conventional or FCEV with smaller batteries. considering winter conditions in
autonomous vehicles. Based on this analysis multiple sugges- regenerative braking strategies can improve efficiency. Brake
20 VOLUME 11, 2023

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4
 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3301329

Author et al.: Preparation of Papers for IEEE TRANSACTIONS and JOURNALS

TABLE 5. Examples of energy recovery and harvesting in commercial EVs

Method Vehicle Type Brand and Model Recovered or Harvested Energy or Its Equivalent Reference

HEV Hyundai Sonata The annual range can be increased up to 1300 km [242]
Hybrid

Solar Harvesting BEV Aptera 700 W of continuous charging power [243]

HEV Karma GS-6 200 W of power from roof panel [244]

BEV Audi e-tron a maximum of 220 kW at a speed of 100 km/h [245]

BEV Porsche Taycan up to 275 kW [246]

BEV Tesla (3, Y, S) N/A [247]

Regenerative Braking
HEV Toyota Prius N/A [248]

BEV Volkswagen up to 100 kW [249]

Id.Buzz pro

BEV KIA EV6 GT Peaks at over 300 kW recuperation [250]

VII. CONCLUSION

Harvesting and recovering energy is an effective approach

to extending the range, decreasing fuel consumption, and
facilitating the market expansion of BEVs and FCEVs. Dif-
ferent parameters from vehicles and also the environment
can affect these harvesting and recovering methods which are
presented in Table 7. In the presented review, the energy loss
FIGURE 20. Multi-source energy harvesting. in EVs was investigated and various architectures of BEVs
and FCEVs were explored. Energy harvesting technologies
and their suitability for various topologies and architectures
strategies for the winter conditions, and using extra harvested have been analyzed. ESS can affect the harvesting capability
energy to heat the battery pack can be investigated in future and the combinations of various storage units were studied.
studies. Regenerative braking harvests significantly more energy than
any other harvesting approach and a comprehensive review
C. FUSION OF ENERGY HARVESTING APPROACHES of its energy harvesting potentials in EVs was conducted.
There are a considerable number of works on RSS, but the This harvested energy is heavily dependent on the employed
number of studies with long-term field test results is limited. strategy. In addition, the effect of driving patterns on the re-
The harvesting potential of RSS is lower than regenerative generative brake was studied and the difference between BEV
braking. Other methods which were discussed in this paper and FCEV was highlighted. With the upcoming autonomous
also have a limited capacity to harvest or recover energy. vehicles which are mostly electric, the opportunity to recover
However, in smart vehicles with varieties of sensors and energy in this new generation of transportation was discussed.
onboard electronics, every opportunity to increase efficiency Research on the energy recovery from the suspension system
should be considered. In this case, applying and operating was covered. Energy harvesting in the suspension system
different harvesting approaches in the vehicle at the same is more favorable in heavy vehicles and uneven roads and
time could be the right spot to conduct more research (Fig. the price and maintenance cost compared to recovered en-
20). Further research is needed to explore the simultaneous ergy are obstacles to their widespread application. Currently,
application of multiple energy recovery methods in electric researchers are more interested in the application of solar
vehicles. While certain methods, such as solar energy harvest- harvesting in charging stations but with the increase in solar
ing and regenerative braking, have been commercially imple- panels’ efficiency, its application in FEVs would be more
mented [243], the effectiveness and feasibility of combining attractive. We also covered methods to harvest energy from
these techniques with others require in-depth investigation. tires, wheels, and other experimental approaches. Finally, the
Specific investigations into the co-existence of different en- gaps in current works and future trends were analyzed. Using
ergy recovery methods would greatly contribute to maximiz- look-ahead technologies and long-term road anticipation in
ing energy efficiency and optimizing the overall performance BEVs and FCEVs to optimize regenerative braking and fu-
of electric vehicles. sion of multiple harvesting methods was suggested for future
VOLUME 11, 2023 21

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4
 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3301329

Author et al.: Preparation of Papers for IEEE TRANSACTIONS and JOURNALS

TABLE 6. Recent publications on Co-optimization in FCEVs

Reference Publishing year Methods used in co-optimization Driving scenario Test

[155] 2021 DP + MPC Two intersections, with and Hardware in the

without other vehicles loop
(VTSsystem)

[156] 2022 MOSEK solver + ADMM Signalized intersections MATLAB

algorithm

[158] 2022 Gradient-based MPC + MPC Sloped road with other vehicles MATLAB

[161] 2022 MPC Simulated traffic situation VISSIM

[162] 2022 Constraint stochastic MPC Simulated traffic situation VISSIM

[159] 2022 Gradient-based MPC + MPC Sloped road with a traffic light and MATLAB
speed limit

[157] 2022 DP + PNP Sloped road MATLAB

[160] 2023 Gradient-based MPC + Road with dynamic curve MATLAB

PRA-ECMS

TABLE 7. Effects of vehicle and environment parameters on main Energy harvesting and energy recovery methods.

Method Vehicles Factors Environment

• Higher speeds and weight result in higher har-

vestable energy
• Urban traffic is more suitable
Regenerative Brake • EM capacity to regenerate electricity bounds
• Aggressive driving results in more regenerated
the regenerated power
energy
• The ESS type greatly impacts storing the recov-
ered energy.

• Higher traveling speed of the vehicle results in

Regenerative Suspension higher harvested energy • Bumpy roadways are more suitable for the re-
• In heavier vehicles such as trucks regenerative generative suspension systems
suspension energy is higher

• With a more overall dimen-

Solar Harvesting sion of the vehicle and subse-
• Depends on the available sunlight
quently solar panels, energy
harvesting increases.

• Speed and direction of the • Ambient FR harvesting is more suitable for urban areas
RF Harvesting vehicle can effect signal • In rural areas, the distance from dedicated sources is
strength important

• Based on the design, it can be

Rim and Tire Energy Har- affected by, speed, change of • Road roughness can affect the system.
vesting speed, and wheel weight

works. This review can provide a guideline for researchers ACKNOWLEDGMENT

working on vehicles with clean energy. This research was funded by the Natural Science and En-
gineering Research Council of Canada and the Canada Re-
22 VOLUME 11, 2023

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4
 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3301329

Author et al.: Preparation of Papers for IEEE TRANSACTIONS and JOURNALS

search Chair Program. [21] Dongho Koo, Seongmin Ha, Dong-Min Kim, and Kyu Tae Lee. Recent
approaches to improving lithium metal electrodes. Current Opinion in
Electrochemistry, 6(1):70–76, 2017.
REFERENCES [22] Xabier Judez, Gebrekidan Gebresilassie Eshetu, Chunmei Li, Lide M
Rodriguez-Martinez, Heng Zhang, and Michel Armand. Opportunities
[1] Jing Gu, Minggao Ouyang, D Lu, J Li, and L Lu. Energy efficiency
for rechargeable solid-state batteries based on li-intercalation cathodes.
optimization of electric vehicle driven by in-wheel motors. International
Joule, 2(11):2208–2224, 2018.
Journal of Automotive Technology, 14:763–772, 2013.
[23] Rohit KSS Vuppala, Benitta A Chaedir, Lishuai Jiang, Lianjun Chen,
[2] Fuad Un-Noor, Sanjeevikumar Padmanaban, Lucian Mihet-Popa, Mo-
Muhammad Aziz, and Agus P Sasmito. Optimization of membrane elec-
hammad Nurunnabi Mollah, and Eklas Hossain. A comprehensive study
trode assembly of pem fuel cell by response surface method. Molecules,
of key electric vehicle (ev) components, technologies, challenges, im-
24(17), 2019.
pacts, and future direction of development. Energies, 10(8):1217, 2017.
[24] Jing Zhao, Zipeng Huang, Bangxing Jian, Xingying Bai, and Qifei Jian.
[3] Jia Ying Yong, Vigna K Ramachandaramurthy, Kang Miao Tan, and
Thermal performance enhancement of air-cooled proton exchange mem-
Nadarajah Mithulananthan. A review on the state-of-the-art technologies
brane fuel cells by vapor chambers. Energy Conversion and Management,
of electric vehicle, its impacts and prospects. Renewable and sustainable
213:112830, 2020.
energy reviews, 49:365–385, 2015.
[25] Artur J Majewski and Aman Dhir. Application of silver in microtubular
[4] Krishna Veer Singh, Hari Om Bansal, and Dheerendra Singh. A compre-
solid oxide fuel cells. Materials for Renewable and Sustainable Energy,
hensive review on hybrid electric vehicles: architectures and components.
7:1–13, 2018.
Journal of Modern Transportation, 27:77–107, 2019.
[26] George J Besseris. Using qualimetric engineering and extremal analysis
[5] Dai-Duong Tran, Majid Vafaeipour, Mohamed El Baghdadi, Ricardo
to optimize a proton exchange membrane fuel cell stack. Applied energy,
Barrero, Joeri Van Mierlo, and Omar Hegazy. Thorough state-of-the-
128:15–26, 2014.
art analysis of electric and hybrid vehicle powertrains: Topologies and
[27] Michael A Roscher, Wolfgang Leidholdt, and Jens Trepte. High efficiency
integrated energy management strategies. Renewable and Sustainable
energy management in bev applications. International Journal of Electri-
Energy Reviews, 119:109596, 2020.
cal Power & Energy Systems, 37(1):126–130, 2012.
[6] Rohan Somwanshi and lucy tang. China’s explosive ev growth to stay on
[28] Teng Teng, Xin Zhang, Han Dong, and Qicheng Xue. A comprehensive
track. SP Global Commodity Insights, 2022.
review of energy management optimization strategies for fuel cell passen-
[7] V Krithika and C Subramani. A comprehensive review on choice of ger vehicle. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 45(39):20293–
hybrid vehicles and power converters, control strategies for hybrid electric 20303, 2020.
vehicles. International journal of energy research, 42(5):1789–1812,
[29] Edwin Tazelaar, Bram Veenhuizen, José Jagerman, and Ton Faassen.
2018.
Energy management strategies for fuel cell hybrid vehicles; an overview.
[8] V Krithika and C Subramani. A comprehensive review on choice of In 2013 World Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (EVS27), pages
hybrid vehicles and power converters, control strategies for hybrid electric 1–12. IEEE, 2013.
vehicles. International journal of energy research, 42(5):1789–1812, [30] Henning Lohse-Busch, Michael Duoba, Eric Rask, Kevin Stutenberg,
2018. Vivek Gowri, Lee Slezak, and David Anderson. Ambient temperature
[9] Daniel C Rosenfeld, Johannes Lindorfer, and Karin Fazeni-Fraisl. Com- (20 f, 72 f and 95 f) impact on fuel and energy consumption for several
parison of advanced fuels—which technology can win from the life cycle conventional vehicles, hybrid and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles and
perspective? Journal of Cleaner Production, 238:117879, 2019. battery electric vehicle. Technical report, SAE Technical Paper, 2013.
[10] M Kandidayeni, JP Trovão, M Soleymani, and L Boulon. Towards health- [31] John Thomas. Drive cycle powertrain efficiencies and trends derived from
aware energy management strategies in fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles: epa vehicle dynamometer results. SAE International Journal of Passenger
A review. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2022. Cars. Mechanical Systems (Online), 7(4), 2014.
[11] Yang Luo, Yinghong Wu, Bo Li, Tiande Mo, Yu Li, Shien-Ping Feng, [32] Richard Barney Carlson, Jeffrey Wishart, and Kevin Stutenberg. On-road
Jingkui Qu, and Paul K Chu. Development and application of fuel cells and dynamometer evaluation of vehicle auxiliary loads. SAE International
in the automobile industry. Journal of Energy Storage, 42:103124, 2021. Journal of Fuels and Lubricants, 9(1):260–268, 2016.
[12] Zhen Song, Yue Pan, Huicui Chen, and Tong Zhang. Effects of temper- [33] Kevin Rhodes, Daniel Kok, Pallav Sohoni, Evan Perry, Marvin Kraska,
ature on the performance of fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles: A review. and Michael Wallace. Estimation of the effects of auxiliary electrical
Applied Energy, 302:117572, 2021. loads on hybrid electric vehicle fuel economy. Technical report, SAE
[13] Amin Mahmoudzadeh Andwari, Apostolos Pesiridis, Srithar Rajoo, Ri- Technical Paper, 2017.
cardo Martinez-Botas, and Vahid Esfahanian. A review of battery electric [34] Gregory Pannone, Brian Betz, Michael Reale, and John Thomas. Decom-
vehicle technology and readiness levels. Renewable and Sustainable posing fuel economy and greenhouse gas regulatory standards in the en-
Energy Reviews, 78:414–430, 2017. ergy conversion efficiency and tractive energy domain. SAE International
[14] CE Thomas. Fuel cell and battery electric vehicles compared. interna- Journal of Fuels and Lubricants, 10(1):202–216, 2017.
tional journal of hydrogen energy, 34(15):6005–6020, 2009. [35] Shengxi Bai and Chunhua Liu. Overview of energy harvesting and
[15] Craig A Grimes, Oomman K Varghese, and Sudhir Ranjan. Light, water, emission reduction technologies in hybrid electric vehicles. Renewable
hydrogen: the solar generation of hydrogen by water photoelectrolysis, and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 147:111188, 2021.
volume 546. Springer, 2008. [36] Jenny Jerrelind, Paul Allen, Patrick Gruber, Mats Berg, and Lars Drugge.
[16] Omar Z Sharaf and Mehmet F Orhan. An overview of fuel cell technol- Contributions of vehicle dynamics to the energy efficient operation of
ogy: Fundamentals and applications. Renewable and sustainable energy road and rail vehicles. Vehicle System Dynamics, 59(7):1114–1147, 2021.
reviews, 32:810–853, 2014. [37] Ardalan Vahidi and Antonio Sciarretta. Energy saving potentials of
[17] Jang-Soo Lee, Sun Tai Kim, Ruiguo Cao, Nam-Soon Choi, Meilin Liu, connected and automated vehicles. Transportation Research Part C:
Kyu Tae Lee, and Jaephil Cho. Metal–air batteries with high energy Emerging Technologies, 95:822–843, 2018.
density: Li–air versus zn–air. Advanced Energy Materials, 1(1):34–50, [38] Umut Aksu and Recep Halicioglu. A review study on energy harvesting
2011. systems for vehicles. Tehnički glasnik, 12(4):251–259, 2018.
[18] Gebrekidan Gebresilassie Eshetu, Heng Zhang, Xabier Judez, Henry [39] Ahmed T Hamada and Mehmet F Orhan. An overview of regenerative
Adenusi, Michel Armand, Stefano Passerini, and Egbert Figgemeier. braking systems. Journal of Energy Storage, 52:105033, 2022.
Production of high-energy li-ion batteries comprising silicon-containing [40] Hongye Pan, Lingfei Qi, Zutao Zhang, and Jinyue Yan. Kinetic energy
anodes and insertion-type cathodes. Nature communications, 12(1):5459, harvesting technologies for applications in land transportation: A com-
2021. prehensive review. Applied Energy, 286:116518, 2021.
[19] Matthew Li, Chunsheng Wang, Zhongwei Chen, Kang Xu, and Jun Lu. [41] Sergio Manzetti and Florin Mariasiu. Electric vehicle battery technolo-
New concepts in electrolytes. Chemical reviews, 120(14):6783–6819, gies: From present state to future systems. Renewable and Sustainable
2020. Energy Reviews, 51:1004–1012, 2015.
[20] Jiashen Meng, Haichang Guo, Chaojiang Niu, Yunlong Zhao, Lin Xu, [42] Eckhard Karden, Serve Ploumen, Birger Fricke, Ted Miller, and Kent
Qi Li, and Liqiang Mai. Advances in structure and property optimizations Snyder. Energy storage devices for future hybrid electric vehicles. Journal
of battery electrode materials. Joule, 1(3):522–547, 2017. of Power Sources, 168(1):2–11, 2007.

VOLUME 11, 2023 23

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4
 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3301329

Author et al.: Preparation of Papers for IEEE TRANSACTIONS and JOURNALS

[43] Xiayue Fan, Bin Liu, Jie Liu, Jia Ding, Xiaopeng Han, Yida Deng, [63] Akira Nishizawa, Josef Kallo, Olivier Garrot, and Jörg Weiss-Ungethüm.
Xiaojun Lv, Ying Xie, Bing Chen, Wenbin Hu, et al. Battery technologies Fuel cell and li-ion battery direct hybridization system for aircraft appli-
for grid-level large-scale electrical energy storage. Transactions of Tianjin cations. Journal of Power Sources, 222:294–300, 2013.
University, 26:92–103, 2020. [64] Blake Lane, Brendan Shaffer, and G Scott Samuelsen. Plug-in fuel
[44] Malik Tahir Hayat, Muhammad Nauman, Nida Nazir, Shafaqat Ali, and cell electric vehicles: A california case study. International Journal of
Nazneen Bangash. Environmental hazards of cadmium: past, present, Hydrogen Energy, 42(20):14294–14300, 2017.
and future. In Cadmium toxicity and tolerance in plants, pages 163–183. [65] Shawn Salisbury, Benjamin Geller, Thomas Bradley, and Matthew Fox.
Elsevier, 2019. Detailed design of a fuel cell plug-in hybrid electric vehicle. Technical
[45] Andreas Poullikkas. Sustainable options for electric vehicle technologies. report, SAE Technical Paper, 2013.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 41:1277–1287, 2015. [66] Yimin Gao, Liping Chen, and Mehrdad Ehsani. Investigation of the
[46] Yu Miao, Patrick Hynan, Annette Von Jouanne, and Alexandre Yokochi. effectiveness of regenerative braking for ev and hev. SAE transactions,
Current li-ion battery technologies in electric vehicles and opportunities pages 3184–3190, 1999.
for advancements. Energies, 12(6):1074, 2019. [67] Dong Peng, Yong Zhang, C L Yin, and J W Zhang. Combined control
[47] Salvio Chacko and Yongmann M Chung. Thermal modelling of li- of a regenerative braking and antilock braking system for hybrid electric
ion polymer battery for electric vehicle drive cycles. Journal of Power vehicles. International Journal of Automotive Technology, 9:749–757,
Sources, 213:296–303, 2012. 2008.
[48] Calin Iclodean, Bogdan Varga, Nicolae Burnete, Denisa Cimerdean, and
[68] Qinghai Zhao, Hongxin Zhang, and Yafei Xin. Research on control strat-
B Jurchiş. Comparison of different battery types for electric vehicles. In
egy of hydraulic regenerative braking of electrohydraulic hybrid electric
IOP conference series: materials science and engineering, volume 252,
vehicles. Mathematical Problems in Engineering, 2021:1–9, 2021.
page 012058. IOP Publishing, 2017.
[69] Antonio Sciarretta, Ardalan Vahidi, et al. Energy-efficient driving of road
[49] Alireza Khaligh and Zhihao Li. Battery, ultracapacitor, fuel cell, and
vehicles. Springer, 2020.
hybrid energy storage systems for electric, hybrid electric, fuel cell, and
plug-in hybrid electric vehicles: State of the art. IEEE transactions on [70] Dohee Kim, Jeong Soo Eo, and Kwang-Ki K Kim. Parameterized energy-
Vehicular Technology, 59(6):2806–2814, 2010. optimal regenerative braking strategy for connected and autonomous
[50] Hiba Al-Sheikh, Ouadie Bennouna, Ghaleb Hoblos, and Nazih electrified vehicles: A real-time dynamic programming approach. IEEE
Moubayed. Power electronics interface configurations for hybrid Access, 9:103167–103183, 2021.
energy storage in hybrid electric vehicles. In MELECON 2014-2014 [71] Wei Xu, Hong Chen, Haiyan Zhao, and Bingtao Ren. Torque optimization
17th IEEE Mediterranean Electrotechnical Conference, pages 122–126. control for electric vehicles with four in-wheel motors equipped with
IEEE, 2014. regenerative braking system. Mechatronics, 57:95–108, 2019.
[51] Lia Kouchachvili, Wahiba Yaïci, and Evgueniy Entchev. Hybrid bat- [72] Jian Wu, Xiangyu Wang, Liang Li, Yongchang Du, et al. Hierarchical
tery/supercapacitor energy storage system for the electric vehicles. Jour- control strategy with battery aging consideration for hybrid electric vehi-
nal of Power Sources, 374:237–248, 2018. cle regenerative braking control. Energy, 145:301–312, 2018.
[52] Jian Cao and Ali Emadi. A new battery/ultracapacitor hybrid energy [73] Frank A Bender, Thomas Bosse, and Oliver Sawodny. An investigation on
storage system for electric, hybrid, and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. the fuel savings potential of hybrid hydraulic refuse collection vehicles.
IEEE Transactions on power electronics, 27(1):122–132, 2011. Waste Management, 34(9):1577–1583, 2014.
[53] Rui Xiong, Huan Chen, Chun Wang, and Fengchun Sun. Towards a [74] Y Yan, G Liu, and J Chen. Integrated modeling and optimization of
smarter hybrid energy storage system based on battery and ultracapacitor - a parallel hydraulic hybrid bus. International Journal of Automotive
a critical review on topology and energy management. Journal of Cleaner Technology, 11(1):97, 2010.
Production, 202:1228–1240, 2018. [75] Shilei Zhou, Paul Walker, and Nong Zhang. Parametric design and regen-
[54] Hongtao Zhang, Xianguo Li, Xinzhi Liu, and Jinyue Yan. Enhancing erative braking control of a parallel hydraulic hybrid vehicle. Mechanism
fuel cell durability for fuel cell plug-in hybrid electric vehicles through and Machine Theory, 146:103714, 2020.
strategic power management. Applied Energy, 241:483–490, 2019. [76] Julius Partridge and Dina Ibrahim Abouelamaimen. The role of superca-
[55] Himadry Shekhar Das, Chee Wei Tan, and AHM Yatim. Fuel cell hybrid pacitors in regenerative braking systems. Energies, 12(14):2683, 2019.
electric vehicles: A review on power conditioning units and topologies. [77] Wei Li, Xiaoyuan Zhu, and Ji Ju. Hierarchical braking torque control of
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 76:268–291, 2017. in-wheel-motor-driven electric vehicles over can. IEEE Access, 6:65189–
[56] Phatiphat Thounthong, Viboon Chunkag, Panarit Sethakul, Bernard Da- 65198, 2018.
vat, and Melika Hinaje. Comparative study of fuel-cell vehicle hybridiza- [78] Yueying Zhu, Hao Wu, and Junxia Zhang. Regenerative braking control
tion with battery or supercapacitor storage device. IEEE transactions on strategy for electric vehicles based on optimization of switched reluctance
vehicular technology, 58(8):3892–3904, 2009. generator drive system. IEEE Access, 8:76671–76682, 2020.
[57] Qian Xun, Yujing Liu, and Elna Holmberg. A comparative study of
[79] Micah Ortúzar, Jorge Moreno, and Juan Dixon. Ultracapacitor-based
fuel cell electric vehicles hybridization with battery or supercapacitor. In
auxiliary energy system for an electric vehicle: Implementation and eval-
2018 International Symposium on Power Electronics, Electrical Drives,
uation. IEEE Transactions on industrial electronics, 54(4):2147–2156,
Automation and Motion (SPEEDAM), pages 389–394. IEEE, 2018.
2007.
[58] Ioan-Sorin Sorlei, Nicu Bizon, Phatiphat Thounthong, Mihai Varlam,
[80] Kiyotaka Kawashima, Toshiyuki Uchida, and Yoichi Hori. Development
Elena Carcadea, Mihai Culcer, Mariana Iliescu, and Mircea Raceanu. Fuel
of a novel ultracapacitor electric vehicle and methods to cope with voltage
cell electric vehicles—a brief review of current topologies and energy
variation. In 2009 IEEE Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference, pages
management strategies. Energies, 14(1), 2021.
724–729. IEEE, 2009.
[59] Wei Zhou, Lin Yang, Yishan Cai, and Tianxing Ying. Dynamic program-
ming for new energy vehicles based on their work modes part i: Electric [81] Zahra Amjadi and Sheldon S Williamson. Prototype design and controller
vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles. Journal of power sources, 406:151– implementation for a battery-ultracapacitor hybrid electric vehicle energy
166, 2018. storage system. IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid, 3(1):332–340, 2011.
[60] Bulent Vural, Serkan Dusmez, Mehmet Uzunoglu, Enes Ugur, and Bilal [82] Koray Erhan and Engin Özdemir. Prototype production and comparative
Akin. Fuel consumption comparison of different battery/ultracapacitor analysis of high-speed flywheel energy storage systems during regenera-
hybridization topologies for fuel-cell vehicles on a test bench. IEEE tive braking in hybrid and electric vehicles. Journal of Energy Storage,
Journal of Emerging and Selected Topics in Power Electronics, 2(3):552– 43:103237, 2021.
561, 2014. [83] Wei Wang, Yan Li, Man Shi, and Yuling Song. Optimization and control
[61] Remzi Can Samsun, Carsten Krupp, Sidney Baltzer, Bruno Gnörich, Ralf of battery-flywheel compound energy storage system during an electric
Peters, and Detlef Stolten. A battery-fuel cell hybrid auxiliary power unit vehicle braking. Energy, 226:120404, 2021.
for trucks: Analysis of direct and indirect hybrid configurations. Energy [84] Yufei Wang, Chenglong Wang, and Hua Xue. A novel capacity configu-
conversion and management, 127:312–323, 2016. ration method of flywheel energy storage system in electric vehicles fast
[62] Ali Emadi, Sheldon S Williamson, and Alireza Khaligh. Power elec- charging station. Electric Power Systems Research, 195:107185, 2021.
tronics intensive solutions for advanced electric, hybrid electric, and fuel [85] Shilei Zhou, Paul Walker, and Nong Zhang. Parametric design and regen-
cell vehicular power systems. IEEE Transactions on power electronics, erative braking control of a parallel hydraulic hybrid vehicle. Mechanism
21(3):567–577, 2006. and Machine Theory, 146:103714, 2020.

24 VOLUME 11, 2023

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4
 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3301329

Author et al.: Preparation of Papers for IEEE TRANSACTIONS and JOURNALS

[86] Latchezar Tchobansky, Martin Kozek, Gerd Schlager, and Hanns P Jörgl. [106] Yimin Gao, Liang Chu, and Mehrdad Ehsani. Design and control princi-
A purely mechanical energy storing concept for hybrid vehicles. SAE ples of hybrid braking system for ev, hev and fcv. In 2007 IEEE Vehicle
International, 3278, 2003. Power and Propulsion Conference, pages 384–391. IEEE, 2007.
[87] Lingfei Qi, Xiaoping Wu, Xiaohui Zeng, Yan Feng, Hongye Pan, Zutao [107] Xudong Zhang, Dietmar Göhlich, and Jiayuan Li. Energy-efficient toque
Zhang, and Yanping Yuan. An electro-mechanical braking energy recov- allocation design of traction and regenerative braking for distributed drive
ery system based on coil springs for energy saving applications in electric electric vehicles. IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, 67(1):285–
vehicles. Energy, 200:117472, 2020. 295, 2017.
[88] Yuto Arai, Takahiro Sakuraba, Shigenori Sano, Tatsuhik Sakaguchi, and [108] Jiageng Ruan, Paul D Walker, Peter A Watterson, and Nong Zhang. The
Naoki Uchiyama. Design and experimental verification of a regenerative dynamic performance and economic benefit of a blended braking system
brake system with a spiral spring and gears. In 2019 IEEE/SICE Inter- in a multi-speed battery electric vehicle. Applied energy, 183:1240–1258,
national Symposium on System Integration (SII), pages 729–733. IEEE, 2016.
2019. [109] Valery Vodovozov, Zoja Raud, and Eduard Petlenkov. Review on braking
[89] Heide Budde-Meiwes, Julia Drillkens, Benedikt Lunz, Jens Muennix, energy management in electric vehicles. Energies, 14(15):4477, 2021.
Susanne Rothgang, Julia Kowal, and Dirk Uwe Sauer. A review of [110] Pemmareddy Saiteja, Bragadeshwaran Ashok, Atharva Sanjay Wagh, and
current automotive battery technology and future prospects. Proceedings Mohamed Emad Farrag. Critical review on optimal regenerative braking
of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part D: Journal of Automobile control system architecture, calibration parameters and development chal-
Engineering, 227(5):761–776, 2013. lenges for evs. International Journal of Energy Research, 46(14):20146–
[90] SS Zhang, K Xu, and TR Jow. A new approach toward improved low tem- 20179, 2022.
perature performance of li-ion battery. Electrochemistry communications, [111] A Sathishkumar, R Soundararajan, TJ Muthu Vel, MBS Arjith, and G Sak-
4(11):928–932, 2002. thivel. Review on regenerative braking system. E-Mobility: A New Era
[91] Joris Jaguemont, Loïc Boulon, and Yves Dubé. A comprehensive review in Automotive Technology, pages 149–163, 2022.
of lithium-ion batteries used in hybrid and electric vehicles at cold tem- [112] Jessica Van Brummelen, Marie O’Brien, Dominique Gruyer, and Homay-
peratures. Applied Energy, 164:99–114, 2016. oun Najjaran. Autonomous vehicle perception: The technology of today
[92] Xiaosong Hu, Yusheng Zheng, David A Howey, Hector Perez, Aoife and tomorrow. Transportation research part C: emerging technologies,
Foley, and Michael Pecht. Battery warm-up methodologies at subzero 89:384–406, 2018.
temperatures for automotive applications: Recent advances and perspec- [113] Xiaohong Nian, Fei Peng, and Hang Zhang. Regenerative braking system
tives. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 77:100806, 2020. of electric vehicle driven by brushless dc motor. IEEE Transactions on
[93] Guangsheng Zhang, Shanhai Ge, Xiao-Guang Yang, Yongjun Leng, Dan Industrial Electronics, 61(10):5798–5808, 2014.
Marple, and Chao-Yang Wang. Rapid restoration of electric vehicle [114] Hao Zhang, Guoqing Xu, Weimin Li, and Meilan Zhou. Fuzzy logic
battery performance while driving at cold temperatures. Journal of Power control in regenerative braking system for electric vehicle. In 2012 IEEE
Sources, 371:35–40, 2017. International Conference on Information and Automation, pages 588–
591. IEEE, 2012.
[94] Hanane Hemi, Jamel Ghouili, and Ahmed Cheriti. A real time fuzzy logic
power management strategy for a fuel cell vehicle. Energy conversion and [115] Ming Lv, Zeyu Chen, Ying Yang, and Jiangman Bi. Regenerative braking
Management, 80:63–70, 2014. control strategy for a hybrid electric vehicle with rear axle electric drive.
In 2017 Chinese Automation Congress (CAC), pages 521–525. IEEE,
[95] Saman Ahmadi, SMT Bathaee, and Amir H Hosseinpour. Improving fuel
2017.
economy and performance of a fuel-cell hybrid electric vehicle (fuel-cell,
[116] Guoqing Xu, Weimin Li, Kun Xu, and Zhibin Song. An intelligent
battery, and ultra-capacitor) using optimized energy management strategy.
regenerative braking strategy for electric vehicles. Energies, 4(9):1461–
Energy Conversion and Management, 160:74–84, 2018.
1477, 2011.
[96] Laura Tribioli, Raffaello Cozzolino, Daniele Chiappini, and Paolo Iora.
[117] Ye Tao, Xiaohua Xie, Haiyan Zhao, Wei Xu, and Hong Chen. A regener-
Energy management of a plug-in fuel cell/battery hybrid vehicle with on-
ative braking system for electric vehicle with four in-wheel motors based
board fuel processing. Applied Energy, 184:140–154, 2016.
on fuzzy control. In 2017 36th Chinese Control Conference (CCC), pages
[97] Peter Keil and Andreas Jossen. Aging of lithium-ion batteries in electric 4288–4293. IEEE, 2017.
vehicles: Impact of regenerative braking. World Electric Vehicle Journal,
[118] PR Saradalekshmi and AC Binojkumar. Combined fuzzy and pi control
7(1):41–51, 2015.
of regenerative braking system of electric vehicle driven by brushless dc
[98] Sousso Kelouwani, Nilson Henao, Kodjo Agbossou, Yves Dube, and Loïc motor. In AIP Conference Proceedings, volume 2222, page 040005. AIP
Boulon. Two-layer energy-management architecture for a fuel cell hev Publishing LLC, 2020.
using road trip information. IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, [119] Jiweon Ko, Sungyeon Ko, Hanho Son, Byoungsoo Yoo, Jaeseung Cheon,
61(9):3851–3864, 2012. and Hyunsoo Kim. Development of brake system and regenerative
[99] Farshid Naseri, Ebrahim Farjah, and Teymoor Ghanbari. An efficient braking cooperative control algorithm for automatic-transmission-based
regenerative braking system based on battery/supercapacitor for electric, hybrid electric vehicles. IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology,
hybrid, and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles with bldc motor. IEEE 64(2):431–440, 2014.
Transactions on Vehicular Technology, 66(5):3724–3738, 2016. [120] Boyi Xiao, Huazhong Lu, Hailin Wang, Jiageng Ruan, and Nong Zhang.
[100] Junyi Shen and Alireza Khaligh. A supervisory energy management Enhanced regenerative braking strategies for electric vehicles: Dynamic
control strategy in a battery/ultracapacitor hybrid energy storage system. performance and potential analysis. Energies, 10(11):1875, 2017.
IEEE Transactions on transportation electrification, 1(3):223–231, 2015. [121] Fenzhu Ji, Yong Pan, Yu Zhou, Farong Du, Qi Zhang, and Guo Li. Energy
[101] Qing Sheng Wei, Xia Zhang, Byeong-Heon Kim, and Byeong Soo Oh. recovery based on pedal situation for regenerative braking system of
Experimental investigation of supercapacitor based regenerative energy electric vehicle. Vehicle system dynamics, 58(1):144–173, 2020.
storage for a fuel cell vehicle equipped with an alternator. International [122] He Hong Wen, Wang Chen, and Jia Hui. A single-pedal regenerative
Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 47(3):1954–1964, 2022. braking control strategy of accelerator pedal for electric vehicles based on
[102] Liang Li, Xianyao Ping, Jialei Shi, Xiangyu Wang, and Xiuheng Wu. adaptive fuzzy control algorithm. Energy Procedia, 152:624–629, 2018.
Energy recovery strategy for regenerative braking system of intelligent [123] Liang Li, Yuanbo Zhang, Chao Yang, Bingjie Yan, and C Marina Mar-
four-wheel independent drive electric vehicles. IET Intelligent Transport tinez. Model predictive control-based efficient energy recovery control
Systems, 15(1):119–131, 2021. strategy for regenerative braking system of hybrid electric bus. Energy
[103] Emilia M Szumska, Skuza Adriana, and Rafał Jurecki. The analysis of conversion and management, 111:299–314, 2016.
energy recovered by an electric vehicle during selected braking manoeu- [124] Hanwu Liu, Yulong Lei, Yao Fu, and Xingzhong Li. Multi-objective
vres. Archiwum Motoryzacji, 99(1), 2023. optimization study of regenerative braking control strategy for range-
[104] Chengqun Qiu, Guolin Wang, Mingyu Meng, and Yujie Shen. A novel extended electric vehicle. Applied Sciences, 10(5):1789, 2020.
control strategy of regenerative braking system for electric vehicles under [125] Cong Geng, Dawen Ning, Linfu Guo, Qicheng Xue, and Shujian Mei.
safety critical driving situations. Energy, 149:329–340, 2018. Simulation research on regenerative braking control strategy of hybrid
[105] Shoeib Heydari, Poria Fajri, Nima Lotfi, and Bamdad Falahati. Influ- electric vehicle. Energies, 14(8):2202, 2021.
encing factors in low speed regenerative braking performance of electric [126] Shoeib Heydari, Poria Fajri, Reza Sabzehgar, and Arash Asrari. Op-
vehicles. In 2018 IEEE Transportation Electrification Conference and timal blending of regenerative and friction braking at low speeds for
Expo (ITEC), pages 494–499. IEEE, 2018. maximizing energy extraction in electric vehicles. In 2019 IEEE Energy

VOLUME 11, 2023 25

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4
 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3301329

Author et al.: Preparation of Papers for IEEE TRANSACTIONS and JOURNALS

Conversion Congress and Exposition (ECCE), pages 6815–6819. IEEE, [146] Jacopo Guanetti, Yeojun Kim, and Francesco Borrelli. Control of con-
2019. nected and automated vehicles: State of the art and future challenges.
[127] Shoeib Heydari, Poria Fajri, Reza Sabzehgar, and Arash Asrari. Optimal Annual reviews in control, 45:18–40, 2018.
brake allocation in electric vehicles for maximizing energy harvesting [147] Masoud Mohammadi, Shoeib Heydari, Poria Fajri, Farshad Harirchi,
during braking. IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, 35(4):1806– and Zonggen Yi. Energy-aware driving profile of autonomous electric
1814, 2020. vehicles considering regenerative braking limitations. In 2022 IEEE
[128] Zhang Junzhi, Li Yutong, Lv Chen, and Yuan Ye. New regenerative Transportation Electrification Conference & Expo (ITEC), pages 196–
braking control strategy for rear-driven electrified minivans. Energy 201. IEEE, 2022.
Conversion and Management, 82:135–145, 2014. [148] Jinghua Guo, Wenchang Li, Jingyao Wang, Yugong Luo, and Keqiang
[129] Jiang Biao, Zhang Xiangwen, Wang Yangxiong, and Hu Wenchao. Re- Li. Safe and energy-efficient car-following control strategy for intelligent
generative braking control strategy of electric vehicles based on braking electric vehicles considering regenerative braking. IEEE Transactions on
stability requirements. International Journal of Automotive Technology, Intelligent Transportation Systems, 23(7):7070–7081, 2021.
22(2):465–473, 2021. [149] Gyubin Sim, Seongju Ahn, Inseok Park, Jeamyoung Youn, Seungjae Yoo,
[130] Kemal Kaya and Yakup Hames. Two new control strategies: For hydrogen and Kyunghan Min. Automatic longitudinal regenerative control of evs
fuel saving and extend the life cycle in the hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. based on a driver characteristics-oriented deceleration model. World
International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 44(34):18967–18980, 2019. Electric Vehicle Journal, 10(4):58, 2019.
[131] Taehyung Kim. Regenerative braking control of a light fuel cell hybrid [150] Ning Li, Jiarao Yang, Junping Jiang, Feng Hong, Yang Liu, and Xi-
electric vehicle. Electric Power Components and Systems, 39(5):446– aobin Ning. Study on speed planning of signalized intersections
460, 2011. with autonomous vehicles considering regenerative braking. Processes,
[132] Jiweon Ko, Jungwook Kim, Gaeun Lee, Sunggon Byun, Dongyoon Hyun, 10(7):1414, 2022.
and Hyunsoo Kim. Development of a co-operative control algorithm [151] Kyunghan Min, Gyubin Sim, Seongju Ahn, Inseok Park, Seungjae Yoo,
during regenerative braking for a fuel cell electric vehicle. In 2011 IEEE and Jeamyoung Youn. Multi-level deceleration planning based on rein-
Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference, pages 1–6. IEEE, 2011. forcement learning algorithm for autonomous regenerative braking of ev.
[133] Junzhi Zhang, Chen Lv, Mingzhe Qiu, Yutong Li, and Dongsheng Sun. World Electric Vehicle Journal, 10(3):57, 2019.
Braking energy regeneration control of a fuel cell hybrid electric bus. [152] Yunli Shao and Zongxuan Sun. Optimal speed control for a connected and
Energy conversion and management, 76:1117–1124, 2013. autonomous electric vehicle considering battery aging and regenerative
[134] Chris Bingham, Chris Walsh, and Steve Carroll. Impact of driving braking limits. In Dynamic Systems and Control Conference, volume
characteristics on electric vehicle energy consumption and range. IET 59148, page V001T08A005. American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
Intelligent Transport Systems, 6(1):29–35, 2012. 2019.
[135] Guido Wager, Jonathan Whale, and Thomas Braunl. Driving electric [153] Yuchuan Zhang, Hui Xie, and Kang Song. An optimal vehicle speed plan-
vehicles at highway speeds: The effect of higher driving speeds on energy ning algorithm for regenerative braking at traffic lights intersections based
consumption and driving range for electric vehicles in australia. Renew- on reinforcement learning. In 2020 4th CAA International Conference on
able and sustainable energy reviews, 63:158–165, 2016. Vehicular Control and Intelligence (CVCI), pages 193–198. IEEE, 2020.
[136] Yazan Al-Wreikat, Clara Serrano, and José Ricardo Sodré. Driving [154] Mukesh Gautam, Narayan Bhusal, Mohammed Benidris, and Poria Fa-
behaviour and trip condition effects on the energy consumption of an jri. A ga-based approach to eco-driving of electric vehicles considering
electric vehicle under real-world driving. Applied Energy, 297:117096, regenerative braking. In 2021 IEEE Conference on Technologies for
2021. Sustainability (SusTech), pages 1–6. IEEE, 2021.
[137] Marta Faria, Gonçalo Duarte, and Patrícia Baptista. Assessing electric
[155] Guo Jinquan, He Hongwen, Li Jianwei, and Liu Qingwu. Real-time
mobility feasibility based on naturalistic driving data. Journal of cleaner
energy management of fuel cell hybrid electric buses: Fuel cell engines
production, 206:646–660, 2019.
friendly intersection speed planning. Energy, 226:120440, 2021.
[138] Andreas Braun and Wolfgang Rid. The influence of driving patterns on
[156] Bo Liu, Chao Sun, Bo Wang, Weiqiang Liang, Qiang Ren, Junqiu Li, and
energy consumption in electric car driving and the role of regenerative
Fengchun Sun. Bi-level convex optimization of eco-driving for connected
braking. Transportation research procedia, 22:174–182, 2017.
fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles through signalized intersections. Energy,
[139] Najah AbuAli and Hatem Abou-Zeid. Driver behavior modeling: De-
252:123956, 2022.
velopments and future directions. International journal of vehicular
technology, 2016, 2016. [157] Alessandro Ferrara and Christoph Hametner. Eco-driving of fuel cell
electric trucks: optimal speed planning combining dynamic programming
[140] Wissam Dib, Alexandre Chasse, Philippe Moulin, Antonio Sciarretta, and
and pontryagin’s minimum principle. In 2022 IEEE 96th Vehicular
Gilles Corde. Optimal energy management for an electric vehicle in eco-
Technology Conference (VTC2022-Fall), pages 1–7. IEEE, 2022.
driving applications. Control Engineering Practice, 29:299–307, 2014.
[141] Xiaohai Lin, Daniel Görges, and Steven Liu. Eco-driving assistance [158] Zhigen Nie, Yuan Jia, Wanqiong Wang, Zheng Chen, and Rachid Outbib.
system for electric vehicles based on speed profile optimization. In 2014 Co-optimization of speed planning and energy management for intelligent
IEEE Conference on Control Applications (CCA), pages 629–634. IEEE, fuel cell hybrid vehicle considering complex traffic conditions. Energy,
2014. 247:123476, 2022.
[142] Doreen Schwarze, Matthias G Arend, and Thomas Franke. The effect [159] Zhigen Nie, Yuan Jia, Wanqiong Wang, and Rachid Outbib. Eco-co-
of displaying kinetic energy on hybrid electric vehicle drivers’ evalu- optimization strategy for connected and automated fuel cell hybrid ve-
ation of regenerative braking. In Proceedings of the 20th Congress hicles in dynamic urban traffic settings. Energy Conversion and Manage-
of the International Ergonomics Association (IEA 2018) Volume VIII: ment, 263:115690, 2022.
Ergonomics and Human Factors in Manufacturing, Agriculture, Building [160] Zhigen Nie, Yuan Jia, Wanqiong Wang, Yufeng Lian, and Rachid Outbib.
and Construction, Sustainable Development and Mining 20, pages 727– Co-optimization strategies for connected and automated fuel cell hybrid
736. Springer, 2019. vehicles in dynamic curving scenarios. International Journal of Hydrogen
[143] Raphael Frank, German Castignani, Raoul Schmitz, and Thomas Engel. Energy, 48(8):3252–3268, 2023.
A novel eco-driving application to reduce energy consumption of electric [161] Xingyu Zhou, Fengchun Sun, Chao Sun, and Chuntao Zhang. Predictive
vehicles. In 2013 International Conference on Connected Vehicles and co-optimization of speed planning and powertrain energy management
Expo (ICCVE), pages 283–288. IEEE, 2013. for electric vehicles driving in traffic scenarios: Combining strengths
[144] Stefano Di Cairano, Daniele Bernardini, Alberto Bemporad, and Ilya V of simultaneous and hierarchical methods. Journal of Power Sources,
Kolmanovsky. Stochastic mpc with learning for driver-predictive vehicle 523:230910, 2022.
control and its application to hev energy management. IEEE Transactions [162] Xingyu Zhou, Fengchun Sun, Chuntao Zhang, and Chao Sun. Stochas-
on Control Systems Technology, 22(3):1018–1031, 2013. tically predictive co-optimization of the speed planning and powertrain
[145] Antonia Sureth, Vivien Moll, Jens Nachtwei, and Thomas Franke. The controls for electric vehicles driving in random traffic environment safely
golden rules of ecodriving? the effect of providing hybrid electric vehicle and efficiently. Journal of Power Sources, 528:231200, 2022.
(hev) drivers with a newly developed set of ecodriving-tips. Transporta- [163] Lei Zuo and Pei-Sheng Zhang. Energy harvesting, ride comfort, and road
tion Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 64:565–581, handling of regenerative vehicle suspensions. Journal of Vibration and
2019. Acoustics, 135(1), 2013.

26 VOLUME 11, 2023

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4
 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3301329

Author et al.: Preparation of Papers for IEEE TRANSACTIONS and JOURNALS

[164] Chongfeng Wei and Xingjian Jing. A comprehensive review on vibration [185] Lipeng Zhang, Chenhui Ren, Xinmao Yuan, and Wei Zhang. Ride comfort
energy harvesting: Modelling and realization. Renewable and Sustainable control of in-wheel motor drive unmanned ground vehicles with energy
Energy Reviews, 74:1–18, 2017. regeneration. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers,
[165] Yuxin Zhang, Konghui Guo, Dai Wang, Chao Chen, and Xuefei Li. Part D: Journal of Automobile Engineering, 235(4):1057–1069, 2021.
Energy conversion mechanism and regenerative potential of vehicle sus- [186] Semen Kopylov, Zhaobo Chen, and Mohamed AA Abdelkareem. Im-
pensions. Energy, 119:961–970, 2017. plementation of an electromagnetic regenerative tuned mass damper in a
[166] Peter Múčka. Energy-harvesting potential of automobile suspension. vehicle suspension system. IEEE Access, 8:110153–110163, 2020.
Vehicle System Dynamics, 54(12):1651–1670, 2016. [187] Harus Laksana Guntur, Wiwiek Hendrowati, and Skriptyan NH Syuhri.
[167] Mohamed AA Abdelkareem, Lin Xu, Mohamed Kamal Ahmed Ali, Designing hydro-magneto-electric regenerative shock absorber for vehi-
Ahmed Elagouz, Jia Mi, Sijing Guo, Yilun Liu, and Lei Zuo. Vibration cle suspension considering conventional-viscous shock absorber perfor-
energy harvesting in automotive suspension system: A detailed review. mance. Journal of Mechanical Science and Technology, 34:55–67, 2020.
Applied energy, 229:672–699, 2018. [188] Sijing Guo, Liang Chen, Xikai Wang, Junyi Zou, and Sanbao Hu. Hy-
[168] Peng Zheng, Ruichen Wang, and Jingwei Gao. A comprehensive review draulic integrated interconnected regenerative suspension: Modeling and
on regenerative shock absorber systems. Journal of Vibration Engineering characteristics analysis. Micromachines, 12(7):733, 2021.
& Technologies, 8:225–246, 2020. [189] Marco Miraglia, Michael Tannous, Francesco Inglese, Birgit Brämer,
[169] Wei Yu and Ruochen Wang. Development and performance evaluation Mario Milazzo, and Cesare Stefanini. Energy recovery from shock
of a comprehensive automotive energy recovery system with a refined absorbers through a novel compact electro-hydraulic system architecture.
energy management strategy. Energy, 189:116365, 2019. Mechatronics, 81:102701, 2022.
[170] Peng Li and Lei Zuo. Influences of the electromagnetic regenerative [190] Bonan Qin, Yuzhe Chen, Zhaoheng Chen, and Lei Zuo. Modeling, bench
dampers on the vehicle suspension performance. Proceedings of the test and ride analysis of a novel energy-harvesting hydraulically intercon-
Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part D: Journal of Automobile En- nected suspension system. Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing,
gineering, 231(3):383–394, 2017. 166:108456, 2022.
[171] Zhongjie Li, Lei Zuo, George Luhrs, Liangjun Lin, and Yi-xian Qin. [191] Ran Zhou, Feng Sun, Mingyin Yan, Junjie Jin, Qiang Li, Fangchao Xu,
Electromagnetic energy-harvesting shock absorbers: design, modeling, Xiaoyou Zhang, and Kimihiko Nakano. Design, analysis and prototyping
and road tests. IEEE Transactions on vehicular technology, 62(3):1065– of a magnetic energy-harvesting suspension for vehicles. Smart Materials
1074, 2012. and Structures, 29(10):105034, 2020.
[172] Ran Zhang, Xu Wang, and Sabu John. A comprehensive review of the [192] Guimin Long, Fei Ding, Nong Zhang, Jie Zhang, and An Qin. Regen-
techniques on regenerative shock absorber systems. Energies, 11(5):1167, erative active suspension system with residual energy for in-wheel motor
2018. driven electric vehicle. Applied Energy, 260:114180, 2020.
[173] Peng Li, Lei Zuo, Jianbo Lu, and Li Xu. Electromagnetic regenerative [193] Zhen Zhao, Tie Wang, Jinhong Shi, Baifu Zhang, Ruiliang Zhang, Meng
suspension system for ground vehicles. In 2014 IEEE international Li, and Yonggang Wen. Analysis and application of the piezoelectric
conference on systems, man, and cybernetics (SMC), pages 2513–2518. energy harvester on light electric logistics vehicle suspension systems.
IEEE, 2014. Energy Science & Engineering, 7(6):2741–2755, 2019.
[174] Ran Zhang, Xu Wang, Elie Al Shami, Sabu John, Lei Zuo, and Chun H [194] XD Xie and Qingwei Wang. Energy harvesting from a vehicle suspension
Wang. A novel indirect-drive regenerative shock absorber for energy system. Energy, 86:385–392, 2015.
harvesting and comparison with a conventional direct-drive regenerative [195] Zhen Zhao, Tie Wang, Baifu Zhang, and Jinhong Shi. Energy harvesting
shock absorber. Applied Energy, 229:111–127, 2018. from vehicle suspension system by piezoelectric harvester. Mathematical
[175] Lei Zuo, Brian Scully, Jurgen Shestani, and Yu Zhou. Design and charac- Problems in Engineering, 2019, 2019.
terization of an electromagnetic energy harvester for vehicle suspensions. [196] Morteza Montazeri-Gh and Mehdi Soleymani. Investigation of the energy
Smart Materials and Structures, 19(4):045003, 2010. regeneration of active suspension system in hybrid electric vehicles. IEEE
[176] Xiudong Tang, Teng Lin, and Lei Zuo. Design and optimization of a transactions on industrial electronics, 57(3):918–925, 2009.
tubular linear electromagnetic vibration energy harvester. IEEE/ASME [197] Wenfeng Li, Zhengchao Xie, Jing Zhao, Pak Kin Wong, and Panshuo
Transactions On Mechatronics, 19(2):615–622, 2013. Li. Fuzzy finite-frequency output feedback control for nonlinear active
[177] Zutao Zhang, Xingtian Zhang, Weiwu Chen, Yagubov Rasim, Waleed suspension systems with time delay and output constraints. Mechanical
Salman, Hongye Pan, Yanping Yuan, and Chunbai Wang. A high- Systems and Signal Processing, 132:315–334, 2019.
efficiency energy regenerative shock absorber using supercapacitors for [198] Dehua Shi, Long Chen, Ruochen Wang, Haobin Jiang, and Yujie Shen.
renewable energy applications in range extended electric vehicle. Applied Design and experiment study of a semi-active energy-regenerative sus-
Energy, 178:177–188, 2016. pension system. Smart Materials and Structures, 24(1):015001, 2014.
[178] Saleh Alhumaid, Daniel Hess, and Rasim Guldiken. Energy regeneration [199] Yuxin Zhang, Hong Chen, Konghui Guo, Xinjie Zhang, and
from vehicle unidirectional suspension system by a non-contact piezo- Shengbo Eben Li. Electro-hydraulic damper for energy harvesting
magneto harvester. Engineering Research Express, 3(1):015033, 2021. suspension: Modeling, prototyping and experimental validation. Applied
[179] Zhanwen Wang, Tianming Zhang, Zutao Zhang, Yanping Yuan, and Yujie energy, 199:1–12, 2017.
Liu. A high-efficiency regenerative shock absorber considering twin ball [200] Venkateswarlu Chintala, Suresh Kumar, and Jitendra K Pandey. A tech-
screws transmissions for application in range-extended electric vehicles. nical review on waste heat recovery from compression ignition engines
Energy and Built Environment, 1(1):36–49, 2020. using organic rankine cycle. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews,
[180] Reza Sabzehgar, Amir Maravandi, and Mehrdad Moallem. Energy 81:493–509, 2018.
regenerative suspension using an algebraic screw linkage mechanism. [201] Rupam Patowary and Debendra Chandra Baruah. Thermoelectric con-
IEEE/ASME Transactions on Mechatronics, 19(4):1251–1259, 2013. version of waste heat from ic engine-driven vehicles: A review of its ap-
[181] Mohamed AA Abdelkareem, Ran Zhang, Xingjian Jing, Xu Wang, and plication, issues, and solutions. International journal of energy research,
Mohamed Kamal Ahmed Ali. Characterization and implementation of 42(8):2595–2614, 2018.
a double-sided arm-toothed indirect-drive rotary electromagnetic energy- [202] Z Liu, D Lu, Y Bai, X Kong, L Wen, and M Gong. Progress on the
harvesting shock absorber in a full semi-trailer truck suspension platform. regeneration unit of a reverse electrodialysis heat engine (in chinese).
Energy, 239:121976, 2022. Chin. Sci. Bull., 66(30):3811–3821, 2021.
[182] Jinkyu Lee, Yondo Chun, Jiwon Kim, and Byounggun Park. An energy- [203] Adama Coulibaly, Nadjet Zioui, Said Bentouba, Sousso Kelouwani, and
harvesting system using mppt at shock absorber for electric vehicles. Mahmoud Bourouis. Use of thermoelectric generators to harvest energy
Energies, 14(9):2552, 2021. from motor vehicle brake discs. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering,
[183] Waleed Salman, Lingfei Qi, Xin Zhu, Hongye Pan, Xingtian Zhang, 28:101379, 2021.
Shehar Bano, Zutao Zhang, and Yanping Yuan. A high-efficiency energy [204] Nadjet Zioui, Sousso Kelouwani, and Gilbert Lebrun. Piezoelectric
regenerative shock absorber using helical gears for powering low-wattage energy harvesting based autonomous vehicles’ vibrations. In Proceedings
electrical device of electric vehicles. Energy, 159:361–372, 2018. of the 4th International Conference on Electrical Engineering and Con-
[184] Hai Li, Peng Zheng, Tingsheng Zhang, Yingquan Zou, Yajia Pan, Zutao trol Applications: ICEECA 2019, 17–19 December 2019, Constantine,
Zhang, and Ali Azam. A high-efficiency energy regenerative shock Algeria, pages 791–800. Springer, 2021.
absorber for powering auxiliary devices of new energy driverless buses. [205] Minfeng Tang, Hao Cao, LingJi Kong, Ali Azam, Dabing Luo, Yajia Pan,
Applied Energy, 295:117020, 2021. and Zutao Zhang. A hybrid kinetic energy harvester for applications in

VOLUME 11, 2023 27

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4
 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3301329

Author et al.: Preparation of Papers for IEEE TRANSACTIONS and JOURNALS

electric driverless buses. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, [224] Gaetano Coraggio, Cecilia Pisanti, Gianfranco Rizzo, and Adolfo Sena-
223:107317, 2022. tore. A moving solar roof for a hybrid solar vehicle. IFAC Proceedings
[206] Jianzhong Pei, Fucheng Guo, Jiupeng Zhang, Bochao Zhou, Yanqiu Bi, Volumes, 43(7):67–74, 2010.
and Rui Li. Review and analysis of energy harvesting technologies in [225] Mohammad Waseem, Ahmad Faizan Sherwani, and Mohd Suhaib. In-
roadway transportation. Journal of Cleaner Production, 288:125338, tegration of solar energy in electrical, hybrid, autonomous vehicles: a
2021. technological review. SN Applied Sciences, 1:1–14, 2019.
[207] Youfan Hu, Chen Xu, Yan Zhang, Long Lin, Robert L Snyder, and [226] Stefano De Pinto, Qian Lu, Pablo Camocardi, Christoforos Chatzikomis,
Zhong Lin Wang. A nanogenerator for energy harvesting from a rotating Aldo Sorniotti, Domenico Ragonese, Gregorio Iuzzolino, Pietro Perlo,
tire and its application as a self-powered pressure/speed sensor. Advanced and Constantina Lekakou. Electric vehicle driving range extension us-
Materials, 23(35):4068–4071, 2011. ing photovoltaic panels. In 2016 IEEE Vehicle Power and Propulsion
[208] Farbod Khameneifar and Siamak Arzanpour. Energy harvesting from Conference (VPPC), pages 1–6. IEEE, 2016.
pneumatic tires using piezoelectric transducers. In Smart Materials, [227] F Mohammadi. Design, analysis, and electrification of a solar-powered
Adaptive Structures and Intelligent Systems, volume 43314, pages 331– electric vehicle. Journal of Solar Energy Research, 3(4):293–299, 2018.
337, 2008. [228] Hassan Fathabadi. Utilizing solar and wind energy in plug-in hybrid
[209] Deepam Maurya, Prashant Kumar, Seyedmeysam Khaleghian, Rammo- electric vehicles. Energy conversion and management, 156:317–328,
han Sriramdas, Min Gyu Kang, Ravi Anant Kishore, Vireshwar Kumar, 2018.
Hyun-Cheol Song, Jung-Min Jerry Park, Saied Taheri, et al. Energy [229] Gianfranco Rizzo, Francesco Antonio Tiano, Valerio Mariani, and Matteo
harvesting and strain sensing in smart tire for next generation autonomous Marino. Optimal modulation of regenerative braking in through-the-road
vehicles. Applied energy, 232:312–322, 2018. hybridized vehicles. Energies, 14(20):6835, 2021.
[210] Roja Esmaeeli, Haniph Aliniagerdroudbari, Seyed Reza Hashemi, [230] Muhammad Sifatul Alam Chowdhury, Khandakar Abdulla Al Mamun,
Ashkan Nazari, Muapper Alhadri, Waleed Zakri, Abdul Haq Mohammed, and Al Mahmudur Rahman. Modelling and simulation of power system
Celal Batur, and Siamak Farhad. A rainbow piezoelectric energy harvest- of battery, solar and fuel cell powered hybrid electric vehicle. In 2016
ing system for intelligent tire monitoring applications. Journal of Energy 3rd International Conference on Electrical Engineering and Information
Resources Technology, 141(6), 2019. Communication Technology (ICEEICT), pages 1–6. IEEE, 2016.
[211] Jingui Qian, Dong-Su Kim, and Dong-Weon Lee. On-vehicle triboelectric [231] MF Ezzat and I Dincer. Development, analysis and assessment of a fuel
nanogenerator enabled self-powered sensor for tire pressure monitoring. cell and solar photovoltaic system powered vehicle. Energy conversion
Nano Energy, 49:126–136, 2018. and management, 129:284–292, 2016.
[212] Tong Guo, Guoxu Liu, Yaokun Pang, Bo Wu, Fengben Xi, Junqing Zhao, [232] Krishneel Prakash, KA Mamun, FR Islam, Aneesh A Chand, Kushal A
Tianzhao Bu, Xianpeng Fu, Xinjian Li, Chi Zhang, et al. Compressible Prasad, Krishneel K Goundar, and Sidharth Maharaj. Hybrid electric
hexagonal-structured triboelectric nanogenerators for harvesting tire ro- vehicle: designing a control of solar/wind/battery/capacitor/fuel cell hy-
tation energy. Extreme Mechanics Letters, 18:1–8, 2018. brid system. In 2019 29th Australasian Universities Power Engineering
Conference (AUPEC), pages 1–6. IEEE, 2019.
[213] Yunshun Zhang, Rencheng Zheng, Keisuke Shimono, Tsutomu Kaizuka,
[233] Gianfranco Rizzo, Ivan Arsie, and Marco Sorrentino. Solar energy for
and Kimihiko Nakano. Effectiveness testing of a piezoelectric energy
cars: perspectives, opportunities and problems. In GTAA Meeting, pages
harvester for an automobile wheel using stochastic resonance. Sensors,
1–6, 2010.
16(10):1727, 2016.
[234] GR Chandra Mouli, Pavol Bauer, and Miro Zeman. System design for a
[214] Xiaobo Rui, Zhoumo Zeng, Yu Zhang, Yibo Li, Hao Feng, Xinjing Huang,
solar powered electric vehicle charging station for workplaces. Applied
and Zhou Sha. Design and experimental investigation of a self-tuning
Energy, 168:434–443, 2016.
piezoelectric energy harvesting system for intelligent vehicle wheels.
[235] Faisal Karim Shaikh and Sherali Zeadally. Energy harvesting in wireless
IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, 69(2):1440–1451, 2019.
sensor networks: A comprehensive review. Renewable and Sustainable
[215] Yu-Jen Wang, Chung-De Chen, and Cheng-Kuo Sung. Design of a Energy Reviews, 55:1041–1054, 2016.
frequency-adjusting device for harvesting energy from a rotating wheel.
[236] Ribal Atallah, Maurice Khabbaz, and Chadi Assi. Energy harvesting in
Sensors and Actuators A: Physical, 159(2):196–203, 2010.
vehicular networks: A contemporary survey. IEEE Wireless Communica-
[216] Yu-Jen Wang, Chung-De Chen, and Cheng-Kuo Sung. System design tions, 23(2):70–77, 2016.
of a weighted-pendulum-type electromagnetic generator for harvesting [237] Kamarul Zaman Panatik, Kamilia Kamardin, Sya Azmeela Shariff,
energy from a rotating wheel. IEEE/ASME Transactions on Mechatronics, Siti Sophiayati Yuhaniz, Noor Azurati Ahmad, Othman Mohd Yusop,
18(2):754–763, 2012. and SaifulAdli Ismail. Energy harvesting in wireless sensor networks: A
[217] Md Rabiul Awal, Muzammil Jusoh, Md Nazmus Sakib, Fakir Sharif survey. In 2016 IEEE 3rd international symposium on Telecommunication
Hossain, Mohd Rashidi Che Beson, and Syed Alwee Aljunid. Design Technologies (ISTT), pages 53–58. IEEE, 2016.
and implementation of vehicle mounted wind turbine. ARPN J Eng Appl [238] Fahira Sangare, Ali Arab, Miao Pan, Lijun Qian, Suresh K Khator,
Sci, 10:8699–8860, 2015. and Zhu Han. Rf energy harvesting for wsns via dynamic control of
[218] Bhimrao A Shivsharan, Pramod B Magade, Shrirang Chavan, and unmanned vehicle charging. In 2015 IEEE Wireless Communications and
Sushilkumar Magade. A review paper on vehicle mounted wind turbine. Networking Conference (WCNC), pages 1291–1296. IEEE, 2015.
Journal of Seybold Report ISSN NO, 1533:9211, 2020. [239] Tharindu D Ponnimbaduge Perera, Dushantha Nalin K Jayakody,
[219] Zuhaib Ashfaq Khan, Hafiz Husnain Raza Sherazi, Mubashir Ali, Shree Krishna Sharma, Symeon Chatzinotas, and Jun Li. Simultaneous
Muhammad Ali Imran, Ikram Ur Rehman, and Prasun Chakrabarti. De- wireless information and power transfer (swipt): Recent advances and fu-
signing a wind energy harvester for connected vehicles in green cities. ture challenges. IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials, 20(1):264–
Energies, 14(17):5408, 2021. 302, 2017.
[220] Xia Li, Zhiyuan Li, Cheng Bi, Benxue Liu, and Yufeng Su. Study on wind [240] Xingyu Wei, Zhiran Yi, Wenbo Li, Linchuan Zhao, and Wenming Zhang.
energy harvesting effect of a vehicle-mounted piezo-electromagnetic hy- Energy harvesting fueling the revival of self-powered unmanned aerial
brid energy harvester. IEEE Access, 8:167631–167646, 2020. vehicles. Energy Conversion and Management, 283:116863, 2023.
[221] Abdul Rauf Bhatti, Zainal Salam, Mohd Junaidi Bin Abdul Aziz, and [241] Chirag Panchal, Sascha Stegen, and Junwei Lu. Review of static and
Kong Pui Yee. A critical review of electric vehicle charging using solar dynamic wireless electric vehicle charging system. Engineering science
photovoltaic. International Journal of Energy Research, 40(4):439–461, and technology, an international journal, 21(5):922–937, 2018.
2016. [242] Natalija Aleksić, Danijela Nikolić, Vanja Šušteršič, and Saša Jovanović.
[222] Muhammad Badar Hayat, Danish Ali, Keitumetse Cathrine Monyake, Development of the modern automotive industry based on the solar
Lana Alagha, and Niaz Ahmed. Solar energy—a look into power gen- technology application. 2022.
eration, challenges, and a solar-powered future. International Journal of [243] Aptera efficiency. www.aptera.us/vehicle/. Accessed: June 2023.
Energy Research, 43(3):1049–1067, 2019. [244] Karma Automotive. www.karmaautomotive.com/revero0. Accessed:
[223] Jaemin Kim, Yanzhi Wang, Massoud Pedram, and Naehyuck Chang. Fast June 2023.
photovoltaic array reconfiguration for partial solar powered vehicles. In [245] From freewheeling to a one-pedal feeling electric deceleration.
Proceedings of the 2014 international symposium on Low power electron- www.audi-technology-portal.de/en/drivetrain/electric-drives/audi-e-
ics and design, pages 357–362, 2014. tron-recuperation. Accessed: June 2023.

28 VOLUME 11, 2023

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4
 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3301329

Author et al.: Preparation of Papers for IEEE TRANSACTIONS and JOURNALS

[246] Taycan 4S performance. www.porsche.com/canada/en/models/taycan/taycan- SOUSSO KELOUWANI (Senior Member, IEEE)

models/performance open. Accessed: June 2023. received the Ph.D. degree in robotics systems from
[247] Omair Siddiqui, Daniel Simacek, Ryan Hoang, Nicholas Famiglietti, the Ecole Polytechnique de Montreal, in 2011.
Benjamin Nguyen, and Jon Landerville. Characterizing regenerative He completed his Postdoctoral Internship on fuel
coast-down deceleration in tesla model 3, s, and x. Technical report, SAE cell hybrid electric vehicles with the University
Technical Paper, 2020. of Quebec at Trois-Rivières (UQTR), in 2012. He
[248] 2023 Toyota Prius Prime FAQ. www.toyota.com/priusprime/faq/. Ac- developed expertise in the optimization and intelli-
cessed: June 2023.
gent control of vehicular applications. He has been
[249] Recuperation rather than conventional braking. www.volkswagen-
a Full Professor of Mechatronics with the Depart-
newsroom.com/en/the-new-id-buzz-and-id-buzz-cargo-international-
media-drive-15144/suspension-passenger-car-comfort-in-the-new-id- ment of Mechanical Engineering, since 2017, and
buzz-and-id-buzz-cargo-15149. Accessed: June 2023. a member of the Hydrogen Research Institute. He holds four patents in U.S.
[250] KIA EV6 GT: A NEW HIGH-PERFORMANCE BENCHMARK IN and Canada. He has published more than 100 scientific articles. His research
THE CROSSOVER SEGMENT. www.press.kia.com/eu/en/home/media- interests include optimizing energy systems for vehicle applications, ad-
resouces/press-kits/products/2022/Kia-EV6-GT.html. Accessed: June vanced driver assistance techniques, and intelligent vehicle navigation taking
2023. into account Canadian climatic conditions. Holder of the Canada Research
Chair in Energy Optimization of Intelligent Transport Systems and holder
of the Noovelia Research Chair in Intelligent Navigation of Autonomous
Industrial Vehicles. Prof. Kelouwani was co-president and president of the
technical committee of the IEEE International Conferences on Vehicular
Power and Propulsion in Chicago (USA, 2018) and in Hanoi (Vietnam,
2019). He is the winner of the Canada General Governor Gold Medal, in
2003, and a member of the Order of Engineers of Quebec. In 2019, his
team received the First Innovation Prize in partnership with DIVEL, awarded
by the Association des Manufacturiers de la Mauricie et Center-du-Québec
for the development of an autonomous and natural navigation system. In
2017, he received the Environment Prize from the Gala des Grands Prix
d’excellence en transport, the Association québécoise du Transport (AQTr),
for the development of hydrogen range extenders for electric vehicles.

SEYED MOHAMMAD HOSSEINI received a

master degree in mechatronics from Arak Uni-
versity (Iran) in 2018. He is currently pursu-
ing the Ph.D. degree with the Mechanical Engi-
neering Department, University of Quebec Trois-
Rivières (UQTR), Trois-Rivières, QC, Canada. His
research interests include energy management sys-
tems, renewable energy, energy harvesting, battery
electric vehicles, and fuel cell hybrid electric vehi-
cles.

ALI AMAMOU (Member, IEEE) received the B.S.

degree in Industrial Computing and automatic sci-
ence from the National Institute of Applied Sci-
ences and Technology, Tunis, Tunisia, in 2013 and
the M.S. degree in Embedded Systems Science
from Arts et Métiers ParisTech University, France,
in 2014. Between 2015 and 2018, he completed
his Ph.D in energy and thermal management of
electric vehicles in cold weather conditions at the
University of Quebec at Trois-Rivieres, Quebec,
Canada. He is currently a postdoctoral research fellow at the Hydrogen
MEHDI SOLEYMANI (Member, IEEE) holds a Research Institute. His main research interests are the optimization of energy
BSc, MSc, and PhD in Mechanical Engineering systems for stationary and mobile applications, hybridization of energy
from the Iran University of Science and Technol- sources for vehicular applications and eco-energy navigation of autonomous
ogy (IUST), awarded in 2000, 2003, and 2009, electric vehicles.
respectively. He worked as a senior test engineer at
the Automotive Industry Research and Innovation
Centre (AIRIC) of SAIPA company from 2002
to 2008. In 2009, he joined Arak University as
an Assistant Professor of Mechanical Engineering
and the Director of the System Simulation and
Control Laboratory. He was promoted to Associate Professor of Mechanical
Engineering and Mechatronics in 2015, and served in that position until
2018. From 2018 to 2021, he was a research fellow at the Advanced Vehicle
Engineering Centre (AVEC) of Cranfield University. He is also an Associate
Fellow of the Higher Education Academy in the UK. Currently, he is an
invited professor at the Hydrogen Research Institute of the University of
Quebec at Trois-Rivieres.

VOLUME 11, 2023 29

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4