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A squalid state theorist Misha "Adam Zad" Katsnelson

r
Over and over the story, ending as he began:—
"There is no truce with Adam-zad, the Bear that looks like a Man!"

Rudyard Kipling
1898
ADAM ZAD
 University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom
One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, NY 10006, USA
477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia
314–321, 3rd Floor, Plot 3, Splendor Forum, Jasola District Centre, New Delhi – 110025, India
79 Anson Road, #06–04/06, Singapore 079906

Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of
education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence.

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781108471640
DOI: 10.1017/9781108617567
© Cambridge University Press 2020
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
Second Edition, First published 2012
Printed in the United Kingdom by TJ International Ltd, Padstow Cornwall
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library.
ISBN 978-1-108-47164-0 Hardback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy
of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication
and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.
In memory of my teacher Serghey Vonsovsky and my friend Sasha Trefilov
 Contents

Preface to the second edition page ix

Preface to the first edition xi
1 The electronic structure of ideal graphene 1
2 Electron states in a magnetic field 24
3 Quantum transport via evanescent waves 63
4 The Klein paradox and chiral tunneling 77
5 Edges, nanoribbons, and quantum dots 108
6 Point defects 141
7 Optics and response functions 168
8 The Coulomb problem 193
9 Crystal lattice dynamics, structure, and thermodynamics 213
10 Gauge fields and strain engineering 257
11 Scattering mechanisms and transport properties 279
12 Spin effects and magnetism 326
13 Graphene on hexagonal boron nitride 351
14 Twisted bilayer graphene 379
15 Many-body effects in graphene 389
References 401
Index 421

vii
 Preface to the second edition

First of all, I still agree with everything that I wrote in the preface to the first
edition; however, I probably need to add a few words on the differences between
the second edition and the first.
As you can see, I have changed the title. In 2011 when I finished Graphene:
Carbon in Two Dimensions, there were no other books on graphene, and the
accuracy of the title was probably not so important. I would also like to emphasize
what is special about this book and in what respect it is different from the many
others that have appeared in the market in the meantime. To my knowledge, this is
the only book on graphene (yet) that focuses completely on fundamental issues of
physics and completely ignores all aspects of fabrication, devices, applications,
chemistry, etc. Hopefully, the new title, The Physics of Graphene, stresses this
point clearly enough and helps potential readers to avoid any disappointment if
they do not find something in the book which, in their mind, should be in a book on
graphene. Of course, I do not mean that these aspects are not important; I just
believe that I am not the proper person to write about them and that other people
can do that much better.
In the field of graphene, eight years is a very long period of time, when many
things have happened. To my surprise, when I started to work on the new edition,
I did not find anything that should be eliminated from the book because it turned
out to be fundamentally wrong or irrelevant for further development. Of course,
there were some inaccuracies and mistakes, which hopefully have been fixed now,
but even so, I think all old issues remain interesting and important. At the same
time, many new concepts and facts have appeared that should be reflected in the
new book. Therefore I have added three new chapters: Chapters 13 and 14
introduce the basic physics of an important new concept, van der Waals hetero-
structures, and Chapter 15 gives a very brief summary of our progress in under-
standing many-body effects in graphene. Eight years ago we had the feeling that a
single-particle picture of noninteracting Dirac fermions explained everything; this

ix
x Preface to the second edition

is no longer the case. Huge progress in the quality of graphene samples has opened
a way to essentially observe many-body features of the electronic spectrum near
the neutrality point.
My work on these subjects was essentially based on a collaboration with Nikita
Astrakhantsev, Viktor Braguta, Annalisa Fasolino, Andre Geim, Yura Gornos-
tyrev, Sasha Lichtenstein, Kostya Novoselov, Marco Polini, Burkhard Sachs, Guus
Slotman, Misha Titov, Maksim Ulybyshev, Merel van Wijk, Tim Wehling, and
Shengjun Yuan. Many thanks!
New material has also been added to the old chapters. The most important new
points are:
(1) We now understand the physics and mathematics of chiral tunneling in single-
and bilayer graphene much better, therefore Chapter 4 has been expanded.
These new results were obtained in collaboration with many people, and
I especially thank Koen Reijnders and Victor Kleptsyn.
(2) I have added a new section to Chapter 5 on a spectral flow of Dirac operator in
multiconnected graphene flakes. Topological aspects of condensed matter
physics have become really hot of late, and this provides a nice and fresh
new example. This piece is based on our work with Vladimir Nazaikinskii, to
whom I also give thanks.
(3) Chapter 9 was essentially rewritten. I have added new material on mechanical
properties, which is based on our work with Jan Los and Annalisa Fasolino,
and on thermal expansion of graphene. I thank Igor Burmistrov, Igor Gornyi,
Paco Guinea, Valentin Kachorovskii, and Sasha Mirlin for collaboration and
useful discussions of this subtle issue. I also thank Achille Mauri who found
some inaccuracies in the old Chapter 9 and helped to fix them.
(4) In Chapter 11, I have added a discussion of edge scattering, which is based on
our work with Vitaly Dugaev, to whom I am very thankful for his collabor-
ation. Hydrodynamics of electronic liquid in graphene is a very fresh and
popular subject now, and I cannot avoid it. When I wrote this part, discussions
with Misha Titov and Marco Polini were very helpful.
(5) We now know much more about magnetism and spin-orbit effects in graphene
and related two-dimensional materials, therefore Chapter 12 has also been
updated. The common work with Andre Geim, Irina Grigorieva, Sasha Lich-
tenstein, Vladimir Mazurenko, and Sasha Rudenko provided essential insights
on my new understanding of the subject.
I would like to repeat all of my acknowledgments from the preface to the first
edition. Without all of these old and new collaborations and, of course, without full
support from my wife Marina, this book would be impossible.
 Preface to the first edition

I do not think that I need to explain, in the preface to a book that is all about
graphene, what graphene is and why it is important. After the Nobel Prize for
physics in 2010, everybody should have heard something about graphene. I do
need, however, to explain why I wrote this book and what is special about it.
I hope it will not be considered a disclosure of insider information if I tell you
that Andre Geim is a bit sarcastic (especially with theoreticians). Every time
I mentioned that I was somewhat busy writing a book on graphene, he always
replied “Go to Amazon.com and search for ‘graphene’.” Indeed, there are many
books on graphene, many more reviews, and infinitely many collections of papers
and conference proceedings (well, not really infinitely many . . . in the main text
I will use the mathematical terminology in a more rigorous way, I promise). Why,
nevertheless, has this book been written and why may it be worthwhile for you to
read it?
Of course, this is a personal view of the field. I do love it, and it has been my
main scientific activity during the last seven years, from 2004 when graphene
started to be the subject of intensive and systematic investigations. Luckily, I was
involved in this development almost from the very beginning. It was a fantastic
experience to watch a whole new world coming into being and to participate in the
development of a new language for this new world. I would like to try to share this
experience with the readers of this book.
The beauty of graphene is that it demonstrates in the most straightforward way
many basic concepts of fundamental physics, from Berry’s phase and topologically
protected zero modes, to strongly interacting fluctuations and scaling laws for two-
dimensional systems. It is also a real test bed for relativistic quantum phenomena
such as Klein tunneling or vacuum reconstruction – “CERN on one’s desk.” I was
not able to find a book that focused on these aspects of graphene, namely on its role
in our general physical view of the world. I have tried to write such a book myself.
The price is that I have sacrificed all practical aspects of graphene science and

xi
xii Preface to the first edition

technology, so you will not find a single word here about the ways in which
graphene is produced, and there is hardly anything about its potential applications.
Well, there is a lot of literature on these subjects. Also, I have said very little about
the chemistry of graphene, which is an extremely interesting subject in itself. It
certainly deserves a separate book, and I am not chemist enough to write it.
The field is very young, and it is not easy to know what will not be out of date in
just a couple of years. My choice is clear from the contents of this book. I do
believe that it represents the core of graphene physics, which will not be essentially
modified in the near future. I do not mean that this is the most interesting part;
moreover, I am sure that there will be impressive progress, at least, in two more
directions that are hardly mentioned in the book: in the many-body physics of
graphene and in our understanding of electron transport near the neutrality point,
where the semiclassical Boltzmann equation is obviously inapplicable. I think,
however, that it is a bit too early to cover these subjects in a book, since too many
things are not yet clear. Also, the mathematical tools required are not as easy as
those used in this book, and I think it is unfair to force the reader to learn
something technically quite complicated without a deep internal confidence that
the results are relevant for the real graphene.
The way the book has been written is how I would teach a course with the title
“Introduction to the Theory of Graphene.” I have tried to make a presentation that
is reasonably independent of other textbooks. I have therefore included some general
issues such as Berry’s phase, the statistical mechanics of fluctuating membranes, a
quick overview of itinerant-electron magnetism, a brief discussion of basic none-
quilibrium statistical mechanics, etc. The aims were, first, to show the physics of
graphene in a more general context and, second, to make the reading easier.
It is very difficult to give an overview of a field that has developed so quickly as
has that of graphene. So many papers appear, literally every day, that keeping
permanently up to date would be an enterprise in the style of ancient myths, e.g.,
those of Sisyphus, the Danaïdes, and some of the labors of Hercules. I apologize
therefore for the lack of many important references. I tried to do my best.
I cannot even list all of the scientific reviews on the basic physics of graphene
that are available now (let alone reviews of applications and of popular literature).
Let me mention at least several of them, in chronological order: Katsnelson
(2007a), Geim and Novoselov (2007), Beenakker (2008), Castro Neto et al.
(2009), Geim (2009), Abergel et al. (2010), Vozmediano, Katsnelson, and Guinea
(2010), Peres (2010), Das Sarma et al. (2011), Goerbig (2011), and Kotov et al.
(2012). There you can find different, complementary views on the field (with the
possible exception of the first one). Of course, the Nobel lectures by Geim (2011)
and Novoselov (2011) are especially strongly recommended. In particular, the
lecture by Andre Geim contains a brilliant presentation of the prehistory and
 Preface to the first edition xiii

history of graphene research, so I do not need to discuss these unavoidably

controversial issues in my book.
I am very grateful to Andre Geim and Kostya Novoselov, who involved me in
this wonderful field before it became fashionable (otherwise I would probably
never have dared to join such a brilliant company). I am especially grateful to
Andre for regular and lengthy telephone conversations; when you have to discuss a
theory using just words, without formulas and diagrams, and cannot even make
faces, after several years it does improve your understanding of theoretical physics.
It is impossible to thank all my other collaborators in the field of graphene in a
short preface, as well as other colleagues with whom I have had fruitful discussions.
I have to thank, first of all, Annalisa Fasolino, Paco Guinea, Sasha Lichtenstein, and
Tim Wehling for especially close and intensive collaboration. I am very grateful to
the former and current members of our group in Nijmegen working on graphene:
Misha Akhukov, Danil Boukhvalov, Jan Los, Koen Reijnders, Rafa Roldan, Timur
Tudorovskiy, Shengjun Yuan, and Kostya Zakharchenko, and to my other collabor-
ators and coauthors, especially Mark Auslender, Eduardo Castro, Hans De Raedt,
Olle Eriksson, Misha Fogler, Jos Giesbers, Leonya Levitov, Tony Low, Jan Kees
Maan, Hector Ochoa, Marco Polini, Sasha Rudenko, Mark van Schilfgaarde, Andrey
Shytov, Alyosha Tsvelik, Maria Vozmediano, Oleg Yazyev, and Uli Zeitler.
I am grateful to the Faculty of Science of Radboud University and the Institute
for Molecules and Materials for making available to me the time and resources for
research and writing.
I am very grateful to Marina Katsnelson and Timur Tudorovskiy for their
invaluable help with the preparation of the manuscript and for their critical reading.
I am grateful to many colleagues for permission to reproduce figures from their papers
and for providing some of the original figures used in the book. I am especially
grateful to Annalisa Fasolino for the wonderful picture that is used on the cover.
Of course, the role of my wife Marina in this book amounts to much more than
her help with the manuscript. You cannot succeed in such a long and demanding
task without support from your family. I am very grateful for her understanding
and full support.
The book is dedicated to the memory of two people who were very close to me,
my teacher Serghey Vonsovsky (1910–1998) and my friend Sasha Trefilov
(1951–2003). I worked with them for about 20 years, and they had a decisive
influence on the formation of my scientific taste and my scientific style. I thought
many times during these last seven years how sad it is that I cannot discuss some of
the new and interesting physics about graphene with them. Also, in a more
technical sense, I would not have been able to write this book without the experi-
ence of writing my previous books, Vonsovsky and Katsnelson (1989) and
Katsnelson and Trefilov (2002).
 1
The electronic structure of ideal graphene

1.1 The carbon atom

Carbon is the sixth element in the periodic table. It has two stable isotopes,
12
C (98.9% of natural carbon) with nuclear spin I = 0 and, thus, nuclear magnetic
moment μn = 0, and 13C (1.1% of natural carbon) with I = ½ and μn = 0.7024μN
(μN is the nuclear magneton); see Radzig and Smirnov (1985). Like most of the
chemical elements, it originates from nucleosynthesis in stars (for a review, see the
Nobel lecture by Fowler [1984]). Actually, it plays a crucial role in the chemical
evolution of the universe.
The stars of the first generation produced energy only by proton–proton chain
reaction, which results in the synthesis of one α-particle (nucleus 4He) from four
protons, p. Further nuclear fusion reactions might lead to the formation of either of
the isotopes 5He and 5Li (p + α collisions) or of 8Be (α + α collisions); however,
all these nuclei are very unstable. As was first realized by F. Hoyle, the chemical
evolution does not stop at helium only due to a lucky coincidence
the nucleus
12
C has an energy level close enough to the energy of three α-particles, thus, the
triple fusion reaction 3α ! 12C, being resonant, has a high enough probability.
This opens up a way to overcome the mass gap (the absence of stable isotopes with
masses 5 and 8) and provides the prerequisites for nucleosynthesis up to the most
stable nucleus, 56Fe; heavier elements are synthesized in supernova explosions.
The reaction 3α ! 12C is the main source of energy for red giants. Carbon also
plays an essential role in nuclear reactions in stars of the main sequence (heavier
than the Sun) via the so-called CNO cycle.
The carbon atom has six electrons, two of them forming a closed 1s2 shell
(helium shell) and four filling 2s and 2p states. The ground-state atomic configur-
ation is 2s2 2p2, with the total spin S = 1, total orbital moment L = 1 and total
angular moment J = 0 (the ground-state multiplet 3P0). The first excited state, with
a J = 1, 3P1 multiplet, has the energy 16.4 cm
1  2 meV (Radzig & Smirnov,

1
2 The electronic structure of ideal graphene

1985), which gives an estimate of the strength of the spin-orbit coupling in the
carbon atom. The lowest-energy state with configuration 2s1 2p3 has the energy
33,735.2 cm
1  4.2 eV (Radzig & Smirnov, 1985), so this is the promotion
energy for exciting a 2s electron into a 2p state. At first sight, this would mean that
carbon should always be divalent, due to there being two 2p electrons while the
2s electrons are chemically quite inert. This conclusion is, however, wrong.
Normally, carbon is tetravalent, due to a formation of hybridized sp electron
states, according to the concept of “resonance” developed by L. Pauling (Pauling,
1960; see also Eyring, Walter, & Kimball, 1946).
When atoms form molecules or solids, the total energy decreases due to overlap
of the electron wave functions at various sites and formation of molecular orbitals
(in molecules) or energy bands (in solids); for a compact introduction to chemical
bonding in solids, see section 1.7 in Vonsovsky and Katsnelson (1989). This
energy gain can be sufficient to provide the energy that is necessary to promote
a 2s electron into a 2p state in the carbon atom.
In order to maximize the energy gained during the formation of a covalent bond,
the overlap of the wave functions with those at neighboring atoms should also be
maximal. This is possible if the neighboring atoms are situated in such directions
from the central atoms that the atomic wave functions take on maximum values.
The larger these values are, the stronger the bond is. There are four basis functions
corresponding to the spherical harmonics
1
Y 0, 0 ðϑ; φÞ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffi ,
4π
rffiffiffiffiffi
3
Y 1, 0 ðϑ; φÞ ¼ i cos ϑ, (1.1)
4π
rffiffiffiffiffi
3
Y 1, 1 ðϑ; φÞ ¼ i sin ϑ exp ðiφÞ,
8π
where ϑ and φ are polar angles. Rather than take the functions Yl, m(ϑ, φ) to be the
basis functions, it is more convenient to choose their orthonormalized linear
combinations of the form
rffiffiffiffiffi
i 3
pffiffiffi ½Y 1, 1 ðϑ; φÞ
Y 1,
1 ðϑ; φÞ ¼ sin ϑ cos φ,
2 4π
rffiffiffiffiffi
i 3
pffiffiffi ½Y 1, 1 ðϑ; φÞ þ Y 1,
1 ðϑ; φÞ ¼ sin ϑ sin φ, (1.2)
2 4π
rffiffiffiffiffi
3

iY 1, 0 ðϑ; φÞ ¼ cos ϑ,
4π
 1.1 The carbon atom 3

which are transformed under rotations as the Cartesian coordinates x, y, and z,

respectively. The radial components of the s and p functions in the simplest
approximation are supposed to be equal in magnitude (which is of course a p very
ffiffiffiffiffi
strong assumption) and may be omitted, together with the constant factor 1= 4π
which is not important here. Then the angular dependence of the four basis
functions that we will introduce in lieu of Y1,m(ϑ, φ) can be represented as
jsi ¼ 1,
pffiffiffi pffiffiffi pffiffiffi (1.3)
jxi ¼ 3 sin ϑ cos φ, jyi ¼ 3 sin ϑ sin φ, jzi ¼ 3 cos ϑ:
We now seek linear combinations of the functions (1.3) that will ensure maximum
overlap with the functions of the adjacent atoms. This requires that the value
of α ¼ max ψ be a maximum. With the normalization that we have chosen,
ϑ, φ
pffiffiffi
α = 1 for the s states and α ¼ 3 for the p functions of jxi, jyi, and jzi. We then
represent the function jψi as
jψ i ¼ ajsi þ b1 jxi þ b2 jyi þ b3 jzi, (1.4)
where a and bi are real-valued coefficients that satisfy the normalization condition

a2 þ b21 þ b22 þ b23 ¼ 1: (1.5)

The function jψi, then, is normalized in the same way as (1.3). This follows from
their mutual orthogonality
ð
dojψ ðϑ; φÞj2  hψjψ i ¼ a2 hsjsi þ b21 hxjxi þ b22 hyjyi þ b23 hzjzi ¼ 4π,

with do being an element of solid angle. For the time being, the orientation of the
axes in our case is arbitrary.
Let us assume that in one of the functions ψ for which α is a maximum, this
maximum value is reached in the direction along the diagonal of the cube (1, 1, 1),
with the carbon atom at its center and with the coordinate axes parallel to its edges
(Fig. 1.1). Then b1 = b2 = b3 = b. The (1, 1, 1) direction is given by angles ϑ and φ
such that
rffiffiffi
1 1 2
sin φ ¼ cos φ ¼ pffiffiffi , cos ϑ ¼ pffiffiffi , sin ϑ ¼ ,
2 3 3
so that
jxi = jyi = jzi = 1.
In addition,
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
α ¼ a þ 3b ¼ a þ 3ð1
a2 Þ, (1.6)
4 The electronic structure of ideal graphene

Z
(–1,–1,1)
(1,1,1)

Y
X

(–1,1,–1)

(1,–1,–1)

Fig. 1.1 Directions of sp3 chemical bonds of the carbon atom.

where we have used the conditions (1.3). The maximum of α as a function of a is

reached for a ¼ 12 and is equal to 2. The quantity b in this case is equal to 12. Thus
the first orbital with maximum values along the coordinate axes that we have
chosen is of the form
1
j1i ¼ ðjsi þ jxi þ jyi þ jziÞ: (1.7)
2
It can be readily shown that the functions
1
j2i ¼ ðjsi þ jxi
jyi
jziÞ,
2
1
j3i ¼ ðjsi
jxi þ jyi
jziÞ, (1.8)
2
1
j4i ¼ ðjsi
jxi
jyi þ jziÞ
2
correspond to the same value α = 2. The functions jii (i = 1, 2, 3, 4) are mutually
orthogonal. They take on their maximum values along the (1,1, 1), (1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 1),
and (1, 1, 1) axes, i.e., along the axes of the tetrahedron, and, therefore, the
maximum gain in chemical-bonding energy corresponds to the tetrahedral environ-
ment of the carbon atom. In spite of being qualitative, the treatment that we have
performed here nevertheless explains the character of the crystal structure of the
periodic table group-IV elements (diamond-type lattice, Fig. 1.2) as well as the shape
of the methane molecule, which is very close to being tetrahedral.
The wave functions (1.7) and (1.8) correspond to a so-called sp3 state of the
carbon atom, for which all chemical bonds are equivalent. Another option is that
three sp electrons form hybrid covalent bonds, whereas one p electron has a special
destiny, being distributed throughout the whole molecule (benzene) or the whole
 1.2 π States in graphene 5

Fig. 1.2 The structure of diamond.

crystal (graphite or graphene). If one repeats the previous consideration for a

smaller basis, including only functions, jsi, jxi and, jyi one finds the following
functions corresponding to the maximum overlap (Eyring, Walter, & Kimball,
1946):
1  pffiffiffi 
j1i ¼ pffiffiffi jsi þ 2jxi ,
3
1 1 1
j2i ¼ pffiffiffi jsi
pffiffiffi jxi þ pffiffiffi jyi, (1.9)
3 6 2
1 1 1
j3i ¼ pffiffiffi jsi
pffiffiffi jxi
pffiffiffi jyi:
3 6 2
The corresponding orbits have maxima in the xy-plane separated by angles of 120 .
These are called σ bonds. The last electron with the p orbital perpendicular to the
plane (jzi function) forms a π bond. This state (sp2) is therefore characterized by
threefold coordination of carbon atoms, in contrast with fourfold coordination for
the sp3 state. This is the case of graphite (Fig. 1.3).

1.2 π States in graphene

Graphene has a honeycomb crystal lattice as shown in Fig. 1.4(a). The Bravais
lattice is triangular, with the lattice vectors
a  pffiffiffi a pffiffiffi
~
a1 ¼ 3; 3 , ~ a2 ¼ 3;
3 , (1.10)
2 2
6 The electronic structure of ideal graphene

Fig. 1.3 The structure of graphite.

(a)
(b)
ky b1

A B

Γ M kx
a1
K´

a2
b2

Fig. 1.4 (a) A honeycomb lattice: sublattices A and B are shown as black and
gray. (b) Reciprocal lattice vectors and some special points in the Brillouin zone.

∘
where a  1:42 A is the nearest-neighbor distance. It corresponds to a so-
called conjugated carbon–carbon bond (like in benzene) intermediate between a
∘ ∘
single bond and a double bond, with lengths r1  1:54 A and r2  1:31 A ,
respectively.
The honeycomb lattice contains two atoms per elementary cell. They belong to
two sublattices, A and B, each atom from sublattice A being surrounded by three
atoms from sublattice B, and vice versa (a bipartite lattice). The nearest-neighbor
vectors are
a  pffiffiffi ~ a pffiffiffi
~δ1 ¼ 1; 3 , δ2 ¼ 1;
3 , ~ δ3 ¼ að
1; 0Þ: (1.11)
2 2
 1.2 π States in graphene 7

Fig. 1.5 The band structure of graphene.

(Reproduced with permission from Boukhvalov, Katsnelson, & Lichtenstein, 2008.)

The reciprocal lattice is also triangular, with the lattice vectors

2π  pffiffiffi ~ 2π  pffiffiffi
~
b1 ¼ 1; 3 , b2 ¼ 1;
3 : (1.12)
3a 3a
The Brillouin zone is presented in Fig. 1.4(b). Special high-symmetry points K, K0 ,
and M are shown there, with the wave vectors
     
2π 2π ~ 2π 2π ~ 2π
~
K ¼0
; p ffiffi
ffi ; K¼ ;
p ffiffi
ffi , M¼ ;0 : (1.13)
3a 3 3a 3a 3 3a 3a
The electronic structures of graphene and graphite are discussed in detail in
Bassani and Pastori Parravicini (1975). In Fig. 1.5 we show a recent computational
result for graphene. The sp2 hybridized states (σ states) form occupied and
empty bands with a huge gap, whereas pz (π) states form a single band, with a
conical self-crossing point in K (the same point, by symmetry, exists also in K0 ).
This conical point is a characteristic of the peculiar electronic structure of graphene
and the origin of its unique electronic properties. It was first obtained by Wallace
(1947) in the framework of a simple tight-binding model. Furthermore this model
was developed by McClure (1957) and Slonczewski and Weiss (1958).
Let us start, following Wallace (1947), with the nearest-neighbor approximation
for the π states only, with the hopping parameter t. The basis of electron states
contains two π states belonging to the atoms from sublattices A and B. In the
nearest-neighbor approximation, there are no hopping processes within the sub-
lattices; hopping occurs only between them. The tight-binding Hamiltonian is
therefore described by the 2 2 matrix
8 The electronic structure of ideal graphene
0  1
  0 tS ~
k
^ ~
H k ¼@   A, (1.14)
tS∗ ~k 0

where ~
k is the wave vector and
  X    pffiffiffi
~ k~
i~δ ikx a ky a 3
S k ¼ e ¼ 2 exp cos þ exp ð
ikx aÞ: (1.15)
~
2 2
δ

The energy is, therefore,

     rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 ffi
 ~ 
E k ¼ t S k  ¼ t 3 þ f ~
~ k , (1.16)

where
  pffiffiffi  pffiffiffi   
~ 3 3
f k ¼ 2 cos 3ky a þ 4 cos ky a cos kx a : (1.17)
2 2
  0
One can see immediately that S K~ ¼S K ~ ¼ 0, which means band crossing. On
expanding the Hamiltonian near these points one finds
0  1
3at @ 0 α qx þ iqy
^ K 0 ð~
H qÞ    A
2 α∗ qx
iqy 0
0  1
3at @ 0 α qx
iqy
^ K ð~
H qÞ    A (1.18)
2 α∗ qx þ iqy 0

q ¼~
where α = e5iπ/6, with ~ k
K ~ and~
k
K ~0 respectively. The phase 5π/6 can be
excluded by a unitary transformation of the basis functions. Thus, the effective
Hamiltonians near the points K and K0 take the form
 
^ K , K 0 ð~ 0 qx  iqy
H qÞ ¼ ℏv , (1.19)
qx  iqy 0

where
3ajt j
v¼ (1.20)
2ℏ
is the electron velocity at the conical points. The possible negative sign of t can be
excluded by an additional phase shift by π.
 1.2 π States in graphene 9

On taking into account the next-nearest-neighbor hopping t0 , one finds, instead

of Eq. (1.16),
       rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 ffi  
 ~ 
E k ¼ tS k  þ t f k ¼ t 3 þ f ~
~ 0 ~
k þ t0 f ~
k : (1.21)

The second term breaks the electron–hole symmetry, shifting the conical point
from E = 0 to E =
3t0 , but it does not change the behavior of the Hamiltonian
near the conical points. Actually, this behavior is symmetry-protected (and even
topologically protected), as we will see in the next section.
Note that, contrary to the sign of t, the sign of t0 describing the hopping within
the same sublattice cannot be changed by unitary transformation.
The points K and
K0 differ by the reciprocal lattice vector ~ b ¼~ b1
~
b2 , so the
0
point K is equivalent to
K. To show this explicitly, it is sometimes convenient to
use a larger unit cell in the reciprocal space, with six conical points. The spectrum
(1.16) in this representation is shown in Fig. 1.6.
The parameters of the effective tight-binding model can be found by fitting
the results of first-principles electronic-structure calculations. According to Reich
et al. (2002), the first three hopping parameters are t =
2.97 eV, t0 =
0.073 eV
and t00 =
0.33 eV. Experimental estimates (Kretinin et al., 2013) yield t0 
0.3
eV 15%. The smallness of t0 in comparison with t means that the electron–hole
symmetry of the spectrum is quite accurate not only in the vicinity of the conical
points but also throughout the whole Brillouin zone.
There are saddle points of the electron energy spectrum at M (see Figs. 1.5
and 1.6), with Van Hove singularities in the electron density of states,
δN(E) /
ln j E
EMj (Bassani & Pastori Parravicini, 1975). The positions of
these singularities with the parameters from Reich et al. (2002) are
EM
= t + t0
3t00 
2.05eV

Fig. 1.6 The electron energy spectrum of graphene in the nearest-neighbor

approximation.
10 The electronic structure of ideal graphene

and
EM+ =
t + t 0 + 3t 00  1.91eV.

The Hamiltonian (1.14) in the representation (1.15) has an obvious trigonal

symmetry (a symmetry with respect to rotation at 120 ). At the same time, it is
not periodic in the reciprocal space, which may be inconvenient for some calcula-
tions (of course, its eigenvalues (1.16) are periodic). This can be fixed by the
change of basis, e.g., by multiplying the A-component of the wave function by a
factor exp ð
i~k~δ3 Þ. Then, instead of Eq. (1.15) we will have the expression
⇀ ~~ ~ ~~ ~
Sðk Þ ¼ 1 þ eikðδ1
δ3 Þ þ eikðδ2
δ3 Þ ,

which is obviously periodic but its trigonal symmetry is now hidden. The use of
the representation is dictated by convenience for a specific problem.

1.3 Massless Dirac fermions in graphene

Undoped graphene has a Fermi energy coinciding with the energy at the conical
points, with a completely filled valence band, an empty conduction band, and no
band gap in between. This means that, from the point of view of a general band
theory, graphene is an example of a gapless semiconductor (Tsidilkovskii, 1996).
Three-dimensional crystals, such as HgTe and α-Sn (gray tin) are known to be
gapless semiconductors. What makes graphene unique is not the gapless state itself
but the very special, chiral nature of the electron states, as well as the high degree
of electron–hole symmetry.
For any realistic doping, the Fermi energy is close to the energy at the conical
point, jEF j « j tj. To construct an effective model describing electron and hole
states in this regime one needs to expand the effective Hamiltonian near one of the
special points K and K0 and then make the replacements
∂ ∂
qx !
i , qy !
i ,
∂x ∂y
which corresponds to the effective mass approximation, or ~ k~p perturbation
theory (Tsidilkovskii, 1982; Vonsovsky & Katsnelson, 1989). From Eq. (1.19),
one has
H^ K ¼
iℏv~
σ r, (1.22)
^ K0 ¼ H
H ^ TK , (1.23)
where
       
1 0 0 1 0
i 1 0
σ0 ¼ , σx ¼ , σy ¼ , σz ¼ (1.24)
0 1 1 0 i 0 0
1
 1.3 Massless Dirac fermions in graphene 11

are Pauli matrices (only x- and y-components enter Eq. (1.22)) and T denotes a
transposed matrix. A complete low-energy Hamiltonian consists of 4 4 matrices
taking into account both two sublattices and two conical points (in terms of
semiconductor physics, two valleys).
In the basis
0 1
ψ KA
B ψ KB C
Ψ¼B C
@ ψ K 0 A A, (1.25)
ψK0B
where ψKA means a component of the electron wave function corresponding to
valley K and sublattice A, the Hamiltonian is a 2 2 block supermatrix
 
^K
H 0
^
H¼
0 H ^ K0 : (1.26)

Sometimes it is more convenient to choose the basis as

0 1
ψ KA
B ψ KB C
Ψ¼B @ ψ K0 B A
C (1.27)

ψ K0 A
(Aleiner & Efetov, 2006; Akhmerov & Beenakker, 2008; Basko, 2008), then the
Hamiltonian (1.26) takes the most symmetric form
^ ¼
iℏvτ0 ⊗~
H σ r, (1.28)
where τ0 is the unit matrix in valley indices (we will use different notations for the
same Pauli matrices acting on different indices, namely, ~ σ in the sublattice space
and ~τ in the valley space).
For the case of an ideal graphene, the valleys are decoupled. If we add some
inhomogeneities (external electric and magnetic fields, disorder, etc.) that are smooth
at the atomic scale, the valleys remain independent, since the Fourier component of
external potential with the Umklapp wave vector ~ b is very small, and intervalley
scattering is improbable. We will deal mainly with this case. However, one should
keep in mind that any sharp (atomic-scale) inhomogeneities, e.g., boundaries or
vacancies, will mix the states from different valleys, see Chapters 5 and 6.
The Hamiltonian (1.22) is a two-dimensional analog of the Dirac Hamiltonian
for massless fermions (Bjorken & Drell, 1964; Berestetskii, Lifshitz, & Pitaevskii,
1971; Davydov, 1976). Instead of the velocity of light c, there is a parameter
v  106 ms
1  c/300 (we will discuss later, in Chapter 2, how this parameter has
been found experimentally).
12 The electronic structure of ideal graphene

A formal similarity between ultrarelativistic particles (with energy much larger

than the rest energy mc2, such that one can consider the particles as massless) and
electrons in graphene makes graphene a playground on which to study various
quantum relativistic effects
“CERN on one’s desk.” These relationships between
the physics of graphene and relativistic quantum mechanics will be considered in
the next several chapters.
The internal degree of freedom, which is just spin for “true” Dirac fermions, is
the sublattice index in the case of graphene. The Dirac “spinors” consist here of the
components describing the distribution of electrons in sublattices A and B. We will
call this quantum number pseudospin, so that pseudospin “up” means sublattice
A and pseudospin “down” means sublattice B. Apart from the pseudospin, there
are two more internal degrees of freedom, namely the valley label (sometimes
called isospin) and real spin. So the most general low-energy Hamiltonian of
electrons in graphene is an 8 8 matrix.
Spin-orbit coupling leads to a mixture of pseudospin and real spin and to the gap
opening (Kane & Mele, 2005b). However, the value of the gap is supposed to be
very small, of the order of 10
2 K for pristine graphene (Huertas-Hernando,
Guinea, & Brataas, 2006). The reason is not only the lightness of carbon atoms
but also the orientation of orbital moments for pz states perpendicular to the
graphene plane. In silicene and germanene, that is, Si and Ge analogs of graphene,
the structure is buckled, which leads to a dramatic enhancement of the spin-orbit
coupling (Acun et al., 2015). Defects can significantly enhance the spin-orbit
coupling (Castro Neto & Guinea, 2009) and the corresponding effects are relevant,
e.g., for spin relaxation in graphene (Huertas-Hernando, Guinea, & Brataas, 2009),
but the influence of spin-orbit coupling on the electronic structure is negligible.
Henceforth we will neglect these effects, until the end of the book (see Section
12.4).
For the case of “true” Dirac fermions in three-dimensional space, the
Hamiltonian is a 4 4 matrix, due to two projections of spins and two values of
a charge degree of freedom – particle versus antiparticle. For the two-dimensional
case the latter is not independent of the former. Electrons and holes are just linear
combinations of the states from the sublattices A and B. The 2 2 matrix ℏv~ σ~k
(the result of action of the Hamiltonian (1.22) on a plane wave with wave vector ~ k)
is diagonalized by the unitary transformation

^ ~ ¼ p1ffiffiffi 1 þ i~
U m~k~
σ , (1.29)
k
2
  
~~k ¼ sin ϕ~k ;
cos ϕ~k , and ϕ~k is the polar angle of the vector ~
where m k m~~k ⊥~
k .
The eigenfunctions
 1.3 Massless Dirac fermions in graphene 13
 !
  1 exp
iϕ~k =2
ðKÞ
ψ e, h ~
k ¼ pffiffiffi  (1.30)
2  exp iϕ~k =2

correspond to electron (e) and hole (h) states, with the energies

Ee, h =  ℏvk. (1.31)

For the valley K0 the corresponding states (in the basis (1.25)) are
 !
0
  1 exp iϕ~ =2
ψ e, h ~
ðK Þ k
k ¼ pffiffiffi  : (1.32)
2  exp
iϕ~k =2

Of course, this choice of the wave functions is not unique, they can be multiplied
by an arbitrary phase factor; only the ratio of the components of the spinor
corresponding to the sublattices A and B has a physical meaning.
For the electron (hole) states, by definition
 
~ σ
k~
ψ e,h ¼ ψ e,h : (1.33)
k
This means that the electrons (holes) in graphene have a definite pseudospin
direction, namely parallel (antiparallel) to the direction of motion. Thus, these
states are chiral (helical), as should be the case for massless Dirac fermions
(Bjorken & Drell, 1964). This is of crucial importance for “relativistic” effects,
such as Klein tunneling, which will be considered in Chapter 4.
The Dirac model for electrons in graphene results from the lowest-order expan-
sion of the tight-binding Hamiltonian (1.14) near the conical points. If one takes
into account the next, quadratic, term, one finds, instead of the Hamiltonian (1.28)
(in the basis (1.27))
h  i
^ ¼ ℏvτ0 ⊗~
H σ~
k þ μτz ⊗ 2σ y kx k y
σ x k 2x
k2y , (1.34)

where μ = 3a2t/8. The additional term in Eq. (1.34) corresponds to a trigonal

warping (Ando, Nakanishi, & Saito, 1998; McCann et al., 2006). Diagonalization
   
of the Hamiltonian (1.34) gives the spectrum Ee, h ~
k ¼ ε ~
k , where
  
ε ~
2
k ¼ ℏ2 v2 k2  2ℏvμk3 cos 3ϕ~k þ μ2 k 4 , (1.35)

with the signs ∓ corresponding to valleys K and K0 . The dispersion law is no longer
   
isotropic but has threefold (trigonal) symmetry. Importantly, ε ~ k 6¼ ε
~ k ,
14 The electronic structure of ideal graphene

which means that the trigonal warping destroys an effective time-reversal sym-
   
metry for a given valley (the property E ~
k ¼ E
~ k follows from the time-
reversal symmetry [Vonsovsky & Katsnelson, 1989]). Of course, for the electron
spectrum as a whole, taking into account the two valleys, the symmetry holds:
   
~ ~ ~
ε k þ K ¼ ε
k
K : ~ (1.36)

At the end of this section we show, following Mañes, Guinea, and Vozmediano
(2007), that the gapless state with the conical point is symmetry-protected. The
proof is very simple and based on consideration of two symmetry operations: time
reversal T and inversion I. We will use the basis (1.25) and the extended-Brillouin-
zone representation of Fig. 1.6 assuming K ~0 ¼
K:~ The time reversal changes the
sign of the wave vector, or valley,
Tψ KðA;BÞ ¼ ψ ∗
KðA;BÞ ¼ ψ K0 ðA;BÞ , (1.37)

whereas the inversion also exchanges the sublattices:

IψKA = ψK0B, IψKB = ψK0A. (1.38)

^K
Invariance under these symmetries imposes the following conditions for H
^
and H K0 :

T : HK = H∗K0 = HK, (1.39)

I : HK = σxHK0 σx = HK. (1.40)

Indeed,
   
a11 a12 a22 a21
σx σ ¼ , (1.41)
a21 a22 x a12 a11

so the operation in (1.40) does exchange the A and B sublattices.

The conditions (1.39) and (1.40) establish relations between the Hamiltonians
for the different valleys. If we use both these symmetry transformations we impose
restrictions on HK and HK0 separately, e.g.,
TI : H K ¼ σ x H ∗
K σx ¼ HK: (1.42)
If we write the Hamiltonian as
X
HK ¼ αi σ i
i
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 Briefly stated, I had been discharged the day before. Fired, canned—call
it what you will; and for what I now recognize to have been an entirely good
and sufficient reason.
But in the hot-headed asininity which I had not the sense to master in
those days, I had flared up to the quiet, but firm, remonstrance of my chief.
It had been a case in which I had exceeded my orders, and I thought he
ought rather to have applauded my zeal.
So that; in that blurting, blubbering fashion of the man who can’t keep his
temper, I had let out a string of heated nonsense.
Whereupon Chief Garth’s tone had raised not a whit.
“Well, Grey,” said he slowly—too slowly, “I’m sorry, though I was afraid
it would have to come. I had hoped it wouldn’t; but I simply cannot brook
such repeated displays of inability to control your temper. I might waive the
personal note; but I must not lose sight of the fact that such a trait,
unmastered, makes you less a man to be relied upon.”
I started to interrupt him, but a gesture checked me.
“You remember,” said he, holding his same evenness, “that I told you the
very first day you entered the detective service that orders were orders, and
that I was distinctly a martinet. Now, I like you, and I’m not chary of
admitting that you’re a very valuable man to me in many ways. But——”
And here I had been fool enough to whirl into my usual, youthful burst of
independence. As I look back upon the scene, the chief was too moderate;
though I did flounce from his office finally, with my pay to date and walking
papers.
But now—what a change one look into certain eyes can make—I sat
there on that hotel porch and realized what an ass I was. And, by the way,
such a realization proved most salutary.
For, next instant, I made up my mind to eat “humble pie.” I wouldn’t
waste a minute in finding the chief. I would make a straightforward apology
and ask him to reinstate me.
Of course, it was long past office hours, but I decided not to let my
resolution cool.
I knew where Chief Garth lived, and could count pretty well upon his
being at home; for that little wife of his held him snug enough by her
whenever he wasn’t personally engaged on an important case.
 So I bolted my meal, and caught the ferryboat which landed at East
Ninety-ninth Street. I even took a taxi to his house, so firmly did my new
resolution grip me.
Finally we whirled the last corner, and brought up sharp before Chief
Garth’s house, which was brilliantly enough indicated by a Welsbach light in
the vestibule.
It showed the number plainly, and, just as I stepped from the cab and paid
my fare, it showed more. For, at this moment, the door opened. I heard a
word or two exchanged; then the door closed, and a man came down the
stoop as hurriedly as a slight limp would let him.
He passed close by me as I was about to mount the steps, and I
experienced that uncomfortable sensation of having seen him some time, but
no more. Such a haunting inability to spot my man is one of my worst points
as a detective.
“Anyway,” thought I, “whoever he is, he’s in about as bad a temper as
I’ve ever seen ’em.”
With that I rang, and was admitted by a negress. It wasn’t another minute
before I was ushered into the chief’s den.
He was pacing up and down, puffing violently at a fat cigar. From his first
word, I knew him well enough to know that he was anything but displeased
at my showing up.
“Well, Grey,” he grumbled, “what’s the lay now?”
Five hours before I would have snapped back a sharp retort and seen him
to the deuce, but things glowed different now.
“Why, chief,” I replied, with a laugh, “I just came back because I think
you’ll want me now. You see, I’ve sworn off—losing my temper.”
He stopped short before me and shot me a glance.
“You mean it?” said he. “Because if you do,” he went on, “I believe you.
The one thing that has always struck me about your past offenses is—that
you never have promised to do better in the future. And, strange as it may
seem,” he chuckled, “that’s the very reason I put up with you so long.”
“Well, I mean it now,” said I simply.
My tone must have carried complete conviction, for his manner abruptly
changed.
 “Sit down,” said he suddenly, and we faced each other over his broad,
flat-top desk. “It just happens at this moment that I do need you, Grey; and
need you pretty bad, too; for I’ve just been put in line with a thing that
already got beyond Pawlinson, of Washington.”
“Yes?” said I, catching fire at the interest.
“The affair was important enough to warrant Pawlinson taking the trail
himself; and it certainly has led him a pretty dance during the two days he’s
been at it.”
I had never met Pawlinson personally, but his position among us was the
byword of efficiency. I glowed to the compliment the chief was indirectly
paying me.
“What’s the exact nature of the case?” said I.
“That’s just it,” muttered Garth disgustedly. “What we’ve got to go on is
the slimmest ever. Pawlinson’s so cursed secretive that he hasn’t even let out
what the fellow’s wanted for.
“Fact is, Pawlinson was here; just this moment gone. You must have
passed him coming in. But for all he’s been pretty definitely shaken off the
trail, he won’t let out but this much:
“A man answering this description”—here the chief tossed me the usual
paper of height, color of hair, et cetera—“arrived off quarantine aboard the
Benzobia yesterday at daylight. Pawlinson had one of his men waiting for
him when the vessel docked; but in some outlandish way the chap managed
to get the skipper to let him go over the side and into a gasoline launch that
hove alongside while they were slowing down just abreast of Liberty.
“Now Pawlinson gets kind of hazy as to just what happened directly after
that,” continued the chief; “nor does he give me any particulars as to how he
ever managed to get a berth as engineer of the little launch. But how he lost
the job he told me fully enough; and he sprinkled the narrative with plenty of
cuss words. It seems that while the launch was waiting for the fellow at the
town dock of Port Washington, Long Island, that——”
“Port Washington!” I cried sharply.
“Why, yes—know the place?” He, of course, couldn’t understand my
excitement.
“And do you mean to tell me that it was Pawlinson himself whom I saw
that fellow shoot so prettily over the rail with a punch that would do your
heart good?” Things were fitting together for me now. But they certainly
were not for the chief.
“What the deuce are you talking about, anyway?” he said. “I hadn’t told
you about that yet.”
“I know, I know,” I jumbled on; “but what does Pawlinson say of the girl?
What had she to do with the thing, anyway?”
“The girl? For Heaven’s sake, Grey, how much do you know about this
thing?”
But he got little satisfaction from me then, for a sudden realization swept
over me.
I caught up the paper describing the man who was wanted, and crowded
it into my pocket.
“Explain later, chief,” I blurted, making for the door. “I’ll wire you the
minute I’ve got him located. Meanwhile wire me money when I call for it,
will you?”
“Aye, aye, boy!” agreed the chief, understanding thoroughly that even his
curiosity must wait. He was a big enough man to know when to play second
fiddle.
So I caught the midnight train to Boston which connected with the
Portland express.
 CHAPTER IV.

TWO PANETELAS.

Upon quitting Chief Garth’s door and trotting down his stoop, I walked
briskly westward in the direction of a square which I counted upon getting
another cab; for, expecting no further use of him, I had dismissed my former
driver. I found two cabs, both taxis, and immediately stepped toward the
nearest.
“Grand Central Station!” said I to the fellow dozing on his seat.
He came to with a start just as I was yanking open the door.
“Hold on a minute, mister,” stammered the man, “I’m engaged.”
I glanced at his “clock.” Sure enough, his “vacant” sign was down. He
was waiting for somebody.
“Bill, yonder, ain’t got no fare,” offered the driver, thumbing in the
direction of the car beyond. “He’ll carry ye.”
And next minute I had given directions to “Bill,” who cranked forthwith;
and, speed having evidently showed in my attitude, we turned the corner
almost on two wheels. But my ear caught the whir of the first car as it, in
turn, was started.
I might have saved myself some anxiety had I stopped to think that, near
midnight as it was, the streets were free from traffic. There is something in
me that delights in speed, and that ride was a little slice of joy in itself. We
reached the station in plenty of time for my train.
I broke the twenty-dollar bill I had so easily earned that afternoon, and
secured my berth before boarding the Pullman.
Some impulse prompted me to turn my head just as I was passing through
the gate entrance to trains; and the station, at this hour, was deserted enough
for me to note the fact that another man stood before the Pullman ticket
window, his back toward me. Once aboard the sleeping car, I slipped a
quarter into the eagerly expectant palm of the dusky attendant, and said:
“Make up number seven, George,” and then passed up the aisle into the
smoking room.
 I had been on a steady and momentous jump since the minute I had
clapped my eyes on the launch at a quarter to five. I must run over things a
bit; and I reasoned that the two dark-hued panetelas that still remained
unbroken in my upper vest pocket would help.
What I wondered at was my own attitude in the matter of this chase.
Where did I stand? Here I was, without any data whatever as to what he was
wanted for, virtually throwing myself into the chase of a man who had
shown himself closely related in some way to a girl whom I had, in a most
freakish and outlandish manner, fallen in love with. Why?
Honesty with myself soon told me that it wasn’t alone professional duty
that was whirling me toward Portland.
But what of Pawlinson? It must be big game, or he wouldn’t be connected
with it, let alone personally engaged in sleuth work.
Then, again, how was I going to figure with Pawlinson when he
discovered that I, who now was engaged as his own hireling through Chief
Garth, was the selfsame man who had just thwarted him by having him
punched prettily over the side of a launch?
I was really not much to blame in this; for I had done the thing
unwittingly enough; but such things aren’t easily brooked. In spite of myself,
though, I couldn’t help chuckling at the memory of the incident.
I had never seen Pawlinson before; but I stood in as much awe as the rest
of the cubs at his name; and it did me a bit of inward good to think of the
merriment I could make in recounting the thing to them later.
I knew little of the history of the man; but the little I did know was out of
the ordinary.
To begin with, nobody had ever heard that such a man existed until a
short three years before; but then he had suddenly sprung into the most
dazzling limelight.
At that time the entire country had been bewildered and infuriated by a
succession of daring safe-crackings. To make it worse, these jobs were, in
nearly every instance, characterized by what appeared to be the most useless
bloodshed. The perpetrators had seemed to go out of their way to use pistol
and dirk.
Watchmen were found viciously stabbed; clerks, working late, had been
murdered; and all these crimes had been committed in small communities
and upon small dealers.
 From chagrin, the public had quickly turned to indignation and storm; for
the detective force had proved themselves absolutely powerless and
inefficient.
Then had come Pawlinson.
He entered Washington headquarters one day, and quietly informed the
chief there that he wanted to enter the detective service. Asked his
credentials and former experience, he as quietly stated that by the end of that
week he would bring in the entire gang that was puzzling them all.
And he did. Since which his place had been established, a place not a
little enhanced by the very mysteriousness of him; a mysteriousness which I
had heard he was at no pains to explain or eliminate.
“Well”—I concluded my soliloquy finally—“here I am mixed right up—
and closely, too—with Pawlinson himself.”
But my duty was clear enough. I had told the chief I would wire him
when I had located the man; and so, not only my own word, but his, as my
chief, was out.
“That much I can do, anyway,” I grunted to myself, dropping the end of
my second cigar into the cuspidor. “Beyond that we shall see what we shall
see.”
With that I quitted the smoking room and sought my berth. As I lurched
at a rolling gait down the aisle toward my number, for we were hitting up a
lively clip, I noticed that all the berths had been made up by this time.
Then I seemed to recall that, in my abstraction, I had been vaguely
conscious of a stop some half hour before; and I now reasoned that it was
Stamford, Connecticut, or thereabout.
In the aisle I stripped off coat, vest, collar, tie, and shirt; then, just before
ducking under the heavy curtain for the berth, and for no real reason that I
yet know, I happened to sweep my eye up and down the car from one end to
the other. And I could vow to this day that I saw the curtains of both number
nine and number three drawn vigorously in toward the respective berths.
But really, down deep, I am of a care-free nature, and I was asleep in
three shakes.
TO BE CONTINUED.
CAUGHT IN THE COILS.
 The following adventure which befell Speke, the great explorer, forms
one of the most thrilling episodes in a life full of perils and escapes. Captain
Speke himself tells the tale.
It appears that he, with his comrade Grant, left the camp together one day
to hunt game for their supper. Their first victim was a fine young buffalo
cow.
Soon after, they had a prospect of still better fortune. An enormous
elephant with particularly fine tusks was observed within range. Speke
quickly brought his rifle up to his shoulder, took a careful aim, and fired.
A moment after, as he was watching for the effect of his shot, he heard a
startled exclamation from the attendant negroes, and looked round.
To his horror, he saw a huge boa constrictor in the very act of darting
down upon him from a branch overhead.
In less than a second—indeed, before he had time to stir a muscle to
spring aside—the beast had shot out of the heavy foliage and caught him in a
coil. Speke put out all his strength to get clear, and at the same instant,
glancing round for help, saw Grant standing a few paces away, with rifle
leveled.
“In a moment,” he continues, “I comprehended all. The huge serpent had
struck the young buffalo cow, between which and him I had unluckily placed
myself at the moment of firing upon the elephant. A most singular good
fortune attended me, however, for, instead of being crushed into a mangled
mass with the unfortunate cow, my left forearm had only been caught in
between the buffalo’s body and a single fold of the constrictor. The limb lay
just in front of the shoulder, at the root of the neck, and thus had a short bed
of flesh, into which it was jammed, as it were, by the immense pressure of
the serpent’s body, that was like iron in hardness.
“As I saw Grant about to shoot, a terror took possession of me; for if he
refrained, I might possibly escape, after the boa released its folds from the
dead cow; but should he fire and strike the reptile, it would, in its
convulsions, crush or drag me to pieces.
“Even as the idea came to me, I beheld Grant pause. He appeared fully to
comprehend all. He could see how I was situated, that I was still living, and
that my delivery depended upon the will of the constrictor. We could see
every one of each other’s faces, so close were we, and I would have shouted
or spoken or even whispered to him, had I dared. But the boa’s head was
reared within a few feet of mine, and a wink of an eyelid would perhaps
settle my doom; so I stared, stared, stared, like a dead man at Grant and at
the blacks.
“Presently the serpent began very gradually to relax his folds, and, after
retightening them several times as the crushed buffalo quivered, he unwound
one fold entirely. Then he paused.
“The next ironlike band was the one which held me a prisoner; and as I
felt it, little by little, unclasping, my heart stood still with hope and fear.
Perhaps, upon being free, the benumbed arm, uncontrolled by any will,
might fall from the cushionlike bed in which it lay! And such a mishap
might bring the spare fold around my neck or chest—and then farewell to
the sources of the Nile!
“Oh, how hard, how desperately I struggled to command myself! I
glanced at Grant, and saw him handling his rifle anxiously. I glanced at the
negroes, and saw them still gazing, as though petrified with astonishment. I
glanced at the serpent’s loathsome head, and saw its bright, deadly eyes
watching for the least sign of life in its prey.
“Now, then, the reptile loosened its fold on my arm a hair’s-breadth, and
now a little more, till half an inch of space separated my arm and its mottled
skin. I could have whipped out my hand, but dared not take the risk. Atoms
of time dragged themselves into ages, and a minute seemed eternity itself.
“The second fold was removed entirely, and the next one easing. Should I
dash away now, or wait a more favorable moment? I decided upon the
former: and with lightning speed I bounded away toward Grant, the crack of
whose piece I heard at the next instant.
“For the first time in my life I was thoroughly overcome; and, sinking
down, I remained in a semiunconscious state for several minutes. When I
fully recovered, Grant and the overjoyed negroes held me up, and pointed
out the boa, which was still writhing in its death agonies. I shuddered as I
looked upon the effects of its tremendous dying strength. For yards around
where it lay, grass and bushes and saplings, and, in fact, everything except
the more fully grown trees were cut quite off, as though they had been
trimmed by an immense scythe.
“The monster, when measured, was fifty-one feet two and a half inches in
extreme length, while round the thickest portion of its body the girth was
nearly three feet, thus proving, I believe, to be the largest serpent that was
ever authentically heard of.”

POWERFUL BEGGARS.
The Chinese are more charitable than they have been given credit for.
They give freely, especially on occasions of public or private rejoicing.
Beggars are numerous everywhere, and are organized into a sort of union
or guild, with a master at the head, whose word is law to his mendicant
subjects, and whose laws are as unchanging as those of the Medes and
Persians. No man can be buried without a large share of “funeral baked
meats” falling to the lot of the beggars’ guild.
No person is allowed to marry by this powerful union unless he or his
friends pay a tribute to the king of beggars, in the shape of a big feast and a
sum of money.
The last varies from one to five hundred dollars, according to the means
of the tribute payer. The feast must consist of as good food as is served to the
wedding guests.
On this the beggar king and his cabinet dine, with as much gusto, if not as
much ceremony, as the Emperor of China when feasting his ministers. In
almost every city you will find a beggars’ guild. The subjects of any one
king vary in number, according to the size of the city. These kings of China’s
submerged millions, whose territories consist of streets, gutters, bridges, and
doorsteps, and whose subjects have been won for him by poverty, accident,
vice, and disease, exercise a patriarchal sway and dispense a rough and
primitive justice. The office is not hereditary, but elective, and tenable for
life.
The beggar king lives in a house that is almost a palace, compared to the
miserable shelter that his subjects have to be contented with. Not
infrequently he grows rich from the tribute paid him by the people of the
upper crust of society. He has powerful means of enforcing his demands. He
has means of annoyance which the police are unable to put a stop to.
Suppose a man about to marry refuses to recognize the claim of the
beggar king. His wedding procession will be blocked by thousands of lame,
halt, and leprous beggars, who will ease their minds by imprecations such as
are unfit for a bride to hear, and will be sure to bring ill luck on the married
couple. Else this unseemly rabble will besiege the house of the unlucky
bridegroom, and go through a similar performance. It is worth a large sum to
be rid of such pests.
Even the magistrates, autocrats as they are in their own realms, respect
the office of the beggar king, and never offend him if they can avoid it.
Ordinarily beggars go from house to house and from shop to shop with a
bowl in hand, into which is poured the handful of rice, or is dropped the
copper coin of charity. They are irrepressible, and will not take “no” for an
answer.

QUEER THINGS TO EAT.

At the department of agriculture in Washington, hidden away in an
obscure corner, is an odd sort of exhibit of queer foods eaten by out-of-the-
way people. There is a loaf of bread made from the roasted leaves of a plant
allied to the century plant. Another kind of bread is from a dough of juniper
berries. These are relished by some tribes of Indians, while others
manufacture cakes out of different kinds of bulbs. The prairie Indians relish
a dish of wild turnips, which civilized people would not be likely to enjoy at
all. In the great American desert the “screw beans,” which grow on mesquite
bushes, are utilized for food. Soap berries furnish an agreeable diet for some
savages in this country, while in California the copper-colored aborigines do
not disdain the seeds of salt grass. Also in California the Digger Indians
collect pine nuts, which are seeds of a certain species of pine—sometimes
called “pinions”—by kindling fires against the trees, thus causing the nuts to
fall out of the cones. At the same time a sweet gum exudes from the bark,
serving the purpose of sugar. The seeds of gourds are consumed in the shape
of mush by Indians in Arizona.
In addition to all these things, the exhibit referred to includes a jar of
pulverized crickets, which are eaten in that form by the Indians of Oregon.
They are roasted, as are likewise grasshoppers and even slugs. These
delicacies are cooked in a pit, being arranged in alternate layers with hot
stones. After being thus prepared, they are dried and ground to powder. They
are mixed with pounded acorns or berries, the flour made in this way being
kneaded into cakes and dried in the sun. The Assiniboines used a kind of
seed to stop bleeding at the nose. Among other curious things used for food
are acorns, sunflower seeds, grape seeds, flowers of cattails, moss from the
spruce fir tree, and the blossoms of wild clover. The exhibit embraces a
number of models representing grape seeds enormously enlarged. It is
actually possible to tell the species of a grape by the shape of the seed. There
is a jar of red willow bark which Indians mix with tobacco for the sake of
economy. This, however, is only one of a thousand plants that are utilized in
a similar fashion.

WHY HE WHISTLED.
Old Lady (to grocer’s boy)—“Don’t you know that it is very rude to
whistle when dealing with a lady?”
Boy—“That’s what the boss told me to do, ma’am.”
“Told you to whistle?”
“Yes’m. He said if we ever sold you anything we’d have to whistle for
our money.”
 THE NEWS OF ALL NATIONS.

Honor for German Heroes.

The German kaiser has conferred on the pioneer company of a Lorraine
battalion the right to wear the skull and crossbones on the cap, a distinction
monopolized by the Death’s Head Hussars. The action was taken at the
instance of the crown prince, who reported the valor of the pioneers in
building bridges and constructing earthworks under dangerous
circumstances.

Austrians and Germans Foes.

Until recently the Austrians and German prisoners of war were kept
together, but the Russian authorities had so much difficulty in preserving
order among these nationalities that to prevent fights they have separated
them in the hospitals. In Saratoff the Austrian wounded petitioned the
authorities to separate them from the Prussians.

Mystery Man Fights for Estate.

“J. C. R.,” the man of mystery, whose case has puzzled the country since
he was found at Watseka, Minn., in June, 1907, has stepped from a
comfortable home in Chicago into a tragic drama, the central figure in which
is a wealthy rancher of near Dickinson, N. D., whom he claims as his father
and from whom he is seeking to obtain $100,000 as his share of the estate.
No stranger story has ever been told than that of “J. C. R.,” the man who
couldn’t remember. In 1900, it is now claimed, he was Jay Allen Caldwell,
obstinate son of a former Chicagoan. Then he was struck on the head with a
spade.
For a dozen years thereafter, without memory, without knowledge of his
own identity, and without means of caring for himself, he wandered about,
known only as J. C. R.
A few months ago a Chicago woman identified him as her missing son,
Earl Iles, and J. C. R. gained a name and a home at the cost of his quondam
fame. Bereft of his chief attributes of interest, the man and his little tragedy
dropped from sight.
The suit which his lawyers filed early this week against A. J. B. Caldwell,
whom he claims as his father, has been dismissed, but the lawyers say this
was permitted in order to get more evidence, and it will be filed again within
a few weeks.
Dispatches from Dickinson, the scene of the tangle, disclose the fact that
seventy-five residents of the town, former neighbors of the Caldwells,
identified J. C. R. as the missing son three months ago. Caldwell reiterates
his charge that J. C. R. and his Chicago backers are conspirators, but
Caldwell’s daughter has identified the man of mystery as her brother.
Mrs. H. E. Pitkin, 895 East Oakwood Boulevard, Chicago, who identified
J. C. R. last summer as her long-lost son, Earl Iles, has disappeared from her
home.
And to complete the complexity of the enigma, J. C. R., the mute object
of the whole identity tangle, is being kept in hiding by those who are
backing his claims for $100,000 worth of North Dakota farm lands now held
by the supposed father.
Friends of the elder Caldwell alleged that it was Mrs. Pitkin’s early
knowledge of Caldwell, junior, that gave her the information on which she
satisfied the authorities with her identification of the man as her son. They
charge that it was through this information that Mrs. Pitkin gained the
custody of the man, which later resulted in the promotion of his fight for the
$100,000.
It appears that for the last couple of months the mystery man has been in
Dickinson. In the first part of that time he was busy asking questions of old
residents—or, rather, writing them, for, along with his other afflictions, he is
a mute.
The answers to the questions seemed to satisfy J. C. R. He filed suit
against Caldwell. Simultaneously papers were filed making it impossible for
Caldwell to transfer his lands in whole or in part.
Dickinson rubbed its eyes and sat up with a start when news of the suit
filtered through town. The “dummy,” who had been going up and down
Main Street with his pencil, his paper, and his ever-increasing questions
about old times, had come into the open and announced himself as no other
than Jay Allen Caldwell, old man Caldwell’s son.
 No one who was willing to admit the fact knew what had happened to
Jay. He had just disappeared one day. Not a word did he send home in all the
ensuing months and years. His father, after waiting what seemed a decent
time, produced notes aggregating $70,000. The notes were signed with the
name of Jay Allen Caldwell and were drawn in favor of his father, who went
into court, got judgment, and took his son’s land in satisfaction.

Londoners Get “Zeppelin Neck”.

“Zeppelin neck” is the form of malady now prevalent in London. This is
the popular term for stiff necks, commoner than ever now because so many
Londoners are craning their necks scanning the heavens for the enemy.
Westminster Abbey has been insured for $750,000 against damages from
air-craft attacks.

Schoolboy Makes Record With Corn.

The largest per-acre yield of corn ever grown in Becker County, Minn., of
which Detroit is the county seat, was raised during the season of 1914 by a
thirteen-year-old schoolboy. Becker is one of the most northerly of
Minnesota counties, and its farmers have always declared that it was useless
to attempt corn-raising because of the cold climate and short seasons. But
thirteen-year-old Hilmer Carlson, who lives on a farm three miles from
Detroit, grew an acre of corn this year that yielded 96¼ bushels to the acre.
It was the first experiment for the Carlson boy in corn-raising. He was
induced to enter by a prize offered by the Minnesota Society of Agriculture
to the boy who should grow the most bushels of corn on an acre of ground.
Without the experience of father and friends, who never had grown corn, the
boy followed the instructions of the agricultural society, planted the
Minnesota No. 13 variety, and grew a field of stalks that were twice as high
as his head. It husked 95 bushels rough measure. When the farmers of the
community heard of the yield, they declared it could not be true; that some
deception had been practiced. An expert of the State Agricultural College
then came to the Carlson farm, measured both field and yield and found the
exact yield to have been 96¼ bushels per acre. State authorities declared the
yield to have been by far the biggest per acre ever grown in the county. Ten
Becker County boys went into the acre-yield corn contest. The boy who took
second place grew 74 bushels to the acre.
 Indicating the unpopularity of corn-growing in Becker County, the State
board records show that of over 160,000 acres crop area in the county only
4,880 are given over to corn.

Veteran Fulfills Vow.

Sixty years ago, when, a lad ten years old, he fell from the limb of a giant
tree and broke a leg, forcing him to spend his birthday in bed, Carl
Grossmayer, of Evansville, Ind., vowed that on his seventieth birthday he
would blow the tree from the ground. Grossmayer, now a veteran of the
Second Regiment of Indiana Civil War Veterans, kept his vow by blowing
from the ground the stump of the tree.
When he met with the accident, Grossmayer lived on a farm of 180 acres.
Now that area has shrunk to a house and three lots. The elderly veteran’s
only relative, a son living in St. Louis, came to this city to see his father keep
his sixty-year-old vow. A stump was all that remained of the oak, but
Grossmayer drilled under it, and, with a charge of dynamite, blew it from the
ground.

Placer Mining in Heart of City.

The gold-mining industry, both placer and quartz, in most instances has
been for long so closely associated with the wilderness that the average man
instantly conjures up pictures of ice-bound mountain passes, or glaring, sun-
scorched stretches of desert, when he thinks of it. To such places his
imagination turns where men daily and hourly must face hardship and
danger in order to win the precious metal.
Yet in the city of Edmonton, Canada, since the outbreak of war, some
thirty “grizzlies” have been at work on the banks of the Saskatchewan River.
Here, within half a block of the city’s main street, and always with the sound
of its traffic in their ears, nearly a hundred men daily shovel and sluice for
gold.
The bars of the Saskatchewan River in the early days and as late as 1900
were worked. Many prospectors at that time made from three to ten dollars a
day. Of late years, however, mining of this kind has been abandoned, though
a large dredge, working the bars of the river, has proven a paying
proposition.
 The river runs directly through the city. With the outbreak of war and the
possibility of large numbers of men being out of employment, the city
council suddenly turned their attention to gold mining, which offered returns
right in the heart of the city. Within its gates are to-day a large number of old
mining men. Men who, after going through the Klondike rush, settled here.
Most of them are to-day wealthy and retired. But some half dozen of them
offered their services as tutors.
A number of grizzlies, so commonly used in the working of river bars
and other placer-mining propositions, were constructed and for a while they
gave instructions as how to work them. About a hundred men soon went to
work. Though the highest daily clean-up so far has been seven dollars, the
majority of the workers are making from one to two dollars a day.
The workmen are from all classes of society. Old-time sourdoughs work
next to new-come English immigrants. Two college students, working their
way through a nearby university, put in their off hours shoveling and
panning. An out-of-work literary man and an out-of-work actor here are
working a claim together.
The mining game has always been marked for its tragic side. The stories
of men made suddenly rich overnight by some fortunate strike has been told
in a hundred stories; but seldom is the other side mentioned, the story of
quick-flung-away wealth that went almost as rapidly as it came.
Working slowly, toilfully, with the mark of old age upon him, in this
diggings within the heart of the city is at least one man who is a living
representative of this sad side of the game. His name is Tim Foley. Ten years
ago he sold his third interest in a quartz mine in northern Ontario for
$40,000. To-day he toils strenuously on the river bank, his great hope, as he
himself expressed it, to clean up three or four dollars a day.

Stage Lines Still in the West.

It has been many years since stage lines were the chief mode of
transportation across Kansas, and had regular time-tables and rate schedules,
as the railroads have at the present time. But there are still several stage lines
in Kansas, and the railroads are publishing the schedules for these lines in
their regular list of connections, as they do in the more Western States,
where stage transportation is still common.
 Along the Union Pacific and the Rock Island lines in northern Kansas, the
Missouri Pacific through the center of the State and the Santa Fe in southern
Kansas, there are still connecting stage lines which operate as regularly as
the railroad trains. The building of the railroad from Garden City north to
Scott City on the Missouri Pacific and then to Winona on the Union Pacific
has caused several stage lines to go out of business. The building of the
Colmor cut-off in southwest Kansas has caused the abandonment of several
stage lines that reached the towns in the railroadless counties of the State.
There are two regular mail stage lines operated in Shawnee County, one
connecting Dover with the Rock Island and another connecting Auburn with
the Santa Fe. Both are only eight or nine miles long, but they carry mail and
passengers to the railroads.
The Santa Fe “connecting-line” table shows stage lines connecting with
its trains at Syracuse, Lakin, and Coolidge to points in the extreme southwest
corner of the State not reached by rail. The Union Pacific has half a dozen
stage lines listed in its tables in Kansas. These lines connect with the
Missouri Pacific on the south or the Rock Island, or another branch of the
Union Pacific on the north, touching several inland towns and saving
traveling men long detours if they attempted to make the trip by rail. From
Grainfield to Gove City there is a regular stage line, as Grain field is on the
railroad while Gove City, the county seat, is twelve miles away.
The stages have comparatively low fares and haul almost as much
baggage free as does the railroad. The stage trips in Kansas are no longer the
picturesque outings of former days, as there are none of the old stagecoaches
left with a six- or eight-mule team and a driver with a long whip and a fine
command of “mule-killing” language. All the stage lines in Kansas are
motors now, one or two in the southwest part of the State having real motor
trucks for baggage, express, and freight, and the trip is made almost as
rapidly as the trains, unless a tire blows up.

Life-term Prisoner Gains Freedom

When C. J. Livering, life-term prisoner, sent up on the charge that he
poisoned his wife in Louisville, Ky., eight years ago, walked out of the
Eddyville State’s prison under parole, it was to enter his own manufacturing
establishment, made possible by his own industry and incentive genius, as he
invented a patent while in prison that may net him a fortune.
 His parole followed the declaration of the judge who sentenced him of his
belief in Livering’s innocence. Honorable H. S. Barker, president of the State
University, was the court-of-appeals judge at the time. In addition to the
judge’s opinion, Commonwealth Attorney Huffaker, of Louisville, says he
believes that if a man who filed an affidavit had been called, he would have
testified to hearing Mrs. Livering threaten to take her own life.
An effort was made at the trial to show that a woman was in love with
and jealous of Livering and was responsible for the story that Livering had
fixed up a suicide note in imitation of his wife’s handwriting, had given his
wife strychnine tablets as medicine and then went to his farm, hurrying back
in time to place the suicide note and poison before calling any one to the
scene.
Livering testified that he was on his farm, twenty-five miles away, when
his wife phoned him to come home, and that he found her dead. A druggist
testified that Mrs. Livering bought strychnine tablets. The suicide note was
found on the dresser. The coroner’s jury returned a verdict of suicide.
It was two years later when the woman’s story resulted in Livering’s
conviction.

Machine Comes to Telegrapher’s Aid.

Telegraph operators throughout the country are showing keen interest in a
device perfected by Walter P. Phillips, of Bridgeport, Conn., for the purpose
of rapidly handling commercial messages and press reports. Phillips is an
old-time telegrapher and newspaper man and an inventor of wide fame. He
was the originator of the “Phillips Code,” used by newspapers. Operators
from all parts of Connecticut gathered at Bridgeport to watch the
demonstration of the new device.
It was shown that the invention will allow an operator receiving messages
or news dispatches to regulate the incoming flow of telegraphy as fast or as
slow as he may desire; to stop it altogether and go out to lunch, resuming
business at increased speed upon his return, and catching up with the
machine upon which the messages or news has been continually recording
itself in impressions of dots and dashes on a tape awaiting reproduction.
What the invention will do is to double or treble the number of words that
can be sent over a single wire and do it without requiring that the operators
learn anything more than they now know.
 The result is brought about by adding to each office a set of very simple
instruments. At times when there is no need of hurrying matter forward on
the wires, the rapid system can be cut out through shifting a plug. The wires
are then used in the ordinary way, sending messages directly by the key. As a
result it is considered that the system is one of value principally to telegraph
companies or those using leased wires. The general public, however, will
benefit through the prompter sending of messages and doing away with the
delay so often experienced when there are wire troubles and capacity is
reduced below normal.
In the new system the messages or reports to be sent are recorded in
raised telegraphic characters on a strip of paper. This paper is run through a
reproducing machine, the sounds being repeated at the other end of the wire
and being taken down by typewriter or hand. The sending operator is able to
vary the speed to suit himself, is able to stop it at any point and pull it back,
if there is need of repeating. The superiority of the invention over the old
system is said to lie in the reading and sending. It is in this, telegraphers say,
where the greater number of mistakes occur. The ear of a trained operator is
found to be more accurate than the eye and also faster.

What a German Officer Saw.

From the diary of a German petty officer who is fighting in France, these
extracts, as his own experience, are made:
“On all sides and in front, as well as below in the valley, the red breeches
can be seen swarming in the underbrush. Thus both divisions of our tenth
company find themselves facing apparently overwhelming superior forces. I
myself make a run to where the captain should be. On the way a trumpeter
transmits this order to me: ‘Third column deploy and continue firing, or, if
possible, attack!’ I never ran so fast as I did then over those stubbles.
“ ‘Third column, up! up! Fix bayonets! Right turn, forward, double-
quick! Follow me!’ I cried. Out comes the shining steel from its sheath. I
catch a glimpse of an opening in a garden wall. “This way, through! Occupy
the hedge! Cut loopholes!’
“ ‘What range?’ the men call.
“ ‘Range seven hundred! Half right, straight ahead in the poplars, hostile
infantrymen! Range seven hundred! Fire!’ was my reply.
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