Industrial Engineering &

Operations Research
(ME 224)

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 UNIT - I
ØIntroduction to Industrial Engineering
ØVarious measures of Productivity
ØIntroduction to Work Study
ØMethod Study-Various Recording
Techniques & Critical Examination

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 DEFINITIONS

1. Industrial engineering directs the efficient conduct of

manufacturing, construction, transportation, or even
commercial enterprises of any undertaking, indeed in which
human labor is directed to accomplishing any kind of work .
Industrial engineering has drawn upon mechanical
engineering, upon economics, sociology, psychology,
philosophy, accountancy, to fuse from these older sciences a
distinct body of science of its own . It is the inclusion of the
economic and the human elements especially that
differentiates industrial engineering from the older
established branches of the profession (Going, 1911)

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2. “Industrial engineering is the engineering approach applied
to all factors, including the human factor, involved in the
production and distribution of products or services.”
(Maynard, 1953)

3. “Industrial engineering is the design of situations for the

useful coordination of men, materials and machines in order
to achieve desired results in an optimum manner. The
unique characteristics of Industrial Engineering center about
the consideration of the human factor as it is related to the
technical aspects of a situation, and the integration of all
factors that influence the overall situation.” (Lehrer, 1954)

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4. “Industrial engineering is concerned with the design,
improvement, and installation of integrated systems of
men, materials, and equipment. It draws upon specialized
knowledge and skill in the mathematical, physical, and
social sciences together with the principles and methods of
engineering analysis and design, to specify, predict, and
evaluate the results to be obtained from such systems.”
(AIIE, 1955)

5. "Industrial engineering may be defined as the art of

utilizing scientific principles, psychological data, and
physiological information for designing, improving, and
integrating industrial, management, and human operating
procedures." (Nadler, 1955)

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6. “Industrial engineering is that branch of engineering
knowledge and practice which

(A) Analyzes, measures, and improves the method of

performing the tasks assigned to individuals,

(B) Designs and installs better systems of integrating

tasks assigned to a group,

(C) Specifies, predicts, and evaluates the results obtained.

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7. It does so by applying to materials, equipment and work
specialized knowledge and skill in the mathematical and
physical sciences and the principles and methods of
engineering analysis and design. Since, however, work has
to be carried out by people; engineering knowledge needs
to be supplemented by knowledge derived from the
biological and social sciences.” (Lyndall Urwick, 1963)

8. Industrial engineering is concerned with the design,

improvement and installation of integrated systems of
people, materials, information, equipment and energy. It
draws upon specialized knowledge and skill in the
mathematical, physical, and social sciences together with
the principles and methods of engineering analysis and
design, to specify, predict, and evaluate the results to be
obtained from such systems.
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9. “Industrial Engineering is Human Effort Engineering. It is
an engineering discipline that deals with the design of
human effort in all occupations: agricultural,
manufacturing and service. The objectives of Industrial
Engineering are optimization of productivity of work-
systems and occupational comfort, health, safety and
income of persons involved.” (Narayana Rao, 2006)

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 WORK CONTENT OF A JOB
“WORK CONTENT”
• It means the amount of work contained in a
given job/work/product/process.

• It is measured in MAN-HOURS/ WORK-

HOURS (effort or labor of ONE person for ONE
hour), or MACHINE HOURS (running of a
machine/plant for ONE hour).

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 TOTAL TIME OF A JOB
‘TOTAL TIME OFA JOB’ COMPRISES OF:

1. BASIC WORK CONTENT &

2. EXCESS WORK CONTENT

BASIC WORK CONTENT is irreducible minimum time

required theoretically to produce one unit of product

In REAL LIFE WORLD, actual operation times are

FAR MORE IN EXCESS due to the EXCESS WORK
CONTENT.
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 CONTD.
• EXCESS WORK CONTENT may be due
to following
THREE CATEGORIES of factors:

(i) A-category:

A1: POOR DESIGN & FREQUENT

DESIGN CHANGES
A2: WASTE OF MATERIALS
A3: INAPPROPRIATE QUALITY
STANDARDS
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 CONTD.
(ii) B-category
B1: POOR LAYOUT & POOR
UTILISATION OF SPACE
B2: INADEQUATE MATERIAL
HANDLING
B3: FREQUENT STOPPAGES AS
PRODUCTION CHANGES FROM
ONE PRODUCT TO ANOTHER
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 CONTD.

B4: INEFFECTIVE METHOD OF

WORK
B5: POOR PLANNING OF
INVENTORY
B6: FREQUENT BREAKDOWN
OF MACHINES AND
EQUIPMENT
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iii) C-category
C1: ABSENTEEISM AND LATENESS
C2: POOR WORKMANSHIP, AND
C3: ACCIDENTS AND OCCUPATIONAL
HAZARDS
TOTAL TIME OF A JOB

= BASIC WORK CONTENT + EXCESS WORK CONTENT ( A + B +C )

(OR, TOTAL INEFFECTIVE TIME)
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 WORK STUDY
• With increasing complexities of the technological world,need to
simplify the work system has been increasing day by day.
• Work study is an area of knowledge that addresses the problem
of work simplification with the basic objectives of

1. PRODUCTIVITY ENHANCEMENT, and

2. HUMAN COMFORT & SAFETY

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TECHNIQUES OF WORK STUDY

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THIS IMPLIES THAT :
• THERE IS A DIRECT RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
WORK STUDY AND PRODUCTIVITY.
• THUS, BY APPLYING WS PRINCIPLES IF THE
COST IS REDUCED BY 20%, THEN, WE CAN SAY
THAT PRODUCTIVITY HAS GONE UP BY 20%.

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 WHY W.S. IS VALUABLE
1. By carrying out its systematic procedures,one can get results
as good as or even better than the less systematic genius
would have been able to achieve in the past.

2. It is systematic both in the investigation of the problem and in

the development of its solution.

3. It raises productivity of the plant /unit by simply reorganization

of the work, with either a nominal or no extra input.

4. It sets the performance standards on which the effectiveness

of the production planning and control depends.

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5. It contributes to human safety by providing safer methods of work,
and allows for better working conditions by exposing the hazardous
situations.

6. It’s application starts providing savings immediately and continues till

the operation completes.

7. It is a tool that can be used every where, be it industrial or non-

industrial environment.

8. It is easy and relatively cheaper in its application.

9. It is an excellent weapon for starting an attack on the

inefficient system.

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10. HOWEVER, WS SPECIALISTS SHOULD APPLY IT
TACTFULLY, SO THAT WORKERS REMAIN CO-
OPERATIVE WHILE STUDIES ARE CONDUCTED IN THE
PLANT.

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BASIC PROCEDURE OF WS
1.SELECT the job/task/process to be studied.
2.RECORD all the relevant data/facts about the
selected job.
3.EXAMINE the recorded facts critically by challenging
its purpose, place, sequence, person, and
method.
4.DEVELOP new methods,as alternative methods, of
doing the selected job.
5.EVALUATE results of different alternative solutions.
6.DEFINE the new method and present it to the
concerned people.
7.INSTALL the new method and provide training to
the concerned staff .
8.MAINTAIN the new standard practice and establish
control procedures. 26
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 STEP I : JOB/TASK/PROCESS SELECTION

It involves following considerations:

1. ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS

2. TECHNOLOGICAL
CONSIDERATIONS and

3. HUMAN CONSIDERATIONS 28
 Contd.
1.ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
Cost effectiveness i.e. to check whether or
not the WS application would pay. For this,
key-profit giving/ costliest operations with
largest waste/scrap should be attacked first.
Next bottleneck operations, repetitive
operations, repeated material handling
operations should be studied. For locating
most important operations, PARETO
ANALYSIS could be used.
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 2.TECHNICAL/TECHNOLOGICAL
CONSIDERATIONS

The analysis involves application

of WS for the selection of the
operations/processes where new
technology e.g. automation/
robotisation should be introduced.

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 3.HUMAN CONSIDERATIONS

Analysis involves location of those

operations which present the
sources of dissatisfaction and/or
annoyance to the workers due to
fatigue or monotony or unsafe
environment or a work which is
clumsy in nature.
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 STEP II : RECORDING THE FACTS

Related to the existing process/ job ALL THE FACTS should

be recorded ACCURATELY.

TOOLS OF FACT-RECORDING are:

(A) CHARTS, which may be of two types:

(i) Based on SEQUENCE:

(a) Outline Process Chart
(b) Flow Process Chart
(c) Two-Handed Chart ( or Operation
Chart / Left Hand & Right Hand chart)
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 CONTD.
(ii ) Based on TIME scale:

(a) Multiple Activity Chart

(b) SIMO ( SImultaneous MOtion) Chart

(B) DIAGRAMS: which may be of the

following types:
Flow diagram, String Diagram, Travel Chart,
Cyclegraph, & Chronocyclegraph,
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 THE OUTLINE FLOW PROCESS
CHART
• It uses ONLY TWO SYMBOLS:
&
• It provides an OVERALL PICTURE of the
process / job / task.
• Primarily it is used to show the sequence of
operations & inspections for a
MANUFACTURING or an ASSEMBLY kind of
jobs.
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1. SPINDLE
2. PLASTIC MOULDING
3. STOP PIN

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 PROCESS CHART SYMBOLS
ASME has recommended FIVE standard symbols to be used on
Process Charts, given below:
1. OPERATION : Main steps of the
task /job involving modification /change.
2. INSPECTION: Checking quality / quantity.

3. TRANSPORTATION : For movement of

persons/materials.
4. DELAY (TEMPORARY) : For waiting time of
operators or materials.
5. STORAGE (PERMANENT DELAY)] : For
controlled storage involving authorized
issue/receipt of material etc.
NOTE: FOR TWO PARALLEL EVENTS, BOTH ARE
SHOWN IN ONE JOINT OR COMBINED SYMBOL: e. g.
operation & inspection ,jointly are shown 40
by symbol, indicated in the figure.
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 FLOW PROCESSCHART
• It uses ALL THE FIVE SYMBOLS and provides the
total sum details of the process/job under study.
• A Flow Process chart may be of the following
types:
1.MAN-TYPE

2.MATERIAL TYPE in which every symbol is related to the material of the

job or a document (e.g. in offices) or a machine/equipment.

3. EQIPMENT TYPE
• Data / information in a flow process chart are
recorded in specifically designed FORM, called as
DATA SHEET.

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FLOW PROCESS CHART

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STEP III : CRITICAL EXAMINATION

The facts recorded in the Flow Process

Chart are now EXAMINED CRITICALLY

by applying the

QUESTIONING TECHNIQUE,

which involves the following SET

PATTERN: 45
 CONTD.

• PURPOSE for which the activity is done

• PLACE at ,, ,, ,, ,, ,,
• SEQUENCE in ,, ,, ,, ,, ,,
• PERSON by whom ,, ,, ,, ,, ,,
• MEANS by which ,, ,, ,, ,, ,,
WITH THE OBJECTIVE OF ELIMINATING/
COMBINING/ REARRANGING/ SIMPLIFYING
THE ACTIVITIES INVOLVED IN THE PROCESS.
QUESTIONING TECHNIQUE involves
1. PRIMARY QUESTIONS and
2. SECONDARY QUESTIONS explained below:
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 PRIMARY QUESTIONS
According to the QUESTIONING TECHNIQUE the PRIMARY
QUESTIONS are as follows:
• Purpose-based: WHAT is actually done?
WHY is the activity ELIMINATE
necessary, at all?
• Place-based: WHERE is it being done?
WHY at this place?
• Sequence-based: WHEN is it done?
WHY at that time? COMBINE or
• Person-based: WHO is doing it ? REARRANGE
WHY by this person?
• Means-based: HOW is it being done? SIMPLIFY
WHY in that particular way?
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 SECONDARY QUESTIONS
• Corresponding to each answer
obtained through the PRIMARY
QUESTIONS further questions are
raised to explore about the
ALTERNATIVES
i. e. alternate purpose, place,
sequence, person & means.

This methodology makes use of the

SECONDARY QUESTIONS given
as follows: 48
 Contd.
• WHAT ELSE might be done?
• WHERE ELSE might it be done?
• WHEN ELSE might it be done?
• WHO ELSE might do it? &
• HOW ELSE might it be done?

BY ANSWERING THE PRIMARY &

SECONDARY QUESTIONS WE USE THE
SYSTEMATIC CRITICAL EXAMINATION IN
ORDER TO EVOLVE A BETTER METHOD OF
DOING THE WORK. 49
 Contd.
AS A RESULT, ONE CAN DEVELOP A
BETTER METHOD IN LIGHT OF THE
OBTAINED ANSWERS TO THE FOLLOWING
QUESTIONS:

• WHAT should be done?

• WHERE should it be done?
• WHEN should it be done?
• WHO should do it ?
• HOW should it be done? 50
RECORDINGMOVEMENT OF WORKERS/
MATERIALS

TOOLS USED FOR THIS PURPOSE ARE:

• STRING DIAGRAM

• FLOW DIAGRAM

• TRAVEL CHART
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 STRING DIAGRAM

• IT IS A SCALE PLAN OR MODEL ON WHICH

A THREAD OR STRING IS USED TO TRACE
AND MEASURE THE PATH OF WORKERS/
MATERIALS DURING A SPECIFIED
SEQUENCE OF EVENTS.
• LENGTH OF THE THREAD/STRING
MEASURES THE DISTANCE MOVED.

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STRING DIAGRAM

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 EXAMPLES
1. STORING TILES (ORIGINAL)
2. STORING TILES (IMPROVED)

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 FLOW DIAGRAM

• It is a FLOOR-PLAN showing the path of

travel of the operator or the material,
through the plant.

• It ALSO indicates the direction of travel by

means of arrows, drawn on the diagram.
• EXAMPLE: INSP & MARKING INCOMING PARTS (ORIG)
• EXAMPLE: INSP & MARKING INCOMING PARTS (IMPROVED)
• EXAMPLE: MEALS SERVING IN HOSPITAL WARDS (ORIG.IMPR)

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TRAVEL CHART ( or, FROM-TO CHART)
• It is a tabular record of quantitative data about
movement of workers/materials/equipment between
any number of places over a given period of time. It is
always in the form of a SQUARE, having within it the
squires.
EACH SMALL SQUARE REPRESENTS A STATION.
Along the TOP, squares from left to right represent the
stations FROM where movement or travel occurs.
Along those DOWN THE LEFT HAND, the squires
represent the stations TO which the movement is
made.

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 MAN-MACHINE CHART
(MULTIPLE ACTIVITY CHART)
• This kind of process chart records the activities of
the operator as well as the machine on the same
chart against a common time scale.
• Separate vertical columns ( in the form of bars)
are used for both.
• The chart clearly indicates the IDLENESS (or
UTILISATION) of operator as well as the machine.
• On the basis of the recorded events in the chart,
one can rearrange the process so that IDLE-TIME
is reduced, or BETTER UTILISATION of the
operator/machine is achieved.
• It is used for balancing the work between man
and machine ;proper utilization of maintenance
crew /team-activities in mass production. 65
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 METHODS & MOVEMENTS AT THE
WORKPLACE
PRINCIPLES OF MOTION ECONOMY
These principles can be helpful in work design, in
reducing the human fatigue and in improving the
work efficiency. According to Barnes, these can be
presented under following THREE subgroups:

1.Principles of motion economy as related to the

USE OF HUMAN BODY

2.Principles of motion economy as related to the

ARRANGEMENT OF THE WORKPLACE

3.Principles of motion economy as related to the

DESIGN OF TOOLS & EQUIPMENT
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 [A] .Principles of motion economy as related to
the USE OF HUMAN BODY
• 1.The two hands should begin and
complete their movements at the same
time.
• 2. The two hands should not be idle at the
same time.
• 3.Motions of the arms should be
symmetrical and in opposite direction
and should be made simultaneously.

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 Principles: Contd

• 4.Hand and body motions should be made at

the lowest classification at which it is possible
to do the work satisfactorily.

[The term ‘CLASSIFICATION OF HAND

MOTION’ is explained as follows]

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 CLASSIFICATION OF HAND MOTIONS

CLASS PIVOT BODY MEMBERS MOVED

1 Knuckle Finger (F)

2 Wrist Hand (H) + F
3 Elbow Fore Arm (FA) + H + F
4 Shoulder Upper Arm (UA) +FA+H+F
5 Trunk Torso + UA + FA + H + F
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 Principles : CONTD.
• 5. Momentum should be employed to help the
worker ,but should be reduced to a minimum
whenever it is to overcome by muscular effort.

• 6.Continuous curved motions are to be

preferred to straight line motion involving
sudden and sharp changes in direction.

• 7. Ballistic (free-swinging) motions are

faster, easier, and more accurate than
restricted or controlled motions. 73
 Principles CONTD.
• 8.Rhythm is essential to the smooth and
automatic performance of a repetitive operation.
The work should be arranged to permit an easy
and natural rhythm whenever it is possible.

• 9.Work should be arranged so that eye-

movements are confined to a comfortable
area, without the need for frequent changes of
the focus.
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EXAMPLE ON USE OF HUMAN BODY USING MOTION
PICTURE FILM

Print of motion picture film showing eye and hand motions of

the operator assembling small parts.
P R IN C IP LE S OF MOTION ECONOM Y ON USE OF

HUMAN BODY - EXAM PLE

P R IN C IP LE S OF MOTION ECONOM Y ON USE OF
HUMAN BODY - EXAM PLE
PUNCH PRESS EYE FIXATION EXAM PLE
PUNCH PRESS EYE FIXATION
EXAMPLE
 [B].Principles of motion economy as related
to the ARRANGEMENT OF THE WORKPLACE

• 1.Definite and fixed positions/stations

should be provided for all tools and
materials to permit habit formation.

• 2.Tools and materials should be pre-

positioned to reduce searching.

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 CONTD.

• 3.Gravity-feed, bins and containers should

be used to deliver the materials as close to
the point of use as possible.

• 4.Tools, materials, and controls should be

located within the ‘maximum working area’
and as near to the worker as possible.
[WORKING AREA (WA) may be divided into:
1.NORMAL WA &
2.MAXIMUM WA explained below ]
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Normal Working Area (WA) : Cotd.

( Finger + wrist + elbow) Movement

MOST CONVENIENT ZONE

Edge
of bench operator

operator
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Maximum WA : (Shoulder Movement)
 DIMENSIONS FOR SEATED TASKS
• 1.SEAT HEIGHT should be adjustable :
( range:36-45 )
• 2. WORK SURFACE HEIGHT should be around
elbow level (range:65-72 cm)
• 3.LEG CLEARANCE : 40 cm at knee level
& 60 cm for the feet
• 4.THIGH CLEARANCE : 20 cm minimum
• 5.WORK SURFACE THICKNESS : 5cm max.

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 Principles : CONTD.
• 5.Materials and tools should be arranged to
permit the best sequence of motions.

• 6.‘Drop deliveries’ or ejectors should be

used wherever possible, so that operators
do not have to use his/her hands to dispose
of the finished work.

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 Principles : CONTD.
• 7.Provision should be made for adequate
lighting and, a chair of the type of height to
permit good posture should be provided.
The height of the workplace and seat should
be arranged to allow alternate standing and
sitting.

• 8.The color of the workplace should

contrast with that of the work and thus
reduce the eye-fatigue.
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[C]. Principles of motion economy as related to the
the DESIGN OF TOOLS & EQUIPMENT

• 1.The hands should be relieved of all work

of “holding” the work-piece where this can
be done by a jig, fixture or foot-operated
device.
• 2.Two or more tools should be combined
wherever possible.
• 3.Where each finger performs some specific
movement, as in typewriting, the load should
be distributed in accordance with the
inherent capacities of the fingers.
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 Principles : CONTD.
• 4.Handles such as those on cranks and large
screw divers should be so designed that as
much surface of the hand as possible can come
in contact with the handle. This is specially
necessary when considerable force has to be
used on the handle.

• 5.Levers crossbars and hand-wheels should be

so placed that the operator can use them with
the least change in body position and the
largest mechanical advantage. 87
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 Two-Handed Process Chart (or) Right
Hand, Left Hand Chart
• It is the process chart in which the activities of
two hands of the operator are recorded.
• Motions of both hands of worker are Right hand-
Left hand chart recorded independently.
• It shows whether the two hands of the operator
are idle or moving in relation to one another, in a
timescale.
• It is generally used for repetitive operations.

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 Two-Handed Process Chart (or) Right Hand,
Left Hand Chart

•Operation: Represents the activities grasp, position, use,

release etc. of a tool, component or material.
•Transport: Represents the movement of the hand or limb to
or from the work or a tool or material.
•Delay: Refers to the time when the hand or limb is idle.
•Storage (Hold): The term ‘hold’ is used here instead of
storage. This refers to the time when the work is held by
hand.
•The activity ‘inspection’ by hand is considered as an
operation. Hence, the symbol for inspection is not used in
this chart.
•Two-handed process chart can be used for assembly,
machining and clerical jobs. 91
• The objective of this investigation is to eliminate or
reduce the unwanted motions and to arrange the
remaining motions in a best sequence.

• A two-handed process chart is made up of two

columns in which the activities of the left hand and
right hand and the appropriate symbols are
respectively recorded in sequence.

ØThe activities of the two hands are inter-related by aligning

the symbols on the chart so that movements by both hands
appear opposite to each other.

ØAdditional columns can be designed to record the activities

of the other parts of the body whenever necessary.
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 Micro Motion Study
•Suggested by Frank Gilbreth.
•Technique for recording and timing an activity.
•Divides human activities in a group of
movements or micro motions (called therblings).
•Helps to find best pattern of movements for an
operator that consumes less time and requires
less effort.

Steps involved
• Filming the operation to be studied.
• Analysis of the data from the film.
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 Use of films in micro motion study
Main advantages of films over visual methods
are:

•Permit greater detailing than eye observation

•Provide greater accuracy than pencil, paper and
stop watch
•More convenient
•Provide a positive record
•Help in the development of the work study
person.

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•Based on the idea that human activity can be
divided into movements or group of movements
(therbligs) according to the purpose for which
they are made.

•The therbligs cover movements or reasons for

the absence of movement.

•Each therblig has specific color, symbol and

letter for recording purposes.

•Therbligs refer primarily to motions of the human

body at the workplace and to the mental activities
associated with them.
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 Therblig-Gilbreth Chart
It deals with the:
• Movement of man who is working, not
machine
• Study of micro motion of body parts and
hands
• Gilbreth describe 18 motions known as
therblig.

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99
100
 CONTD.
• Such a study involves the use of
FILM and VIDEO
when operator performs the job.

• Later on the film/video can be run slowly

THROUGH A PROJECTOR and
• ‘Frame by frame’ analysis of the work
can be carried out.
• Film provides greater flexibility of filming
and playback speeds WHEREAS video is
easier in use. 101
 Contd.
STEPS:
1. Filming the job
2. Analysis of the film, &
3. Presenting DATA/FACTS
graphically through
SIMO chart.

(SImultaneous Motion Chart)

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 CONTD.
• EQUIPMENT:
Camera, Film, Micro-chronometer,
Exposure meter, Flood lights,
Reflectors, Tripod,, Projector etc.

OR,

VIDEOCAMERA plus its

accessories for filming
operation.
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 CONTD.
ADVANTAGES OF MICROMOTION STUDIES
OVER DIRECT OBSERVATION.

• Greater details are made availalble

• More accurate
• Easier in data collection
• Better for record keeping
• Help in work study personnel's
development 104
 FILM ANALYSIS:
• Film is run on projector,
• Details of the work-cycle are identified in
terms of THERBLIGS, first for
Left hand
and then for
Right hand,
• TIME ( in WINK) is noted from the
Chronometer readings of the film for each
therblig.
[1 WINK = (1/2000) OF A MINUTE105]
 CONTD.

With these data SIMO (Simultaneous

Motion) chart is made as shown
below :

LH Activities Therblig Time Therblig RH Activity

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 MEMOMOTION ANALYSIS
• It was introduced by MUNDEL.
• It is a special type of micro-motion study in
which activities are FILMED AT MUCH
SLOWER SPEED (60 to 100 frames per
minute) i.e. at longer intervals than normal
(intervals being between 0.5 to 4 s).
• Thus a general pattern of movements can
be obtained and avoidable motions can be
identified.

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 contd.
• STEPS: Study the operation to be filmed ;
Prepare the film ; Analyze the film ;
Develop a better method.
• ADVANTAGES: More economical (less film
consumed) and Long sequence of activities can be
recorded;
• APPLICATIONS:
Team-work studies ;
Material flow studies ( e.g. baggage
movement at the airports )
Long cycle job studies &
Study of artificial limbs’ motions etc 108
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 CYCLEGRAPH
• It was introduced by Gilbreth.
• It is a photographic record of the path of
movement of the operator doing a job.
• Little source of light (bulb) is attached to the
hand or finger or any other body part, whose
motions are to be analyzed. When he/she
performs the operation and photograph is
taken continuously, the path of motions is
recorded on the film as CONTINUOUS
STREAK OF LIGHT as shown below
OPERATO R

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 CHRONOCYCLEGRAPH
• It is a special type of cycle-graph in which the light
source (bulb) is suitably INTERRUPTED ELECTRICALLY
so that the path of motion in the photograph appears as
a SERIES OF PEAR-SHAPED SPOTS instead of
continuous streak of light as shown below

PEAR-SHAPED SPOTS

MOTION DIRECTION

• The pointed end of the pear shows the direction of movement.

• More elongated and spaced pear-spots indicate higher speed of
operation..
• It helps in studying the complex and restricted motions also.
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