Distribution of porphyry copper deposits along the

western Tethyan and Andean subduction zones: Insights

from a paleotectonic approach
Guillaume Bertrand, Laurent Guillou-Frottier, Christelle Loiselet

To cite this version:

Guillaume Bertrand, Laurent Guillou-Frottier, Christelle Loiselet. Distribution of porphyry copper
deposits along the western Tethyan and Andean subduction zones: Insights from a paleotectonic
approach. Ore Geology Reviews, 2014, 60, pp.174-190. �10.1016/j.oregeorev.2013.12.015�. �insu-
00931971�

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 1 Distribution of porphyry copper deposits along the western Tethyan and
2 Andean subduction zones: Insights from a paleotectonic approach
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4 Guillaume BERTRANDa,b,c (*) , Laurent GUILLOU-FROTTIERa,b,c and Christelle LOISELET a,b,c
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9 BRGM, ISTO, UMR 7327, 45060 Orléans, France
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10 CNRS/INSU, ISTO, UMR 7327, 45071 Orléans
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11 Université d’Orléans, ISTO, UMR 7327, 45071 Orléans
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22 Revised manuscript submitted to Ore Geology Reviews – December 20th, 2013
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34 (*) Corresponding author: Guillaume BERTRAND, BRGM, ISTO, UMR 7327, Georesources Division, 3 av. C. Guillemin,
35 45060 Orléans Cedex 2, France; [email protected]; tel: +33 2 38 64 36 69 ; fax : +33 2 38 64 34 02
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39 Abstract
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41 Along the western Tethyan and Andean subduction zones the distribution of
42 Cretaceous and Cenozoic porphyry Cu deposits is not random and shows that they
43 were emplaced in distinct regional clusters. To understand the appearance of these
44 clusters within their geodynamical contexts and identify kinematic features which would
45 favor the genesis of porphyry-type ore bodies, we use a paleotectonic approach. Two
46 clusters in the Aegean-Balkan-Carpathian area, which were emplaced in upper
47 Cretaceous and Oligo-Miocene, and two others in the Andes, which were emplaced in
48 late Eocene and Miocene, are sufficiently well constrained to be studied in detail. It
49 appears that they are associated with a specific polyphased kinematic context related
50 to the convergence of tectonic plates. This context is characterized by: 1) a relatively
51 fast convergence rate shortly followed by 2) a drastic decrease of this rate. From these
52 observations, and assuming that the major part of plate convergence is accommodated
53 along subduction zones, we propose a two-phase geodynamic model favoring
54 emplacement of porphyry Cu deposits: 1) a high melt production in the mantle wedge,
55 followed by 2) an extensional regime (or at least relaxation of the compressional stress)
56 in the upper plate, promoting ascension of fertile magmas to the upper crust. Melt
57 production at depth and the following extensional regime, which would be related to
58 variations in convergence rate, are thus associated with variations in plate and trench
59 velocities, themselves being controlled by both plate kinematics at the surface and slab
60 dynamics in the upper mantle. In particular, along-strike folding behavior of the
61 subducting slab may strongly influence trench velocity changes and the location of
62 porphyry Cu deposits. Metallogenic data suggest that periods of slab retreat, which
63 would favor mineralization processes during ~40 Myrs, would be separated by barren
64 periods lasting ~10 to 20 Myrs, corresponding to shorter episodes of trench advance,
65 as observed in laboratory experiments. These results confirm the control of the
66 geodynamic context, and especially subduction dynamics, on the genesis of porphyry
67 Cu deposits. This study also shows that the paleotectonic approach is a promising tool
68 that could help identify geodynamic and tectonic criteria favoring the genesis of various
69 ore deposits.
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71 Keywords: porphyry Cu deposits, paleotectonics, subduction, slab dynamics, Tethys, Andes
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 73 1 - Introduction

74 Assessing the most favorable areas for mineral prospecting has always been a major concern
75 for exploration geologists. The spatial approach of mineral resources predictivity focuses on the
76 geological context of ore deposits and on distinct parameters that control their distribution, from
77 district to continental scales, defined from geology, tectonic structures, geophysics and
78 geochemistry (e.g. Cassard et al., 2008; Carranza, 2011) but also geodynamics and
79 paleogeography (Scotese et al., 2001). It is an upstream phase of prospection campaigns, the goal
80 of which is to guide exploration strategy by predicting a priori the most favorable areas.

81 Porphyry Cu deposits were studied and described by many authors (see the reviews by e.g.
82 Seedorff et al., 2005, and Sillitoe, 2010). They are closely linked to their geodynamic surroundings
83 and are most often associated with calc-alkaline and adakitic magmatism in subduction zones (e.g.
84 Burnham, 1979; Cline and Bodnar, 1991; Thieblemont et al., 1997). These deposits result from a
85 dual melting process with: 1) an initial melting in the metasomatized mantle wedge, above the
86 subducting oceanic slab, which generates relatively oxidized and sulfur-rich mafic magmas with
87 incompatible chalcophile or siderophile elements (such as Cu or Au), and 2) a secondary melting
88 by injection of dykes and sills in the MASH (Melting, Assimilation, Storage, Homogeneization) zone
89 of the lower crust, yielding a crustal- and mantle-derived hybrid magma, with a high content of
90 volatile and metalliferous elements, and a density that is low enough to allow its upward migration
91 through the crust (Richards, 2003, 2011). They are generally associated with plutonic apexes of
92 granitic bodies (e.g. Burnham, 1979; Shinoara and Hedenquist, 1997; Cloos, 2001; Guillou-Frottier
93 and Burov, 2003) emplaced in the upper crust of the overriding plate (usually 1-4 km depth). Ore
94 grades are often low, but volumes can be huge, which can possibly make them very large deposits
95 (e.g. El Teniente, Chuquicamata or Rio Blanco-Los Bronces, all in Chile, with 78.6, 65.2 and 52.4
96 Mt of copper respectively; Jébrak and Marcoux, 2008). In addition, porphyry Cu deposits can yield
97 valuable new-technology metals, such as rhenium which is used in strong high-temperature
98 resistant alloys and often produced as by-product of molybdenum (e.g. Melfos et al., 2001; Berzina
99 et al., 2005).

100 For more than 40 years, authors have demonstrated relationships between tectonics and
101 mineralizing processes (e.g. Sillitoe, 1972, and compilation by Wright, 1977). The new paradigm of
102 plate tectonics, along with numerous metallogenic studies, allowed proposals of new genetic
103 models linking the lithosphere and mantle dynamics to the occurrence of deposits (e.g. Mitchell
104 and Garson, 1981; Sawkins, 1984; Barley et al., 1998; Tosdal and Richards, 2001; Kerrich et al.,
105 2005; Bierlein et al., 2006). Although the close relationship between porphyry Cu deposits and
106 subduction zones is well established, there is, however, no consensus on which subduction
107 parameters primarily control the genesis of porphyry deposits. This is not surprising since,
108 following decades of seismic tomography and modeling studies, distinct modes of lithosphere

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109 deformation have been suggested and the number of physical parameters controlling the
110 subduction process has continuously increased (slab density, mantle viscosity, slab to mantle
111 viscosity ratio, etc). The way the subducted lithosphere behaves beneath the overriding plate
112 appears to depend not only on these physical properties but also on plate features at the surface
113 (plate velocity, slab dip angle, amount of retrograde motion, varying ages along trench, etc). Deep
114 subducting lithosphere behavior is also controlled by plate motion and plate layout at the surface
115 (Yamato et al., 2009). One objective of this study, rather than promoting a single parameter as key
116 to ore formation, is to investigate what control a single selected process, subduction dynamics, has
117 on formation of porphyry Cu deposits.

118 In the Tethys belt it is widely accepted that the genesis of many types of mineralization is
119 closely linked to the geodynamic context (e.g. de Boorder et al., 1998; Lescuyer and Lips, 2004;
120 Lips, 2007). Neubauer et al. (2005) and Loiselet et al. (2010a) have shown the strong impact of the
121 geometry and dynamics of the eastern Mediterranean subduction on the distribution of porphyry
122 and epithermal deposits in the Carpathian and Aegean regions. Similarly, in the Andes numerous
123 studies have suggested specific relationships between subduction parameters and the occurrence
124 of porphyry Cu deposits: conditions of flat-slab subduction (Kay and Mpodozis, 2001; Billa et al.,
125 2004), stress relaxation and transtensional structures (Richards et al., 2001). In particular, the
126 convergence configuration between the subducting and the overriding plates (velocities and
127 obliquity) would dictate how mineralized bodies emplace in the shallow crust (Tosdal and Richards,
128 2001). Rosenbaum et al. (2005) have suggested that subduction of topographic anomalies (ridges
129 and plateaus) triggered the formation of ore deposits. According to Cooke et al. (2005),
130 topographic and thermal anomalies on the subducting slab could trigger the formation of giant
131 porphyry deposits. All these studies clearly show that past subduction history and, in particular, the
132 convergence parameters have to be accounted for when genesis of porphyry Cu deposits is
133 studied.

134 To identify relationships between mineralization and geodynamic processes, it is, thus,
135 necessary to place the mineralization within the geodynamic framework that prevailed at the time
136 of its genesis. It is a necessary step to better understand the relationships between the
137 mineralization itself and its environment (plate boundaries, tectonic structures, stress and strain
138 regimes, geology, etc.). This would, in turn, help identify criteria that are favorable to its genesis.
139 The present study aims at better understanding of the geodynamic parameters, in terms of plate
140 kinematics and slab dynamics, that could favor the genesis of porphyry Cu deposits in subduction
141 contexts. For this, we have focused our analysis on two mineralized subduction zones: the western
142 Tethyan suture and the Andean subduction zone. We have adopted a paleotectonic approach,
143 which has been little used so far in the field of metallogeny, to study past geodynamic contexts and
144 plate kinematic patterns. This approach is coupled with results from laboratory experiments to
145 assess the 3D slab dynamics and its possible relationships with plate kinematics and deposit

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146 genesis.

147

148 2 – Subduction dynamics and convergence rates

149 2.1 Dynamics and deformation of the subducting lithosphere

150 Dynamics of subduction zones is governed by the balance between driving forces (i.e. slab
151 pull, ridge push), resisting forces (i.e. viscous shear and viscous resistance in the mantle) and
152 other external forces due to the large-scale mantle flow or to density contrasts created by phase
153 transitions in the mantle (e.g. Heuret and Lallemand, 2005; Billen, 2008; Husson, 2012). Relative
154 magnitude of these forces determines surface plate kinematics, including the possibility of trench
155 retreat or advance episodes. Variations in plate velocity at the surface are one consequence of the
156 deformation of the subducting lithosphere in the mantle. In the particular case of trench retrograde
157 motion, trench curvature is one of the surface signatures of the longitudinal plate deformation that
158 results from the interaction between subducting lithosphere and surrounding mantle flow (Schellart,
159 2004; Morra et al., 2006; Funiciello et al., 2006; Loiselet et al., 2009). The various observed plate
160 curvatures (Figure 1) are mainly due to plate physical properties (i.e. density, viscosity),
161 dimensions (Dvorkin et al., 1993), and internal heterogeneities (Morra et al., 2006). Longitudinal
162 plate deformation can also be inferred from laterally varying slab dips within the same plate (e.g.
163 Hayes et al., 2012). Furthermore, deformation of the subducting lithosphere along the mantle
164 transition zone at 660 km depth has been suggested to control trench kinematics (Goes et al.,
165 2008).

166 At greater depth, thanks to more than two decades of seismic tomography studies, different
167 deformation modes of the subducted lithosphere have been suggested (van der Hilst et al., 1991;
168 Fukao et al., 1992). The 660 km mantle discontinuity (phase transition zone) imposes a viscosity
169 contrast between the upper and lower mantles, creates a resisting force preventing the subducted
170 slab to penetrate straightly into the lower mantle (Kincaid and Olson, 1987), and induces viscous
171 slab deformation along the interface. Tomography images have illustrated horizontally spreading
172 slabs above the mantle transition zone (e.g. Japan subduction zone, Sandwich subduction zone)
173 but also thickening and vertically sinking slabs into the lower mantle (e.g. Marianas subduction
174 zone). Intermediate deformation modes involving thickened pile of buoyant material around the
175 transition zone (e.g. Java subduction zone) have been successfully reproduced by laboratory and
176 numerical experiments (Griffiths et al., 1995; Guillou-Frottier et al. 1995; Christensen, 1996;
177 Houseman and Gubbins, 1997). In particular, the folding mode allows the accumulation of dense
178 subducted folded lithosphere together with light upper mantle material trapped in between folds.
179 This folding behavior has been increasingly invoked to explain tomography images of thick blue
180 zones near the mantle transition zone (Ribe et al., 2007), and to interpret seismic data on focal

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181 mechanisms (Myhill, 2013).

182 When the folding regime is described, the 3D character due to along-strike  and not only
183 down-dip  undulations (hereafter considered as “buckling” behavior) is rarely invoked. However, a
184 few recent studies suggested that the slab buckling process may be more common than previously
185 thought. This dynamic mechanism would occur in many subducting plates and would be a natural
186 consequence of the Earth sphericity (Stegman et al., 2010; Morra et al., 2012). According to
187 Schettino and Tassi (2012), lateral deformation of the subducting lithosphere is directly related to
188 plate bending along an arcuate trench, but the mantle transition zone would also play a key role on
189 the 3D deformation of slabs (Loiselet et al., 2010b). Although recent 3D numerical models
190 investigated the temporal evolution of the subducting lithosphere (e.g. Schellart et al., 2007;
191 Jadamec and Billen, 2010; Morra et al., 2012), the buckling process was seldom described or
192 quantified. We present below one laboratory experiment where the viscosity jump at the mantle
193 transition zone induces a resisting force to slab penetration, triggering a large-scale buckling
194 behavior in the upper mantle. Consequences on plate velocity changes at the surface (trench
195 retreat or advance) are then described.

196 2.2 Slab buckling in the laboratory

197 Figure 2a illustrates one of the laboratory experiments by Guillou-Frottier et al. (1995), in
198 which 3D features were not described. These experiments were scaled to Earth’s parameters in
199 terms of Peclet number (experiments were kinematically- and thermally-scaled) and contrasts in
200 physical properties. A viscous, dense and cold slab (red material in Figure 2a) is injected at a
201 controlled velocity within a less viscous upper layer, which lies over a more viscous and denser
202 lower layer. The lower layer is 44 times more viscous than the upper layer and a density contrast of
203 4% is imposed. When scaled to the Earth, the series of pictures show 83 Myrs of subduction. Plate
204 velocity corresponds to 3.3 cm/yr and a retrograde (rollback) velocity of 1 cm/yr is imposed (see
205 details in Guillou-Frottier et al., 1995). As illustrated on each picture along distinct parts of the
206 subducted slab, one can see and quantify the temporal evolution of the 3D buckling slab. Dark and
207 grey lines underline varying subduction angles induced by the interaction between the slab and the
208 lower layer. A longitudinal cross-section of the slab at a fixed depth - shown by a white dashed line
209 - presents a lateral undulation of the entire slab (black thick lines on map views at the right of each
210 picture), representing the along-strike folding mode (or buckling mode). Here, we, thus, emphasize
211 the 3D character of the buckling slab induced by the slab-transition zone interaction (Figure 2b).
212 The forming bulge of the subducting slab favors the trench advance while, at the same time, slab
213 edges sink more easily and induce a trench retreat at the surface (see arrow in the bottom-right
214 picture of Figure 2a). In other words, lateral and temporal variations in subduction dip angle in the
215 upper mantle (buckling behavior) are expressed at the surface by trench advance or retreat
216 episodes (see also Morra et al., 2012). Contrarily to what Faccenna et al. (2007) and Di Giuseppe

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217 et al. (2008) suggested, the slab/upper mantle viscosity ratio – which is not necessarily high
218 (Loiselet et al., 2009; Schellart, 2010) – is probably less important (in the back-transmit resistance
219 to motion from the 660 km discontinuity to the shallow subduction zone) than the presence of a
220 viscous lower mantle, which tends to decrease the slab sinking velocity (Ricard et al., 1993;
221 Butterworth et al., 2014). With time, the stagnant pile of subducted material into the lower mantle
222 maintains and enhances the resisting force to slab penetration, and thus affects the buckling
223 behavior within the upper mantle, as illustrated in Figure 2a. It must be stressed that periods of
224 trench advance can occur at the center of the slab while slab edges are retreating (Figure 2b, time
225 t2).

226 In this experiment, it is interesting to note that the geometry of the buckled subducting slab
227 evolves within a few tens of Myrs: the two bottom pictures show that 25 Myrs separate the
228 symmetric bulge (trench advance episode all along the slab) from its 3D buckled shape, where
229 trench retreat episodes are evidenced at the slab edges. Another important observation is that
230 trench retreat episodes last longer than trench advances. Actually, this would have been surprising
231 if subduction was purely vertical, but the inclination of the slab promotes  through a simple gravity
232 effect  retreat rather than advance.

233 2.3 Convergence rate

234 In subducting convergent margins, relative velocities are controlled by several factors, such as
235 the absolute plate velocities, that are in turn strongly coupled to the underlying mantle flow (e.g.
236 Jolivet et al., 2009), trench migration and internal back-arc deformation. Different plate or margin
237 velocities can then be defined (e.g. Heuret and Lallemand, 2005), but they can cover different
238 meanings, depending on what is measured and what is the reference. To clarify this point, we
239 define below the notions of convergence rate and surface subduction rate in trench-orthogonal
240 convergence (Figure 3). These definitions are consistent with those implemented in the
241 paleographic tool used in this study (PaleoGIS™). Additional details can be found in Bertrand
242 (2011) and in Appendix 1.

243 To simplify, all velocities are considered horizontal and perpendicular to the subduction trench.
244 Considering an oceanic plate A being subducted beneath an upper plate B, Va and Vb are the
245 absolute velocities of plates A and B, respectively. Vt is the velocity of the subduction trench
246 migration (or leading edge of the upper plate). In the case of a totally rigid plate B, we have:

247 Vb = Vt (1)

248 As back-arc internal deformation may occur, Ve is the extensional rate within the upper plate.
249 In other words, Ve is the velocity of the upper plate relative to its leading edge along the
250 subduction trench. We then have:

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251 Ve = Vb – Vt (2)

252 The convergence rate Vc is the velocity of plate A relative to plate B, or:

253 Vc = Va – Vb (3)

254 or

255 Vc = Va – Vt – Ve (4)

256 The surface subduction rate Vs, or velocity of the oceanic plate relative to the subduction
257 zone, is the velocity of plate A relative to the leading edge of plate B, or:

258 Vs = Va – Vt (5)

259 Note that the convergence rate may also be written as the difference between the surface
260 subduction rate Vs and the extensional rate:

261 Vc = Vs – Ve (6)

262 In section 3 and 4, the convergence rate as defined above, will be used through a
263 paleotectonic approach, where plates are considered as non-deformable at the surface, meaning,
264 at first order, that Vc=Vs. Note that, to simplify, all velocities above are considered horizontal and
265 perpendicular to the subduction trench, while plate velocities calculated in the following sections
266 correspond to relative convergence rates between plates and thus include an oblique component.

267

268 3 – Paleotectonic reconstructions of the western Tethyan region

269 3.1 - The western Tethyan subduction zone

270 The present Tethyan suture was built through accretion of micro continents and arcs during
271 convergence between the Africa, India and Eurasia plates, which progressively closed the Tethyan
272 Ocean. This accretionary system extends over 5,000 km between the collisional fronts of Apulia, to
273 the west, and the Himalayan collision to the east. Numerous studies propose tectonic
274 reconstructions that describe the Mesozoic-Cenozoic evolution of the Tethyan region, such as
275 geodynamic models from Dercourt et al. (1993, 2000), Sengör and Natalin (1996), Stampfli and
276 Borel (2002, 2004), or Golonka (2004). The Tethyan Ocean, which separated Eurasia from India
277 and Africa-Arabia continents, began to close about 180 Ma. Continental rifting phases, continental
278 collisions and back-arc spreading episodes have complicated the subduction history of this area.
279 Loiselet et al. (2010a) reconstructed the subduction history using the global P wave model of Li et
280 al. (2008) and the kinematic model of van Hinsbergen et al. (2005). According to these

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281 geodynamic interpretations of tomographic studies, subduction history of the Tethyan lithosphere
282 began with a relatively straight and wide subducting slab, corresponding to the sinking of the
283 Meso-Tethys lithosphere. Then, after collision of crustal blocks, distinct stages would have involved
284 ridge subduction, slab breakoff and other possible processes (Wortel and Spakman, 2000;
285 Hafkenscheid et al., 2006; Lee et al., 2009). The preferred model by Hafkenscheid et al. (2006)
286 comprises the opening of large back-arc oceanic basins within the Eurasian margin.

287 Today, after disappearance of almost all the Tethyan lithosphere, some remnants are
288 presently subducting at the Makran, Cyprus, Hellenic and Calabria subduction zones (Figure 1a).
289 While the Makran slab does not seem to advance or retreat (Schellart et al., 2007), the three other
290 slabs show a complicated kinematic history with significant rollback velocities for the Hellenic and
291 Calabria slabs (2.3 and 6.8 cm/yr, respectively). In addition, the Hellenic slab appears to retreat
292 with a southward increase in velocity, which could be due to a clockwise rotation involving a slab
293 tearing at depth (Brun and Sokoutis, 2010). Note that Figure 1a does not illustrate such local
294 variations in trench velocity. Velocities in Figure 1 correspond to plate velocities with respect to the
295 Indo-Atlantic hotspot reference frame from O’Neill et al. (2005), and consequently differ from
296 values of convergence rates as defined above.

297 To summarize, subduction of the Tethyan lithosphere probably occurred from middle Jurassic
298 to Upper Cretaceous, along an essentially wide and straight slab, with no or small retrograde
299 (rollback) motion, as suggested by tomographic images (Li et al., 2008). Then, in the last 60 Myrs,
300 tomography data suggest the involvement of a series of smaller curved and retreating subducted
301 slabs.

302 3.2 - Distribution of Tethyan porphyry copper deposits

303 A large number of porphyry Cu deposits have been reported along the western Tethyan
304 suture, or Tethyan Eurasian metallogenic belt, especially in southeastern Europe (e.g. Sillitoe,
305 1980; Singer et al., 2005). In order to study their spatial and temporal distribution, we have
306 compiled a list based on data extracted from (by decreasing order of contribution): 1) the ProMine
307 Mineral Deposits database (Cassard et al., 2012), 2) the “Caucasus Mineral Deposits” database of
308 the BRGM (unpublished data) and 3) the “Porphyry copper deposits of the World” database of the
309 USGS (Singer et al., 2008). The data has been completed, especially for ages of mineralization, by
310 additional published data (Serafimovski, 1999; Volkov et al., 2008; Voudouris et al., 2009; Yigit,
311 2009). Our dataset contains 238 deposits of porphyry type with their location, ages of
312 mineralization and host rock type and, whenever available, their morphology, status and economic
313 class. From this compilation, we have extracted the 115 deposits, of Creatceous age or younger,
314 which belong to the Tethyan suture. Among these 115 deposits, 80 are of porphyry Cu ± Au ± Mo
315 type and 35 are Cu-bearing porphyries of unspecified type. Table 1 provides a brief synthesis of
316 these deposits with their country, name, latitude and longitude coordinates (geographic WGS84,
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317 decimal degrees), class (based on total Cu potential) and age of mineralization (either absolute
318 age or median age of the stratigraphic series or stage it belongs to). These deposits are distributed
319 along the Tethyan suture from longitude 18°E to 66°E and range in age from 4.0 (Zanclean, lower
320 Pliocene) to 143.5 Ma (Berriasian, lower Cretaceous).

321 The spatial and temporal distribution of these deposits is not random. On the contrary, it
322 shows concentrations of deposits along specific segments of the western Tethyan suture and
323 during distinct time periods. In Figure 4, we plot both their ages versus their longitude, and their
324 geographic distribution with age-based symbology. It shows that the occurrence of 110 out of the
325 115 deposits is organized in five distinct spatial and temporal “clusters” (or groups of neighboring
326 deposits separated from others by significant spatial and/or temporal gaps), that are from the
327 oldest to the youngest:

328 1. “Older” deposits of the Caucasus area (Armenia, Azerbaijan), lower Cretaceous (5
329 deposits);
330 2. Balkan-Carpathian area deposits (Bulgaria, Serbia, Romania), upper Cretaceous and
331 Paleocene (29 deposits);
332 3. Eastern Turkey-Caucasus area deposits (Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Western Iran),
333 Eocene (11 deposits);
334 4. Aegean-Balkan-Carpathian area deposits (Aegean Sea, Greece, Macedonia, Serbia,
335 Romania, Slovakia), Oligocene and Miocene (46 deposits);
336 5. Middle-East area deposits (Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan), Miocene (19 deposits).

337 Because clusters 1, 3 and 5 are too poorly sampled (5, 11 and 19 deposits, respectively,
338 versus 29 and 46 for clusters 2 and 4, respectively) and poorly grouped (i.e. they show significant
339 internal gaps between some neighboring deposits), and because the kinematics through time
340 relative to Eurasia is much better constrained for Africa than Arabia or Iran, we have focused the
341 present study on clusters 2 and 4. To better understand their formation, we have replaced them in
342 the geodynamic and kinematic contexts that prevailed at the time of their geneses.

343 3.3 - Paleotectonic context of Tethyan porphyry copper deposits genesis

344 In order to understand the relationships between geodynamic context and the formation of
345 porphyry Cu deposits in southeastern Europe during upper Cretaceous and Cenozoic (clusters 2
346 and 4 here above), we have performed paleotectonic reconstructions of the western Tethyan
347 closure. In these reconstructions, Eurasia is the reference – or “anchored” – plate, considered as
348 not moving. Instantaneous velocity fields were included (2.5° resolution grid) in order to better
349 image the relative displacements of tectonic plates. These reconstructions were made with the
350 PaleoGIS™ software (www.paleogis.com), using the UTIG PLATES global kinematic model
351 developed by the Institute for Geophysics at the University of Texas at Austin (e.g. Ghidella et al.,

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352 2007; see Appendix 1).

353 These paleotectonic reconstructions show interesting geodynamic features that appear to be
354 linked with the formation of porphyry Cu deposits in the Aegean-Balkan-Carpathian region (clusters
355 2 and 4). We present in Figure 5 four selected reconstructions (Turonian, Selandian, Rupelian and
356 Langhian) that illustrate this point:

357 - In Turonian (90 Ma, Figure 5a), the NeoTethys Ocean is still spreading while the Vardar
358 Ocean is being subducted beneath Eurasia with a relatively fast convergence rate;
359 - In Selandian (60 Ma, Figure 5a), the spreading of the NeoTethys comes to an end; the
360 northward migration of Africa had triggered the subduction of the Pindos Ocean beneath
361 Eurasia and the accretion of the Menderes block, resulting in a slowing down of the
362 convergence rate and a segmentation of the subduction; cluster 2 of porphyry Cu
363 deposits forms during this period;
364 - In Rupelian (30 Ma, Figure 5b), after the complete closure of the Pindos Ocean, the
365 subduction zone migrates to the south, after an acceleration of the convergence rate
366 during Ypresian-Lutetian times (50-42 Ma);
367 - In Langhian (15 Ma, Figure 5b), the subduction zone keeps migrating southward; the
368 Arabian plate collides with Eurasia, causing a significant decrease of the convergence
369 rate; cluster 4 of porphyry Cu deposits forms during this period.

370 These schematic paleotectonic reconstructions show that porphyry Cu deposits of the
371 Aegean-Balkan-Carpathian area formed during periods of slowing down of the Africa-Eurasia
372 convergence rate in response to accretional or collisional geodynamic events. This suggests a
373 strong control of the convergence kinematics on the occurrence of porphyry deposits. To test this
374 hypothesis, we have plotted the velocity of Africa relative to Eurasia (coordinate 33°N and 19°E on
375 the northern border of the plate, arbitrarily chosen to best represent the regional plate convergence
376 rate) versus time during Cretaceous and Cenozoic. In addition to the UTIG PLATES model, we
377 have also used the EarthByte global kinematic model, developed at the University of Sydney (e.g.
378 Müller et al., 1997, 2008). The diagram (Figure 6) shows that both kinematic models show similar
379 trends. In addition, it shows that clusters 2 and 4 were emplaced in specific and similar kinematic
380 contexts. This context is characterized by: 1) a relatively high rate of convergence (approximately
381 3.5 and 2.0 cm/yr for cluster 2 and 4, respectively), followed by 2) a drastic decrease of the
382 convergence rate (down to approximately 1.0 and 0.5 cm/yr for cluster 2 and 4, respectively) over
383 time periods of 30-40 Myrs separated by ~ 10 Myrs.

384 These observations show that variations in the convergence rate between Africa and Eurasia
385 appears to play a key role in the formation of porphyry Cu deposits. To confirm this, we have
386 tested whether the observation may be reproduced in another subduction zone mineralized with
387 porphyry Cu deposits, and with a greatly different 3D evolution. For that, we have chosen the

11
388 Andean subduction zone.

389

390 4 – Paleotectonic reconstructions of the Andean region

391 4.1 - The Andean subduction zone

392 The Andean margin results from the eastward subduction of the Nazca plate beneath South
393 America, at convergence rates that amount to several cm/yr but are not constant through time
394 (Pardo-Casas and Molnar, 1987). According to seismic tomography signatures (e.g. Engdahl et al.,
395 1995; Liu et al. 2003), subduction history and geometry of the Andean subduction zone seem
396 much simpler than those of the Tethyan subduction zone. The varying subduction angle (from flat
397 subduction zones in central Peru and northern Chile, to inclined subduction zone beneath Bolivia)
398 was first attributed to slab tears, but Cahill and Isacks (1992) suggested that slab flexures were
399 more appropriate to explain earthquake location and focal mechanism solutions. At depth, the
400 Nazca slab penetrates the lower mantle beneath central South America, but it would be deflected
401 in the southern zone (Engdahl et al., 1995). Recently, Contenti et al. (2012) suggested that
402 beneath Peru and Brazil, the Nazca slab would also undergo significant deformation around the
403 mantle transition zone, and that the absence of reflectivity at 410 km depth in the back-arc area
404 suggests structural complexities of the subducting plate.

405 Kinematic features related to convergence rates between the Nazca plate and South America
406 (Figure 1b) are not well understood since new models are still being proposed: Quinteros and
407 Sobolev (2013) suggested that slab penetration into the lower mantle was the main cause
408 explaining the decrease of the convergence rate from 20-25 Ma in northern Chile. However,
409 variations of subduction velocity along the Andean subduction zone (blue numbers in Figure 1b)
410 were also attributed to varying angles of subduction, which could increase or decrease the upper-
411 lower plate coupling (Martinod et al., 2010). Note, however, that trench advances in the central part
412 of the Andean subduction zone (positive values of red numbers) where subduction velocity is high,
413 whereas it retreats where subduction velocities are low (Colombia and south Chile).

414 4.2 - Distribution of Andean porphyry copper deposits

415 Porphyry Cu deposits in the Andes have been the topic of numerous studies, from margin- to
416 deposit-scale (e.g. Sillitoe, 1977, 1986, 1988; Sillitoe et al., 1982; Petersen and Vidal, 1996; Noble
417 and McKee, 1999; Kay and Mpodosis, 2001; Richards et al., 2001; Masterman et al., 2005; Gow
418 and Walshe, 2005; Hollings et al., 2005; Schütte et al., 2011). Similarly to the western Tethyan
419 suture, we have compiled a list of porphyry Cu deposits along the Andean subduction. This
420 compilation is based on data extracted from (by order of decreasing contribution): 1) the “Porphyry
421 copper deposits of the World” database of the USGS (Singer et al., 2008) and 2) the “Andes”

12
422 database of the BRGM (e.g. Billa et al., 2004). It contains 155 deposits of porphyry Cu type. Table
423 2 provides a synthesis of these deposits with their country, name, latitude and longitude
424 coordinates (geographic WGS84, decimal degrees), class (based on total Cu potential) and age of
425 mineralization (either absolute age or median age of the stratigraphic series or stage it belongs to).
426 These deposits are distributed along the Andean subduction, from latitude 9°N to 45°S and range
427 in age from 4.7 (Zanclean, lower Pliocene) to 291.5 Ma (Cisuralian, lower Permian).

428 As observed along the western Tethyan suture, the spatial and temporal distribution of the
429 porphyry Cu deposits along the Andean subduction is not random. It shows, at least for Cenozoic
430 deposits (118 out of the 155), concentrations along specific segments of the subduction zone and
431 during distinct time periods. In Figure 7, we plot both their ages versus their longitude, and their
432 geographic distribution with age-based symbology. It shows that the occurrence of deposits is
433 organized in three distinct spatial and temporal “clusters” (or groups of neighboring deposits
434 separated from others by significant spatial and/or temporal gaps), that are from the oldest to the
435 youngest:

436 1. Paleocene to lower Eocene (Danian to Ypresian) deposits of the central Cordillera (16
437 deposits);
438 2. Upper Eocene to lower Oligocene (Bartonian to Rupelian) deposits of the central
439 Cordillera (36 deposits);
440 3. Miocene deposits of the central and northern Cordillera (66 deposits);

441 These clusters fit, at least temporally, with those previously identified by Singer et al. (2005).
442 One could argue that cluster 3 may be divided into several smaller groups. There is, for instance, a
443 clear spatial gap of deposits in southern Peru during Miocene (see orange dots in Figure 7). Also,
444 the identification of only three clusters may seem insufficient when some authors have described
445 more numerous and detailed porphyry Cu belts along the Andes (e.g. Sillitoe and Perello, 2005).
446 But the important point here is that the emplacement of porphyry Cu deposits along the Andean
447 subduction, as evidenced here above in the Aegean-Balkan-Carpathian region, is not continuous
448 throughout time, but occurs in discontinuous “pulses” that, we believe, may be linked to the plate
449 kinematics and subduction dynamics.

450 4.3 - Paleotectonic context of Andean porphyry copper deposits

451 As presented previously for the Africa-Eurasia convergence in the Aegean-Balkan-Carpathian

452 region, we have plotted the velocity of the Nazca plate relative to South America (arbitrary
453 coordinate 20°S and 72°W, on the eastern border of the plate), using the UTIG PLATES and the
454 EarthByte global kinematic models. Because the kinematics of the Nazca plate relative to South
455 America is poorly constrained prior to Eocene, and because cluster 3 is rather poorly sampled (16
456 deposits, versus 36 and 66 for clusters 2 and 3, respectively), we have focused our study on

13
457 clusters 2 and 3. As done previously in the western Tethyan context, we have replaced these two
458 clusters in their paleokinematic context. The diagram (Figure 8) shows that both clusters were
459 emplaced in a kinematic context that is characterized by a relatively high rate of plate convergence
460 (approximately 10 to 17 and 14 cm/yr for cluster 2 and 3, respectively) shortly followed by a drastic
461 decrease of this rate (down to approximately 7 to 8 and 11 cm/yr for cluster 2 and 3, respectively)
462 over time periods of ~15 Myrs separated by ~ 5-10 Myrs. Although the absolute velocities are
463 different, this kinematic context (high then decreasing convergence rate) is very similar to the one
464 in which upper Cretaceous-Paleocene and Oligo-Miocene deposits were emplaced along the
465 western Tethyan suture in the Aegean-Balkan-Carpathian region.

466

467 5 – Discussion

468 The present study shows that four Cretaceous or younger clusters of porphyry Cu deposits
469 along the western Tethyan and Andean margins were emplaced in relatively similar kinematic
470 contexts. To explain the observations presented above, we propose a simple geodynamic model,
471 based on the impact of the plate convergence rate on the melting processes and stress regimes
472 that would favor the formation of porphyry Cu deposits. This model is thus composed of two
473 phases:

474 1) a high rate of convergence, which could have favored a higher melt production in the mantle
475 wedge (e.g. Tatsumi and Eggins, 1995) and the subsequent formation of magmatic bodies in the
476 lithosphere; followed by

477 2) a subsequent decrease of the convergence rate, which may be related to a decrease of
478 plate velocity and/or possibly associated with a trench retreat episode (e.g. Schellart, 2005), and
479 would have favored an extensional regime – or at least relaxation of compressional stress - in the
480 upper plate and easier upward ascension of fertile magmas in the crust (Tosdal and Richards,
481 2001).

482 As defined in section 2.3 and in Figure 3, the convergence rate Vc can be written as Va-Vb or
483 Va-Vt-Ve. Variations in convergence rates can thus be achieved by variations in the three
484 velocities Va, Vt and Ve. While plate kinematics may induce increases or decreases in the
485 absolute plate velocities (Va), trench velocity (Vt) and extensional rate (Ve), these are intimately
486 linked to the temporal evolution of slab dynamics in the upper mantle. In the following sections, we
487 focus our interpretation and discussion on the effects of plate kinematics, controlling variations in
488 Va, and on the effects of slab dynamics, controlling variations in Vt and Ve.

489 5.1 Plate kinematics

14
490 The correlation between convergence rate and melt production in the mantle wedge, which
491 has been suggested by Tatsumi and Eggins (1995), has been confirmed by more recent studies.
492 For instance, numerical models from Cagnioncle et al. (2007) and geochemical studies from
493 Huang and Lundstrum (2007) confirm that melt production increases with increasing convergence
494 rate. To support the second point, analog and numerical models by Faccenna et al. (1996) and
495 Becker et al. (1999) showed that a decreasing convergence rate can lead to slab retreat and
496 extensional regimes in the upper plate, which could, in turn, ease ascension of fertile magmas
497 stocked at the base of the lower crust (Tosdal and Richards, 2001; Richards, 2003, 2005).
498 Numerical models of subduction by Capitanio et al. (2010a) show that the reduction of the Africa-
499 Eurasia convergence along the Hellenic subduction (as proposed by Jolivet and Faccenna, 2000)
500 below the rate allowed by the slab’s own buoyancy could explain the forced trench migration,
501 rollback and stretching within the upper plate. Another recent study, by Jolivet et al. (2009), on the
502 Mediterranean subduction zones shows that flow lines in the mantle are parallel to stretching
503 directions in metamorphic core complexes. They deduce that slab retreat drives a significant part
504 of extensional crustal deformation in the upper plate. In addition, regional tectonic studies show
505 that emplacements of clusters 2 and 4 in the Aegean-Balkan-Carpathian region coincide, spatially
506 and temporally, with extensional regimes that affect, respectively, the Moesian Platform in upper
507 Cretaceous, and the Aegean-Balkan area in Oligo-Miocene (e.g. Jolivet and Faccenna, 2000;
508 Jolivet and Brun, 2010). However, if collision and accretion of blocks, as shown on paleotectonic
509 reconstructions above (Figure 5) and trench migration could partly explain the upper Cretaceous
510 and Cenozoic evolution of the Africa-Eurasia subduction dynamics, such processes could hardly
511 be proposed in the context of the Andean Subduction.

512 The age and thermal profile of the subducting plate has a strong impact on the velocity and dip
513 of the downgoing slab (Uyeda and Kanamori, 1979). This may generate considerable differences
514 from one subduction zone to another, but the age gradient within the subducting plate could also
515 significantly modify the dynamics of subduction. For instance, the surges in the Nazca-south
516 America convergence rate observed approximately 45-40 Ma and 20 Ma (Pardo-Casas and
517 Molnar, 1987; Sdrolias and Müller, 2006; and Figure 8) could be explained by strong along-trench
518 age gradients increasing the driving force of the slab (Capitanio et al., 2011). In addition, Jordan et
519 al. (1983) described graben-like (i.e. extensional or transtensional) structures along the Andean
520 forearc (Longitudinal Valley in northern Chile and Central Valley in central Chile) that developed
521 above segments of steeply dipping (~30°) Benioff zones. As a consequence, the succession of fast
522 then decreasing convergence rates that is associated with the emplacement of upper Eocene-
523 lower Oligocene and Miocene porphyry Cu deposit clusters along the Andean margin may be
524 explained by: 1) the subduction of older (i.e. less buoyant) portions of the Nazca oceanic crust and
525 2) the delayed response of the slab and the possible resulting relaxation of the compressional
526 stress in the upper plate. This scenario, however, would need to be confirmed by further
527 investigations.
15
528 Another aspect that may impact plate kinematics and the stress regime in the upper plate is
529 the presence of asperities on the subducting plate. A synthesis by Cooke et al. (2005) shows that
530 the formation of large Neogene porphyry Cu deposits in the circum-Pacific region has been closely
531 associated with subduction of ridges, seamount chains or oceanic plateaus beneath island and
532 continental arcs. In Chile, subduction of the Juan Fernández ridge migrated along nearly 1,400 km
533 of the margin during Miocene (Yáñez et al., 2001). Subduction of this ridge is considered by
534 Hollings et al. (2005) to be a key geodynamic process responsible for the genesis of several giant
535 porphyry Cu deposits by favoring crustal scale faulting and possibly acting as a source of metals.
536 In addition, Richards et al. (2001) and Gow and Walshe (2005) have identified preexisting
537 extensional tectonic architectures in Chile that could have favored the formation of large porphyry
538 Cu deposits.

539 Recently, Rosenbaum et al. (2005) suggested a causal link between the subduction of
540 topographic anomalies (Nazca Ridge and Inca Plateau) and spatial and temporal distribution of ore
541 deposits in Peru during the last 15 Myrs. According to Kay and Mpodozis (2001), hydration and
542 crustal thickening episodes along the Andean subduction zone are associated with “transitions in
543 and out of flat-subduction”; these processes would correspond to major controls on the formation
544 of ore deposits. In other words, the authors emphasized the need to understand how the geometry
545 of the Nazca plate changed with time. Similarly, Billa et al. (2004) pointed out that the amount of
546 mineralization along the Andean subduction zone correlates with small slab dip angles.

547 5.2 Slab dynamics

548 The discontinuous “pulses” during which porphyry Cu deposit clusters formed through time
549 appear to be associated with significant variations in convergence rates, thus suggesting a non-
550 steady-state behavior of the subducting slab. Indeed, as described in section 2, the subducted
551 lithosphere may pile-up on the upper-lower mantle discontinuity forming alternating forward and
552 backward folds. This folding behavior would generate, at the surface, frontward and rearward
553 (respectively) horizontal trench motions and associated compressive and extensional (respectively)
554 stress regimes in the upper plate (Capitanio et al., 2010b).

555 Assuming that the 3D buckling behavior of the slab (Figure 2) is valid for the Andean
556 subduction zone, one could expect favorable conditions for ore deposition when slab segments
557 retreat (extension phase), while temporal gaps of mineralization could occur during trench advance
558 episodes (compression phase). If the present-day Andean slab shape and porphyry ore deposit
559 distribution are considered, one can see in Figure 7 a significant gap of deposits where trench
560 velocity is positive (trench advances between latitude of ~25°S and 15°S), while numerous
561 porphyry Cu deposits have formed where trench retreats in the last 15 Myrs . One could go further
562 in the geodynamic interpretation by inferring that, from Rupelian to Lutetian (~45 to 30 Ma), the
563 trench was probably retreating between latitude 30°S and 15°S as numerous porphyry Cu deposits
16
564 were generated (Figure 7). On the other hand, the spatial gaps, south of 30°S and north of 15°S
565 might correspond to trench advance episodes in this period. However, one should keep in mind
566 that these inferences may be biased as we do not account here for possible variations in plate
567 velocity, which would also affect the convergence rate.

568 Applying similar relationships to the Tethyan subduction zone, one may suggest that the two
569 retreating episodes between longitudes 17°E and 30°E were separated by an advance phase
570 between ~60 and 45 Ma (see gap of mineralizing events in Figure 4). At longitudes 35°E to 45°E,
571 while the trench was retreating from Paleocene to Oligocene, it was probably advancing at its
572 eastern edge. Such alternating slab motions are in accordance with a lateral buckling behavior at
573 depth.

574 5.3 Metallogenic potential

575 An interesting pattern appears when temporal distribution of Cu potential along both
576 subduction zones is studied. Figure 9 illustrates the temporal clusters already discussed in Figures
577 4 and 7, together with the amount of potential Cu and the number of deposits per 10 Myr-period
578 (see Tables 1 and 2). In both cases, a bimodal distribution can be defined. Periods of mineralizing
579 events, which last around 40 Myrs (grey shadings in histograms of Figure 9), appear to be
580 separated by barren phases lasting ~10 to 20 Myrs. Note that the number of porphyry Cu deposits
581 (indicated on top of each bar) is maximum right before the barren phases, except for the
582 Cretaceous Tethyan ones.

583 The barren phases could represent kinematic conditions for which tectonic compression
584 prevents upward migration of enriched magmas. During such short-lasting phases, convergence
585 rates are high and trenches are assumed to advance, while mineralizing phases would be
586 associated with decreasing convergence rates, possibly related to trench retreat episodes and
587 associated extension, lasting ~40 Myrs. Figures 10 highlights how these processes can be
588 triggered: by a decreasing plate velocity (Figure 10a) and/or a slab buckling process (Figure 10b).
589 One should note that model of Figure 10 is schematic and only considers – for simplification –
590 orthogonal convergence. Paleotectonic reconstructions in the present paper include oblique
591 component of convergence that could produce transpressional and/or transtensional tectonic
592 deformation in the upper plate that are important in the formation of porphyry deposits (Tosdal and
593 Richards, 2001). An interesting fact of the buckling phenomenon is that time periods of slab
594 rollback are probably much longer than time periods of trench advance, as illustrated in laboratory
595 experiments, and it turns out that metallogenic data seem to show a similar temporal behavior.
596 Indeed, the recent study by Ouyang et al. (2013) underlines similar time-scales for subduction-
597 related ore deposits in northeastern China.

598 Although emplacement of porphyry Cu deposits in Andean and Tethyan subduction zones

17
599 seems to occur in similar kinematic contexts, Cu potential – in terms of tonnage – is not of the
600 same order (see units of vertical axes in Figure 9). While our database on Andean porphyry Cu
601 deposits contains 19 ore deposits with a total Cu potential greater than 10 Mt (including the giant
602 ore deposits of Chuquicamata, El Teniente, Los Bronces, La Escondida), the largest Cu potential
603 of Tethyan porphyry Cu deposits amounts to 8.4 Mt (Sar Cheshmeh, Iran). This difference may be
604 due to the high convergence rates along the Andean subduction zone, which are roughly five times
605 greater than along the Tethyan subduction zone (Figures 6 and 8). Indeed, it seems reasonable to
606 consider that higher subduction velocities would involve higher melt production beneath the upper
607 plate. One should, however, consider these results cautiously as latitudinal and longitudinal
608 distribution of Andean and western Tethyan deposits, respectively, is not considered.

609

610 6- Conclusion

611 Despite their different geodynamic regions and subduction context, we evidenced four clusters
612 of porphyry Cu deposits – two of upper Cretaceous-Paleocene and Oligo-Miocene age in the
613 Aegean-Balkan-Carpathian region (closure of the western Tethys), and two of Eocene-lower
614 Oligocene and Miocene age along the Andes (subduction of the Nazca plate) – that were
615 emplaced in relatively similar kinematic contexts. These contexts are characterized by: 1) a
616 relatively fast convergence rate that could have favored higher melt production in the mantle
617 wedge, followed by 2) a drastic decrease of the convergence rate that may have favored
618 extensional regime and/or relaxation of compressional stress in the upper plate and easier
619 ascension of fertile magmas to the upper crust. We suggest that this polyphased kinematic context,
620 which can be explained by plate kinematics, may also be linked to a slab buckling process.

621 In addition, the present study based on a paleotectonic approach confirms the control of the
622 geodynamic context, and especially subduction dynamics, on the genesis of porphyry Cu deposits.
623 Further development of this work will aim to consider the magmatism associated with the deposits,
624 in order to confirm the link between deep mantle processes and their genesis in the upper crust
625 (see for instance the work from Pe-Piper and Piper (2006, 2007) on backarc volcanism in the
626 Aegean Sea). One way to validate our general approach would consist in studying additional
627 convergent margins. Nevertheless, the present study confirms that the paleotectonic approach is a
628 promising tool that could help identify geodynamic and tectonic criteria favoring the genesis of
629 several mineral deposit types. As a corollary, spatial and temporal concentrations of porphyry Cu
630 deposits may be seen as possible indicators of rapid then decreasing subduction rates in the past.
631 More generally, mineral deposits, according to their type, may be seen as interesting markers of
632 past geodynamic contexts (e.g. Pirajno, 2004; Bierlein et al. 2006; Guillou-Frottier et al. 2012). We
633 believe that the approach presented in this study could be applied to all subduction zones hosting
634 porphyry Cu ore deposits, in order to better constrain their kinematic history.
18
635

636 Acknowledgements

637 This study was done within the framework of the scientific research activity at BRGM and was
638 fully funded by its Research Division. We wish to thank our colleagues Laurent Bailly, Daniel
639 Cassard, Laurent Jolivet and Armel Menant, whose discussions and remarks helped improve this
640 work. We also wish to warmly thank Jeremy P. Richards, whose constructive review and
641 comments also greatly helped improve this work. We thank our colleague John Douglas for
642 improving the English in our manuscript (we are fully responsible for all remaining errors). We also
643 wish to thank participants to the workshop “Mineral Resources Potential Maps: A Tool for
644 Discovering Future Deposits” (12th-14th March 2012, Nancy, France), where preliminary results of
645 this work were presented and discussed, for their highly constructive comments. We also thank
646 Saadeddine Benhammouda, from the BRGM’s IT Department, and Doug Harris, from The Rothwell
647 Group L.P., for their help in learning and using PaleoGIS™.

648

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29
 970 Appendix 1 - Methodology

971 Paleogeographic reconstruction tool

972 The paleogeographic software we have used in the present study for paleotectonic
973 reconstructions is PaleoGIS™. It is a collection of tools that runs under ESRI’s ArcGIS™. It allows,
974 from a plate tectonic model, to create and display paleogeographic (or paleotectonic)
975 reconstructions that include user’s datasets (i.e. deposit data of Tables 1 and 2 for the present
976 study), then to manipulate and process paleogeographic data with the tools and functions available
977 or developed within the Geographic Information System. Beside paleotectonic reconstructions of
978 Figure 5, instantaneous velocity fields of Figure 5 and rates versus time for Figures 6 and 8 were
979 calculated using analysis tools provided within PaleoGIS™.

980 Plate tectonic models

981 Paleogeographic/paleotectonic reconstructions and analyses are based on plate tectonic

982 models. Several models, either commercial or academic, are available. For the present study, we
983 looked for plate models that would satisfy the following criteria:
984 - Sufficient time span to cover the geneses of porphyry Cu studied in the present paper;
985 - Published – and as such, peer reviewed - academic models;
986 - Publicly available at no charge, to be freely and easily used to reproduce our
987 reconstructions and calculations.
988 We selected two global plate tectonic models that satisfy these criteria, the UTIG PLATES and
989 Earthbyte models.
990 The UTIG PLATES model (http://www.ig.utexas.edu/research/projects/plates/) has been
991 developed by the University of Texas Institute for Geophysics at Austin. It covers the whole Earth,
992 with 502 polygons, and goes back to 750 Myrs from the past (Neoproterozoic). A major purpose of
993 this model is to provide a powerful tool for reconstructing detailed geological environments “to
994 groups engaged in exploration for hydrocarbons or minerals on global and regional scales”. It is
995 based on comprehensive oceanic paleomagnetic and tectonic database, from which is derived a
996 detailed database of finite-difference poles of rotations.
997 The Earthbyte model (http://www.earthbyte.org/) has been developed by the Earthbyte group,
998 “research groups for global and regional plate tectonic reconstructions and for studying the
999 interplay between the deep earth and surface processes”, to be used with its open-source
1000 paleogeographic reconstruction software GPlates. The model covers the whole Earth, with 1480
1001 polygons, and goes back to 140 Myrs from the past (Lower Cretaceous). It is based on ocean
1002 magnetic anomalies, fracture zones, geometry of plate boundaries and numerous geological
1003 datasets. The absolute reference for plate displacements is the hotspots reference frame. The
1004 large number of polygons in the model makes it relatively accurate but may generate artifacts in
1005 relative plate displacements (see, for instance, short time scale velocity peaks at ~ 55 Ma in Figure

30
1006 6), as it significantly complicates plate hierarchy.
1007 One should keep in mind, however, that both plate tectonic models are global and their
1008 accuracy may be limited at a regional scale. For that reason, we have only calculated from them
1009 first-order relative displacements and positions of major plates and blocs.

31
1010 Figure 1

1011
1012
1013 Figure 1 – Schematic maps of the two studied subduction zones with plate velocities (green),
1014 trench-normal trench migration velocities (red) and trench-normal subducting plate velocities
1015 (blue), as calculated with the Indo-Atlantic hotspot reference frame from O’Neill et al. (2005). a)
1016 Present-day western Tethyan subduction zone, showing five narrow segments of curved
1017 subducted slabs, ~5001000 km long; b) Present-day Andean subduction zone mainly composed
1018 of one single 7,500 km – long segment. Modified after Schellart et al. (2011).

32
1019 Figure 2

1020
1021
1022 Figure 2 – a) Laboratory experiment number 13 from Guillou-Frottier et al. (1995), where lateral
1023 undulations (perpendicular to pictures) are underlined by black (front) and grey (back) lines,
1024 and illustrated by thick black lines at the right of each picture corresponding to horizontal cross-
1025 sections (at the level of dashed white lines); b) From left to right, temporal evolution of the 3D
1026 shape during the buckling behavior (lateral and vertical folding) of a subducting lithosphere,
1027 with implications for trench retreat or advance.

33
1028 Figure 3
1029
1030

1031
1032
1033 Figure 3 – Definition of convergence and subduction rates (Vc and Vs respectively), considering
1034 absolute plate motions (Va and Vb), absolute trench velocity (Vt) and extensional rate within the
1035 upper plate (Ve). For the sake of clarity, velocities are here considered horizontal and
1036 perpendicular to the trench, but oblique convergence is included in the kinematic reconstructions.
1037 Directions and lengths of arrows are arbitrarily chosen.

34
1038 Figure 4
1039
1040

1041
1042 Figure 4 – Spatial and temporal distribution of porphyry copper deposits along the western
1043 Tethyan suture. a) Present day map of the distribution of mineralization as a function of their
1044 age, from Lower Cretaceous to Plio-Pleistocene. b) Longitudinal section of deposit distribution
1045 as a function of age of mineralization. In both representations, we define five distinct clusters
1046 (red dashed ellipse) (see text for details).

35
1047 Figure 5

1048
1049 Figure 5a – Paleotectonic reconstructions and instantaneous velocity field of the western
1050 Tethys region in Turonian (top) and Selandian (bottom), using the UTIG PLATES global
1051 kinematic model (see Appendix 1). Eurasia is considered stable (fixed plate). Appearance of
1052 deposits in the subducting plate (small light grey circle) is a bias due to inaccurate plate
1053 boundary definition in the original plate tectonic model. Val: Valaisan ocean; LiP: Liguro-
1054 Piemontese ocean; Moe: Moesian platform; Var: Vardar ocean; Pin: Pindos ocean; NeoT:
1055 Neotethys ocean.

36
1056
1057 Figure 5b – Paleotectonic reconstructions and instantaneous velocity field of the western
1058 Tethys region in Rupelian (top) and Langhian (bottom), using the UTIG PLATES global
1059 kinematic model. Eurasia is considered stable (fixed plate). LiP: Liguro-Piemontese ocean.

37
1060 Figure 6

1061
1062 Figure 6 – Rates of convergence versus time of the Africa plate relative to fixed Eurasia,
1063 showing the kinematic context in which porphyry Cu deposit clusters were emplaced (light grey
1064 areas) along the western Tethyan suture in the Aegean-Balkan-Carpathian region since
1065 Cretaceous; grey arrows show long time-scale slowing down of convergence rates.

38
1066 Figure 7

1067
1068 Figure 7 – Spatial and temporal distribution of porphyry Cu deposits along the Andean
1069 subduction. a) Present day map of the distribution of mineralization as a function of their age,
1070 from Jurassic to Plio-Pleistocene. b) Longitudinal section of deposit distribution as a function of
1071 age of mineralization. In both representations, we define three distinct clusters (red dashed
1072 ellipse) (see text for details).

39
1073 Figure 8

1074
1075 Figure 8 – Rates of convergence versus time of the Nazca plate relative to fixed South
1076 America, showing the kinematic context in which porphyry Cu deposit clusters were emplaced
1077 (light grey areas) along the Andean subduction since Eocene; grey arrows show long time
1078 scale slowing down of convergence rates.

40
1079 Figure 9

1080

1081 Figure 9 –Cu potential (in Mt of metal) for the Andean and Tethyan subduction zones as a
1082 function of age (Ma). Temporal clusters are highlighted with grey shadings. Numbers of
1083 significant deposits (classes A to C, see Table 1 and 2) are indicated on top of each bar.

41
1084 Figure 10

1085
1086
1087 Figure 10 – Conceptual geodynamic models suggesting distinct processes favoring porphyry Cu
1088 deposits formation. a) Influence of the plate kinematics (i.e. fast then decreasing convergence rate)
1089 on overriding plate deformation (i.e. compression followed by extension), magma production and
1090 migration. b) Influence of slab dynamics on overriding plate deformation: forward slab buckling
1091 promotes trench advance and compression in the overriding plate (top), while backward slab
1092 buckling promotes trench retreat, extension in the overriding plate and upward magma migration
1093 (bottom). In both cases, the overriding plate is fixed.

42
1094 Table 1

1095

Recsk (Cu-Au-
Age of
Pb-Zn) 20,05 47,95 B 34,9
minera-
Name of Long Lat Cu lization Recsk-Lahóca
Country deposit (°E) (°N) class (Myr) (Cu-Au) 20,09 47,95 B 45,0
Afgha- Okhan-Kashan 65,50 35,19 D 14,0 Recsk-Lahóca
nistan Shaida 61,85 33,85 D 38,5 (Cu-Mo) 20,07 47,92 34,9
Agarak 46,22 38,93 C 39,5 Ali-Abad 53,84 31,63 C 16,0
Ankavan 44,52 40,63 33,0 Char Gonbad 56,38 29,67 D 14,0
Armenia

Dastakert 46,03 39,37 22,0 Dallil 49,27 34,55 14,9

Kadgaran 46,13 39,15 B 22,0 Darrehzar 55,90 29,88 C 14,9
Shikahoh 46,47 39,10 143,5 Darreh-
Zerreshk 53,83 31,58 C 16,0
Tekhut 44,82 41,11 B 121,0

Iran
Gandy 54,70 35,38 D 28,0
Damirli 46,75 40,02 135,0
Azerbaijan

Kal-e-Kafi 54,55 33,47 C 28,0

Garadag 45,85 40,63 135,0
Kharvana 46,27 38,55 E 45,0
Goshgarchai 46,15 40,53 135,0
Meiduk 55,07 30,53 B 12,5
Ordubad
(district) 46,02 38,90 B 40,0 Raigan 57,23 28,90 12,0
Bosnia Sar Cheshmeh 55,87 29,95 B 12,5
and Sungun 46,38 38,81 B 14,9
Herze-
Macedonia (FYROM)

Borov Dol 22,35 41,58 26,0

govina Kiseljak 18,08 43,94 C 17,5
Bucim 22,35 41,67 C 25,0
Assarel 24,14 42,55 B 76,5
Dudica 22,13 41,15 4,0
Bardtzeto 27,52 41,99 80,5
Kadiica 22,88 41,62 34,0
Briastovo 25,37 41,94 D 32,5
Osogovo 22,87 41,80 23,0
Byrdtseto 27,53 41,97 80,5
Rudnitsa 20,72 43,23 14,0
Elatsite 24,04 42,75 B 92,1
Karlievo 24,12 42,69 C 86,0 Zlatica 22,12 42,03 15,0
Dash-e-Kain 64,50 29,55 B 21,0
Kominsko
Koh-i-Dalil 62,19 29,12 14,9
Pakistan
Bulgaria

Chukarche 24,28 42,46 E 86,0

Medet 24,19 42,60 C 80,0 Reko Diq 62,03 29,13 B 12,5
Orlovo Gnezdo 24,13 42,54 C 86,0 Saindak 61,61 29,25 B 21,0
Ziarat Pir
Petelovo 24,27 42,46 E 86,0
Sultan 64,17 29,37 C 20,0
Popovo Dere 24,16 42,37 C 83,5
Bocsa 21,80 45,47 60,0
Prohorovo 26,25 42,37 C 81,0
Bolcana-Troita 22,95 46,02 10,0
Spahievo 25,25 42,12 33,0
Bozovici 22,03 44,97 65,0
Studenets 23,36 42,46 76,0 Bucium -
Tsar Asen 24,34 42,36 C 90,0 Arama 23,13 46,24 14,0
Vlaikov Vruh 24,21 42,35 D 82,0 Bucium -
Garta 43,70 41,94 C 35,0 Tarnita 23,13 46,24 B 14,9
Georgia Cerbia 22,38 46,07 123,0
Merisi (group) 42,01 41,59 35,0
Ciclova 21,78 44,98 65,0
Fakos 25,19 39,81 21,0
Romania

Cofu 22,35 45,55 65,0

Fisoka 23,79 40,50 D 19,0
Deva 22,89 45,92 E 13,3
Kassiteres 25,79 41,02 23,5
Lapusnicul
Maronia 25,64 40,88 29,0
Greece

Mare 21,95 44,95 60,0

Mili 25,97 41,01 28,0
Madaras-
Pagoni Rachi 25,81 41,00 28,0 Harghita 25,57 46,47 15,0
Pontokerasia 23,15 41,07 32,0 Moldova Noua 21,67 44,72 C 65,0
Skouries 23,73 40,46 C 19,0 Ostoros 25,61 46,57 7,0
Vathi Kilkis 22,97 41,13 30,0 Remetea 22,91 46,16 14,0
gary

Bsrzssny
Hun

Rosia Poieni 23,19 46,32 B 11,0

Mountains 19,03 47,92 14,0
Rovina 22,90 46,17 14,9

43
 Sopot 21,95 44,75 65,0 Copler 38,53 39,42 D 45,0
Savarsin 22,26 46,03 125,0 Derekoy 27,37 41,94 C 70,9
Sumuleu - Gelemic 29,27 39,88 82,5
Gurghiu 25,41 46,63 15,0 Gumushane 39,62 40,83 D 52,5
Talagiu 22,15 46,27 C 8,2 Ikiztepeler 27,73 41,84 D 75,0
Valea Morii 22,92 46,12 D 11,0 Kisladag 29,10 38,49 C 14,0
Voia 22,97 46,06 8,2 Tereoba 27,15 39,60 25,0
Bor 22,09 44,09 B 70,0 Ulutas 40,88 40,45 C 59,0
Serbia-Montenegro

Borska Reka 22,09 44,08 B 1096

80,0
Djavolja Varos 21,42 43,03 15,0
1097 Table 1 – Listing of peri-Tethyan deposits
Dumitru Potok 21,93 44,20 B 80,0
Mackatica 22,22 42,75 1098
38,0 used in the present study, with their country,
Majdanpek 21,95 44,38 B 1099
84,0 name, geographic coordinates (WGS84,
Tulare 21,44 42,79 15,0
1100 decimal degrees), Cu class (A, B, C, D and E,
Veliki Krivelj 22,10 44,13 B 83,5 7
Banska 1101 for total Cu potential greater or equal to 10 ,
Stiavnica 18,90 48,45 E 11,6 6 5 4 4
1102 10 , 10 and 10 , and lower than 10 metric
Brehov 21,67 48,54 14,0
1103 tons of metal, respectively), and age of
Javorie 19,27 48,43 15,0
Slovakia

Morske oko 22,20 48,92 1104

14,0 mineralization. Shaded ages are not
Pukanec 2 - 1105 radiometric ages but the median age of the
Rudno 18,72 48,37 12,0
Rochovce 20,30 48,70
1106
89,1
stratigraphic series or stage the mineralization
Voznica 18,78 48,43 C 1107
14,5 belongs to.
Turke

Bakircay 35,43 41,00 38,0

y

Berta 41,90 41,20 40,0

1108

44
1109 Table 2

1110

Andacollo 71,42 30,25 112,0

Age of
minera- Angelina 69,61 24,40 100,0
Name of Long Lat Cu lization Antucoya 69,92 22,53 142,0
Country deposit (°W) (°S) class (Myr) Candelaria 69,85 27,41 B 109,6
Agua Rica 66,28 27,37 5,5 Centinela 69,17 23,16 44,0
Alcaparrosa 69,37 31,30 267,0 Cerro Casale 69,23 27,78 B 14,0
Arroyo Chita 69,75 30,50 12,0 Cerro Colorado 69,26 20,04 52,0
Bajo de Agua Chimborazo 69,08 24,13 37,0
Tapado 66,65 27,27 8,5 Chuquicamata 68,90 22,28 A 33,0
Bajo de la Collahuasi 68,71 20,96 32,0
Alumbrera 66,61 27,33 7,5 Conchi 68,74 21,95 36,0
Bajo de San Copaquire 68,89 20,92 C 35,0
Lucas 66,55 27,40 7,0
Disputada 70,30 33,15 A 4,9
Bajo El
Durazno 66,57 27,28 8,0 Dos Hermanos 69,72 18,29 14,0
Betito 67,90 26,30 14,0 El Abra 68,83 21,92 B 36,0
El Loa 68,73 21,12 251,5
Campana
Mahuida 70,58 38,25 74,0 El Salvador 69,55 26,25 B 42,0
Carrizal 69,17 30,00 261,0 El Telégrafo 69,08 22,99 29,0
Cerro El Teniente 70,46 34,09 A 5,4
Mercedario 70,05 31,95 13,0 Esperanza 69,06 22,97 41,0
Argentina

El Oculto 66,60 24,13 12,5 Gaby 68,82 23,41 42,0

El Pachón 70,45 31,76 B 9,8 Inca de Oro 69,87 26,77 63,0
Filo Colorado 66,22 27,38 5,5 La Escondida
Inca Viejo 66,76 25,14 15,0 Norte 69,08 24,20 A 37,9
La Voluntad 70,63 39,18 281,0 La Escondida 69,07 24,27 A 37,0
Chile

Nevados de La Fortuna 69,88 28,63 33,5

Famatina 67,75 29,00 4,4 La Pepa
Pancho Arias 65,87 24,20 15,0 (Vizcachas) 69,28 27,27 22,3
Paramillos La Planada 69,08 20,18 31,0
Norte 69,08 32,42 14,0
Lilian 68,75 22,67 275,0
Paramillos Sur 69,10 32,48 14,0
Lobo 69,03 27,23 D 12,9
Quebrada del Lomas Bayas 69,51 23,45 57,5
Bronce 70,47 37,43 45,0
Los Bronces 70,27 33,13 A 4,7
Rio de las
Vacas 69,97 32,57 8,5 Los Pelambres
San Jorge 69,43 32,25 260,0 - El Pachon 70,50 31,71 A 9,5
Taca Taca Alto 67,78 24,57 29,0 Mansa Mina 68,91 22,38 33,5
Taca Taca Mani 69,24 22,56 64,0
Bajo 67,73 24,58 31,0 Marte 69,02 27,17 D 13,3
Yalguaraz 69,44 32,14 263,5 Mocha 69,28 19,81 C 58,0
Caracoles 67,48 16,92 23,0 Opache 68,97 22,47 35,5
Catavi, Siglo Polo Sur 69,23 23,30 40,0
XX 66,60 18,44 20,6 Potrerillos 69,42 26,49 36,5
Cerro Rico de Punta del
Potosi 65,75 19,63 12,4 Cobre (distr) 70,25 27,48 C 109,6
Chocaya 66,45 20,95 12,5 Puntillas 69,83 21,92 132,0
Bolivia

Chorolque 66,03 20,91 16,0 Quebrada

Colquechaca 66,00 18,70 21,7 Blanca 68,80 21,00 36,0
Morococala 66,79 18,14 20,0 Queen
Elizabeth 68,97 19,87 36,0
San José de
Refugio
Oruro 67,13 17,95 15,0
(Verde,
Tasna 66,19 20,63 E 16,2 Pancho-
Ubina (distr.) 66,36 20,48 16,0 Guanaco) 69,27 27,38 D 22,8

45
 Relincho 70,30 28,50 64,0 Cerro
Rio Blanco Verde/Santa
(Andina) 70,27 33,14 A 4,9 Rosa 71,59 16,54 B 62,0
Rio Frio 69,23 25,22 291,5 Chalcobamba 72,33 14,03 36,0
Sierra Gorda 69,34 22,88 63,5 Chapi 71,36 16,77 50,0
Spence 69,30 22,84 57,3 Chavez N2,
Toki 68,95 22,42 A 38,0 Concesion 75,42 14,23 100,0
Turbio 72,15 46,03 100,0 Constancia 71,77 14,46 33,0
Ujina 68,64 20,99 B 35,0 Coroccohuayco 71,26 14,95 31,0
Vizcachitas 70,23 32,88 11,2 Cotabambas 72,35 14,18 35,7
Cuajone 70,71 17,05 B 51,0
Zaldivar (Main
Zone, Pinta Cuajone (mina) 70,70 17,04 A 51,0
Verde) 69,09 24,24 B 38,7 El Galeno 78,32 7,02 17,0
Acandi 77,32 -8,49 48,0 Eliana 75,72 13,77 100,0
Dolores 75,03 -3,52 166,0 La Granja 79,12 6,36 12,0
Infierno-Chile 75,30 -4,18 131,0 Laguna
Colombia

Chamis 78,58 7,12 10,0

Mocoa 76,67 -1,24 166,0
Lahuani 72,99 14,46 36,0
Murindo 76,75 -7,05 55,0
Los Chancas 73,13 14,16 32,0
Pantanos-
Pegadorcito 76,50 -6,70 43,0 Los Pinos 76,14 12,98 100,0
Magistral 77,77 8,22 15,0
Piedrasentada 76,88 -2,10 17,0
Michiquillay 78,32 7,30 20,0
Balzapamba-
Las Guardias 79,15 1,67 20,0 Minas Conga 78,36 6,92 15,7
Chaso Juan 79,12 1,38 20,0 Palca Once 69,66 15,00 22,6
Chaucha 79,42 2,93 11,0 Pashpap 78,00 8,79 14,7
Cumay 78,88 4,02 141,0 Puquio 75,35 13,93 100,0
El Hito 78,95 4,25 154,0 Puy-Puy 76,08 11,48 7,0
Fierro Urcu 79,33 3,58 9,6 Quechua 71,31 14,98 38,0
Quellaveco 70,62 17,11 54,0
Gaby-Papa
Ecuador

Grande 79,68 3,05 19,0 Rio Blanco 79,31 4,94 16,0

Junin 78,58 -0,33 6,5 Tantahuatay 78,67 6,73 13,4
Los Linderos 80,00 4,33 14,0 Tingo 75,09 13,69 100,0
Mirador 78,90 4,65 154,0 Tintaya 71,31 14,91 33,0
Panantza 78,50 3,60 154,0 Toquepala 70,61 17,25 B 57,0
Rio Playas 79,58 4,20 14,0 Toromocho 76,13 11,60 B 7,5
San Carlos 78,42 3,65 1111
154,0
Telimbela 79,13 1,57 15,0
1112 Table 2 – Listing of Andean deposits used in
Tumi 79,25 4,25 154,0
1113 the present study, with their country, name,
Warintza 78,60 3,78 154,0
Aguila 77,90 8,56 1114
5,0 geographic coordinates (WGS84, decimal
Almacen 75,92 13,23 100,0
1115 degrees), Cu class (A, B, C, D and E, for total
Alondra 73,58 15,82 100,0 7 6 5
1116 Cu potential greater or equal to 10 , 10 , 10
Alto Dorado 78,18 8,17 10,0
4 4
Anita de Tibilos 75,15 14,18 1117
100,0 and 10 , and lower than 10 metric tons of
Peru

Antapaccay 71,35 14,96 36,0

1118 metal, respectively), and age of
Ca±ariaco 79,28 6,08 15,0
1119 mineralization. Shaded ages are not
Cerro Colorado 69,90 17,68 59,0
Cerro Corona 78,61 6,76 1120
10,5 radiometric ages but the median age of the
Cerro de Pasco 1121 stratigraphic series or stage the mineralization
(mina) 76,25 10,63 C 14,0
1122 belongs to.
Cerro Negro 71,55 16,55 57,0
1123

46
1124

1125 Highlights
1126
1127  A paleotectonic approach is used to study the genesis of porphyry Cu deposits
1128  Deposits along the Tethyan and Andean margins form spatial and temporal clusters
1129  Four clusters are related to similar plate convergence paleokinematic contexts
1130  Rapid then decreasing convergence rates favor the genesis of porphyry Cu deposits
1131  Changes in plate kinematics or slab dynamics may trigger barren time periods
1132

47