J. Umm Al-Qura Univ. Eng.Archit.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s43995-024-00077-x

REVIEW

The green city as a driver of sustainable development

Loubna Azizi1 · Noureddine Kouddane1

Received: 14 February 2024 / Accepted: 15 July 2024

© The Author(s) 2024

Abstract
Given the accelerating pace of urbanization and worsening environmental constraints, it has become imperative to explore
innovative and integrated solutions to shape a sustainable urban future. In this context, the emergence of the “Green City”
stands out as an innovative approach to addressing environmental challenges while promoting sustainable urban develop-
ment. This study aims to deepen our understanding of the crucial role played by the Green City as a driver to overcome
obstacles related to environmental and urban sustainability. To achieve this objective, our methodology is based on several
essential steps. Firstly, we establish a solid conceptual framework by comparing the Green City to sustainable cities. This
initial step allows us to precisely define the contours and specific objectives of each concept, laying the groundwork for our
comparative analysis. Next, we conduct a comprehensive analysis to explore how the Green City can contribute in a targeted
manner to achieving sustainable development goals. By integrating these different approaches, our goal is to substantially
advance knowledge and practices in sustainable urban planning, as well as the creation of more resilient and environmentally
friendly cities.

Keywords Green city · Sustainable city · Sustainable development · Urban ecology · Sustainable urban planning

1 Introduction catalyst for addressing environmental and urban sustainabil-

ity challenges.
Rapid urbanization and the growth of urban agglomerations To achieve this goal, our methodology relies on several
have highlighted the need to promote urban sustainability key steps. First, we establish a solid conceptual framework
and preserve the environment. In this context, cities, due to for the green city and sustainable city. This initial step allows
their population density and intense activities, have become us to precisely define the contours and specific objectives of
key players in global environmental challenges such as air each concept, laying the groundwork for our comparative
pollution, biodiversity loss, and greenhouse gas emissions. analysis. Next, we conduct an in-depth analysis to explore
As a result, sustainable urban development has emerged as how the green city can contribute in a targeted manner to
a priority, seeking to reconcile urban growth with environ- achieving sustainable development goals. Our methodo-
mental protection and improving the quality of life for city logical approach aims to deepen our understanding of the
dwellers [10]. In this context, the emergence of the "Green interactions between the green city and urban sustainability,
City" as an innovative approach to addressing environmen- addressing existing research gaps. Indeed, previous studies
tal challenges while promoting sustainable urban develop- have often blurred the concepts of the green city and sustain-
ment has become crucial. This study aims to deepen our able city without establishing a clear distinction between
understanding of the essential role of the Green City as a them. Moreover, little attention has been paid to how the
concept of the green city can be a tool for sustainable devel-
opment, with some works focusing solely on its environmen-
* Loubna Azizi tal dimension at the expense of other crucial aspects of urban
[email protected] sustainability. Thus, our study seeks to address these gaps
Noureddine Kouddane by proposing an integrated analysis of the role of the Green
[email protected] City as a vector for sustainable development.
1
Laboratory of Agricultural Production Improvement,
Biotechnology, and Environment, Faculty of Science,
Mohammed First University, Oujda, Morocco

Vol.:(0123456789)
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2 Méthodology perspective is crucial for understanding the dynamics and

challenges associated with contemporary urban planning
We have chosen a methodological approach that combines [12, 22, 27].
both in-depth theoretical analysis and comparative analysis In this framework, the sustainable city aims to create
to deepen our understanding of the concepts of the green urban environments that integrate the three dimensions of
city and sustainable city. To do this, we initially conducted sustainable development (Fig. 1) to ensure economic pros-
a theoretical analysis by exploring existing literature on perity, social well-being, and environmental protection
these two concepts. This exploration included consulting according to the traditional framework of sustainable devel-
a variety of sources such as academic articles, government opment, and sometimes it is complemented with a fourth
reports, reference books, and relevant case studies. pillar: governance [26].
During this process, our goal was to clarify the defini- The concept of the sustainable city is subject to a plurality
tions and specific objectives of the green city and sus- of definitions, reflecting its inherent complexity and diverse
tainable city. We also sought to understand the strategic issues it entails. Some researchers have envisioned the sus-
approaches generally associated with each of these urban tainable city as a self-sufficient entity, capable of meeting its
visions. By critically analyzing different viewpoints and own needs without excessively relying on external resources.
emerging practices in this field, we were able to establish This vision has been advocated notably by economists David
a solid foundation for our subsequent comparative study. Morris and Ignacy Sachs, who emphasize the importance of
By combining these two approaches, our study provides a creating urban communities capable of meeting their essen-
comprehensive view of the role of the green city in build- tial needs in a balanced and sustainable manner [12, 26, 27].
ing the sustainable city and underscores its importance for Cyria Emelianoff, a geography teacher-researcher, places
integrated urban planning. particular importance on the concepts of identity, quality of
life, and balance when defining the sustainable city. Accord-
ing to her, a sustainable city is much more than just a physi-
cal place; it is a dynamic environment capable of maintain-
3 Literature review ing its distinctive character over time. She also stresses the
need for a sustainable city to offer optimal quality of life to
In the literature, the concept of the green city is often dis- all its residents, by promoting social and functional diversity
cussed interchangeably with that of the sustainable city, in all neighborhoods. Furthermore, a sustainable city is one
which has sometimes led to some confusion or imprecise that allows its residents to actively engage in a political pro-
use of the terms. Indeed, the green city is sometimes pre- ject, seeking a harmonious balance between ecological and
sented as a subset of the sustainable city, or even used as social aspects, both at the local and global scales [20, 21].
a synonym, while the two concepts carry distinct nuances The diversity of interpretations surrounding the notion
and encompass different aspects of urban sustainability. of the sustainable city has raised deep questions about its
However, it is crucial to recognize that the concept of the precise definition and relevance in the current context. This
green city cannot be fully understood without considering diversity of interpretations partly stems from the constantly
the broader vision of urban sustainability embodied by the evolving challenges, issues, and concerns related to urban
sustainable city. Defining the green city in isolation, with-
out reference to the broader conceptual framework of the
sustainable city, risks reducing its scope and significance.

3.1 Definition of the sustainable city

Since the 1990s, the concept of the "sustainable city"

has emerged and spread, closely related to the broader
concept of "sustainable development." Understanding the
concept of a sustainable city requires placing it within the
broader context of sustainable development. Defined in the
Brundtland Report in 1987, sustainable development seeks
to meet present needs without compromising the ability
of future generations to meet their own needs. Thus, inte- Fig. 1  The three dimensions of sustainability. Source: [3], “Sustain-
grating the concept of a sustainable city into this global able development” (available at http://​commo​ns.​wikim​edia.​org/​wiki/​
File:​Susta​inable_​devel​opment.​svg)
J. Umm Al-Qura Univ. Eng.Archit.

development, as well as the different perspectives and pri- build a new civilization where contact with nature would be
orities of actors involved in city planning and management. an essential element of a healthy and balanced daily life [24,
The widespread use of the term "sustainable city" has 36]. The city was considered a sick organism, and Howard
gradually altered its original meaning, leading to the emer- sought to restructure it to be in harmony with nature [28].
gence of terms such as "green city," "resilient city," and The second phase, after World War II, the urgent need
"inclusive city." These new terms have emerged to better for rapid housing reconstruction, and technological progress
reflect specific aspects of urban sustainability, whether it is influenced the relationship between the city and nature. Le
environmental protection, the ability to cope with shocks Corbusier, the master of this era, developed the concept of
and stresses, or the promotion of social inclusion and equity. the green city. For him, the city is a large park [17]. Once the
Thus, the diversity of terms and approaches in urban devel- buildings and road networks are in place, everything else is
opment reflects the complexity and multidimensionality green space. Hygienist goals then merged with architectural
of the challenges cities face. Each concept, whether it is a forms of housing to create unique landscapes [41].
sustainable city, green city, resilient city, or inclusive city, With the advent of sustainable development, the link
brings a specific contribution to the reflection and action between cities and their natural environment regained impor-
aiming to create more sustainable, resilient, and inclusive tance. This paradigm emerged from a growing awareness
urban environments for all their residents. of the detrimental effects of human activity on the planet,
as well as concerns about preserving natural resources. In
3.2 Definition of the green city 1968, UNESCO’s "Man and Biosphere" program raised the
question of urban growth: how to slow it down? Then the
3.2.1 Emergence of the green city Brundtland Report published by the World Commission on
Environment and Development in 1987 defined the policies
The concept of the green city is far from being a recent urban needed to achieve sustainable development. This report,
innovation; it is the result of long evolutions of the city in often seen as a turning point in understanding sustainable
relation to its environment. Cities have always been subject development, advocated for a comprehensive approach inte-
to development strategies dependent on their environment, grating economic, social, and environmental dimensions into
existing resources, and geographical advantages of the site. the planning and management of human activities. It empha-
The city-nature relationship is considered one of the earliest sized the need to preserve resources for future generations
approaches to the green city before the term was established. while meeting current needs, thus laying the groundwork
It dates back several periods in urban theory and practice, for a long-term vision of human prosperity in harmony with
taking different forms over time. nature [50].
During the nineteenth century, the question of nature was Next came the sustainable city, which finds its roots in a
at the core of various movements and currents. The hygienist specific program on the ecological city launched in 1993 to
period was marked by numerous theorists and urban plan- prepare for the Istanbul Habitat II summit, which translated
ners such as Haussmann, Howard, Geddes, Olmsted, and sustainable development precepts to the city. Two events
Forestier, who advocated against the unhealthy and unsani- marked the beginning of this trend: in 1990, the United
tary industrial city [17, 41]. Faced with issues of urban con- Nations established ICLEI (International Council for Local
centration, epidemics, and unhealthiness, nature became a Environmental Initiatives), which seeks to raise awareness
necessity for public hygiene. It was considered a purification among cities about the environment and sustainable develop-
tool to maintain social peace and well-being. In Europe, par- ment, and the OECD, which initiated the first reflections on
ticularly in Paris, extensive transformation operations were the city and urban environment, followed by a symposium
undertaken in a progressive approach aimed at ventilating on 21st-century cities. This evolution shows a growing inter-
the urban fabric. The urban landscape was modified by est in urban sustainability within the context of sustainable
opening major roads and developing numerous parks and development [19, 20, 27, 51].
gardens, as well as other public facilities like schools and The Green Paper on Urban Environment was the first
hospitals [17, 35, 41]. Nature became a means to make the manifestation of awareness that kick-started the sustain-
city viable and pleasant to live in, especially to combat the able development policies of cities. This initiative was fol-
epidemics that were multiplying at that time. lowed by the launch of a campaign for sustainable cities,
The late 19th and early twentieth centuries saw the devel- which began at the Aalborg conference in 1994. The con-
opment of collective transport means, giving rise to a new cept of sustainable development was integrated into cities,
urban form: Ebenezer Howard’s garden cities in Great Brit- especially in Europe, with the implementation of Agenda
ain. Howard proposed a new approach to urban planning by 21 [12, 22, 27], where urban communities have been com-
seeking to create a model that would combine the advan- mitted since 1993 to implementing various aspects of the
tages of the city with those of the countryside, aiming to program through local Agenda 21s. These were part of the
 J. Umm Al-Qura Univ. Eng.Archit.

action plan adopted at the Rio conference in 1992 on envi- footprint and to adapt urban infrastructure to the conse-
ronment and development. In this conference, cities were quences of climate change. In this context, the concept of
officially tasked with drafting action plans and sustainable the green city emerged to address these growing concerns
development tailored to their urgency and scale of the situ- about the environment and urban sustainability. The green
ation. The aim was to raise awareness among policymakers city is an approach that aims to rethink the planning, design,
about the risks facing cities worldwide and to rethink urban and management of cities to minimize their environmental
policies accordingly. Reflection on sustainable cities led impact and promote a better quality of life for residents [6,
to a critical reassessment of urban dynamics based on the 10, 36].
three pillars of sustainable development (economic, social,
and environmental). It seeks to explore new forms of gov- 3.2.2 The green city
ernance, spatial management, transport, and energy, being
environmentally friendly, sustainability-focused, innovative, Given the absence of a universally accepted definition of a
resilient, and inclusive. Also, the green cities movement ini- green city, the most relevant definitions are summarized in
tiated during the World Environment Day in 2005 in San Table 1. A thorough analysis of these definitions highlights
Francisco was a major turning point in global awareness a great diversity in how different researchers and institutions
of the need for ecological and sustainable urban planning. envision a green city. These various definitions shed light
It was a response to the rapid growth of cities with its chal- on a range of approaches, from natural elements to broader
lenges in terms of natural resources, air quality, and climate concerns of urban sustainability. Originally, green city defi-
change. World leaders, policymakers, scientists, and civil nitions often focused on nature-related elements. However,
society representatives gathered at this historic event to dis- over time, they have evolved to incorporate more holistic and
cuss major environmental issues facing cities worldwide and sustainable considerations. This transition reflects a shift in
to find innovative and sustainable solutions to facilitate the discourse, moving from a primary focus on nature preserva-
transition to greener and more sustainable cities [12, 22, 27]. tion to a more explicit consideration of urban sustainability
Today, cities are increasingly criticized for their sig- issues.
nificant contribution to greenhouse gas emissions. It has Some researchers have argued that the concept of a
become imperative to find solutions to reduce their carbon green city is closely linked to that of a sustainable city,

Table 1  Several definitions stemming from a literature review

Références Green city définition

[6] The Green City is a city, where all forms of nature—living organisms, biocoenosis, and their habitats—are highly significant com-
ponents of green infrastructure. In a Green City, these forms of nature are preserved, maintained, and extended for the benefit of
city residents. Urban nature is an ideal provider of services, and a key Concept for city development
[31] Green cities have clean air and water and pleasant streets and parks. Green cities are resilient in the face of natural disasters, and
the risk of major infectious disease outbreaks in such cities is low. Green cities also encourage green behavior, such as the use of
public transit, and their ecological impact is relatively small
[42] « La ville verte est une facette de la ville durable qui met l’accent sur les aspects environnementaux et urbanistiques de la con-
struction de la ville»
« la ville verte est une manière bien spécifique d’envisager la ville durable qui consiste à opérer un verdissement multiforme des
territoires urbains, qu’il s’agisse de leurs espaces publics ou de leurs bâtiments»
[47] Eight main attributes of a green city: green planning and design, implementation of green buildings, green waste, green transport
system, efficiency in the use of green water and energy, green environment, and green community
[37] “The concept of ‘Green City’ or ‘Green Development’ is not new. Previously couched within the term ‘sustainable development,’
it seeks to integrate environmental, social, and economic considerations within city’s development processes. A Green City or
Green Development is an extension of this concept but is understood within the frame of a city’s actions and how these actions
contribute to a city or urban area advancing as green and sustainable. Green Development considers how to improve and manage
the overall quality and health of water, air, and land in urban spaces; its correlation with hinterlands and wider systems; and the
resultant benefits derived by both the environment and residents”
[1] There are at least two main factors underlying the conceptualization of a green city. First, from the consumption perspective, the
concern is to reduce the demand for natural resources and services as well as waste and emission production. Second, from the
production perspective, the main attention is to invest in the improvement of nature and the environment to support a better qual-
ity of life
[49] "Une ville verte est une ville qui utilise la technologie pour créer un environnement urbain durable et résilient. Les villes vertes
utilisent des solutions technologiques pour améliorer l'efficacité énergétique des bâtiments, promouvoir une mobilité durable,
gérer efficacement les ressources en eau et réduire les émissions de gaz à effet de serre"
J. Umm Al-Qura Univ. Eng.Archit.

given that environmental sustainability is already inher-

ently integrated into the very conception of a sustainable
city. According to Ingrid Nappi, a professor and researcher
Green
in geography, a green city represents a specific approach
infrastruct
to sustainable cities. In other words, the green city is con-
ure
sidered as a facet of sustainable cities [42]. biodiversity
Green
Other definitions of the term "green" exclusively refer mobility and urban
to the environmental pillar of sustainability. The color agriculture
green is often associated with nature and the environment.
A green city prioritizes environmental sustainability by Green
integrating parts of a city with natural green spaces to city
balance nature and the environment [6]. This symbolism
conveys the idea of incorporating natural elements within Green Green
urban spaces to promote a healthier and more sustainable enenergy waste
environment. This includes creating parks, gardens, green
corridors, and even green roofs, aiming to increase bio-
Green
diversity, improve air quality, reduce urban heat islands,
buildings
and prevent flooding [8]. However, in other research, the
green in the concept of the green city goes beyond its
nature-related aspect. It also embodies a commitment to
adopting policies and practices that promote the use of Fig. 2  The main attributes of the green city
environmentally friendly technologies. This includes inte-
grating renewable energies, efficient waste management,
and promoting sustainable transportation. Subadyo et al. for residents while contributing to global efforts to combat
[47] define eight main attributes of a green city: green climate change and preserve natural resources.
planning and design, implementation of green buildings,
green waste, green transport system, efficiency in the use 3.2.3 The characteristics of the green city
of green water and energy, green environment, and green
community. Another study (Azis et al. [2]) conceptualizes 3.2.3.1 Nature in urban planning In the context of the
six attributes of a green city. These are green open space, green city as an ecological framework, the symbolism of the
green transport, green buildings, green energy, green color green extends far beyond simply representing nature.
water, and green waste. It embodies a holistic concept encompassing the preserva-
Furthermore, other definitions emphasize that the design tion, restoration, and harmonious integration of nature into
of a green city is based on two fundamental factors. Firstly, the urban environment [39, 40, 44]. Thus, the color green is
there is consumption reduction, which emphasizes the need not limited solely to traditional green spaces like parks, gar-
to decrease the demand for natural resources as well as waste dens, and urban forests but also includes all natural elements
and emissions production. This requires implementing strat- integrated into the design of the urban environment (Fig. 3).
egies to minimize resource consumption and waste produc-
tion, such as promoting energy efficiency, adopting sustain- • Green infrastructure
able transportation systems, and advocating for recycling   The integration of green infrastructure is a key feature
and composting. Secondly, there is production improvement, of the green city. This involves incorporating parks, gar-
which involves investing in enhancing nature and the envi- dens, green roofs, green walls, stormwater management
ronment to foster a better quality of life for urban dwellers. systems, and natural spaces into the city’s structure itself,
This includes initiatives to improve green spaces, expand providing residents with places for relaxation, recreation,
urban forests and parks, enhance air and water quality, and and connection with nature. The presence of nature in
protect biodiversity within the city [1]. urban areas offers numerous benefits, such as improving
The green city goes beyond its connection with nature by air quality, reducing stress, and promoting local species
integrating environmental policies and practices such as the diversity. Studies, such as those conducted by the Euro-
use of renewable energies, efficient waste management, and pean Commission, have shown that integrating nature
promoting sustainable transportation [18] (Fig. 2). These two into cities helps combat urban heat islands, improve air
fundamental aspects of the green city, namely consumption quality, and increase biodiversity. Therefore, it is crucial
reduction and production improvement, play a crucial role in to design cities in harmony with nature, creating relaxa-
creating more sustainable and enjoyable urban environments tion spaces, buffer zones to absorb pollution, ecological
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Fig. 3  The nature as a compo-

nent of the green city

Water
management
k

corridors for wildlife, and areas dedicated to urban agri- rainwater. These systems reduce the risk of flooding and
culture [3, 4, 21, 24, 32, 34, 40]. Here are the components improve water quality by enabling natural absorption and
of green infrastructure that are often integrated into green filtration of precipitation [37].
city projects:

– Parks and Green Spaces: Urban parks, recreational • Urban Biodiversity

areas, and public gardens provide open spaces for   The conservation and promotion of urban biodiversity
relaxation, leisure, and community activities. They have become important goals in sustainable urban plan-
help mitigate the adverse effects of urbanization by ning. Green spaces and natural elements in urban areas
providing cooling areas, promoting biodiversity, and play a crucial role by providing habitats and corridors
improving air quality [4, 7]. for urban fauna and flora. These spaces offer places for
– Ecological Corridors: They are also used to inte- reproduction, food, and shelter for local species, contrib-
grate nature into cities. Green corridors promote uting to the preservation of biodiversity [6, 23].
ecological connectivity between natural spaces,   Parks, gardens, and natural areas are essential compo-
allowing species to move and disperse, thereby con- nents for urban biodiversity. They allow plant and animal
tributing to urban biodiversity maintenance [9]. species to coexist in an urban environment, providing
– Green Roofs: Green roofs maximize the use of ver- opportunities for reproduction and survival. The plant-
tical space by adding vegetation to building roof- ing of native species is particularly important, as these
tops, offering various environmental benefits such plants are adapted to local conditions and provide suit-
as temperature reduction, improved air quality, and able habitats for local wildlife. The creation of ecological
promoting biodiversity [11, 16, 29]. corridors is another crucial strategy to promote urban
– Green Walls: Green walls are emerging components biodiversity. Ecological corridors are areas of connection
of green infrastructure. They provide benefits such as between natural spaces, allowing species to move freely
thermal insulation, stormwater retention, reduction and colonize new habitats. These corridors can be strips
of air pollution, and enhancement of urban aesthetics of vegetation along rivers, green paths connecting parks
[37]. and green spaces, or even green roofs and green walls in
built-up areas.
- Water management involves three essential aspects:   Preserving existing natural areas is also essential to
maintain urban biodiversity. Natural spaces such as for-
Water supply: This aspect aims to ensure equitable ests, wetlands, ponds, and meadows are valuable habi-
access to quality water while promoting sustainable man- tats for many species. They can be integrated into urban
agement practices to preserve water resources [37]. planning as nature reserves or protected areas, providing
Wastewater treatment and sanitation: This includes the refuges for wildlife and floral [6, 25].
implementation of collection, treatment, and recycling • Urban Agriculture
systems for wastewater to reduce water contamination   Urban agriculture and community gardens play a cru-
risks and limit the impact on aquatic ecosystems [37]. cial role in integrating nature into cities. They encom-
Stormwater management and drainage: This com- pass various techniques of food production, ranging from
ponent involves the use of facilities such as vegetated individual and collective gardens to vertical farms and
swales, plants, and special substrates to filter and absorb rooftop gardens.
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  Urban agriculture offers numerous economic, environ- economy. Scientific studies have shown that transitioning
mental, and social benefits. It enables local food produc- to renewable energy sources can significantly contribute to
tion, raises awareness about the importance of nature, carbon emission reduction in urban areas [6]. Therefore,
and strengthens social ties within urban communities. urban planning must consider the implementation of suit-
It contributes to food security by providing fresh and able infrastructure for the integration and efficient use of
healthy food directly to city residents. Furthermore, it these alternative energy sources.
promotes awareness of the significance of agriculture and Green mobility: Promoting sustainable transportation is
nature in urban settings by actively involving residents in another key aspect of the green approach. Urban transporta-
food production [6, 7]. tion is responsible for a significant portion of greenhouse gas
  From an environmental perspective, urban agriculture emissions and air pollution in urban areas [11]. Scientific
reduces the carbon footprint of food systems by decreas- studies have shown that promoting public transportation,
ing reliance on long-distance transportation and promot- cycling, walking, and other low-emission modes of trans-
ing sustainable farming practices. It can also contribute port can help reduce greenhouse gas emissions, improve air
to biodiversity conservation by providing habitats for quality, and alleviate traffic congestion [9]. Urban planning
local species and creating ecological corridors within should therefore encourage the development of suitable
urban areas. infrastructure for these sustainable modes of transport, as
  On the social front, community gardens and urban well as the implementation of incentive policies to encour-
agriculture foster connections among residents, encour- age their use.
aging cooperation, knowledge sharing, and exchanges. Green waste management: Waste management also
They create meeting spaces where people can interact, plays a crucial role in the green perspective. Effective waste
learn from one another, and develop a sense of belonging management policies and practices, such as recycling, reuse,
within their community [6]. and waste reduction, are essential to minimize the environ-
mental impact of cities. Scientific research has shown that
efficient waste management systems can reduce air, water,
3.2.3.2 Ecological strategies to mitigate carbon emis‑ and soil pollution, preserve natural resources, and promote a
sions Reducing carbon emissions is a key element of the circular economy. Urban planning should therefore integrate
‘green’ approach aimed at promoting environmental and suitable infrastructure and policies to promote sustainable
urban sustainability. This involves implementing policies waste management [37].
and practices that aim to limit the amount of carbon diox- Green buildings: This refers to construction practices
ide and other greenhouse gases emitted into the atmosphere that utilize durable, recycled, or eco-friendly materials.
from human activities. Cities are responsible for a signifi- Green buildings are designed to be energy-efficient, use
cant portion of greenhouse gas emissions, mainly due to water efficiently, reduce waste, and promote a healthy indoor
energy consumption, transportation, and industrial activities environment [37, 38].
[13]. By promoting the use of renewable energy, improving
the energy efficiency of buildings and infrastructure, and
encouraging sustainable transportation modes (Fig. 4), cit- 4 Similarities and differences
ies can significantly contribute to combating climate change. between the green city
Green energy: The use of renewable energy is a key and the sustainable city
aspect of building green cities. Renewable energies such as
solar, wind, and hydroelectric power offer significant ben- The concepts of sustainable city and green city are two key
efits in terms of reducing greenhouse gas emissions, decreas- approaches to sustainable urban development. These two
ing reliance on fossil fuels, and promoting a low-carbon notions share some similarities as they are both related
to creating more environmentally friendly and sustain-
able cities. However, it is important to understand the
nuances between these two concepts that are often used
interchangeably.
The green city primarily focuses on urban environmen-
tal sustainability by implementing targeted practices and
infrastructure. It aims to reduce the ecological footprint
of urban areas by preserving green spaces, improving
the energy efficiency of buildings, promoting environ-
mentally friendly modes of transportation, adopting sus-
Fig. 4  Environmental sustainability in the green city tainable waste management, and promoting sustainable
 J. Umm Al-Qura Univ. Eng.Archit.

mobility. These actions have a direct impact on quality of 5 Emergence of related concepts
life by improving air quality, regulating the local climate,
and creating healthier living spaces for citizens. Addition- Cities are subject to constant changes, shaped by ever-
ally, the green city contributes to raising awareness and evolving challenges and evolving urban needs. This urban
mobilizing the population around environmental issues dynamic has given rise to new approaches in urban plan-
[8, 14, 25]. ning, which view the city as a living system with a complex
On the other hand, the sustainable city adopts a more metabolism constantly interacting with its environment and
holistic approach by integrating not only the environmen- inhabitants.
tal dimension but also the social and economic aspects This holistic vision has led to the emergence of several
of sustainable development. It encompasses a multitude complementary urban paradigms (Fig. 5), each aiming to
of key sectors such as industry, agriculture, education, promote urban sustainability from different angles [36].
health, housing, transportation, culture, and innovation. Among these approaches are the ecological, inclusive, green,
Its goal is to create balanced and inclusive urban environ- smart, and resilient city concepts. Each concept addresses
ments that promote economic progress, improve quality specific aspects of urban development to tackle current
of life, and enhance social cohesion. By integrating these global challenges, ranging from environmental protection to
different dimensions, the sustainable city seeks to address promoting social equity, and from technological innovation
the diverse needs of inhabitants and ensure balanced and to the ability to cope with urban shocks and stresses. These
sustainable urban development. The Table 2 below sum- different approaches contribute to enriching the discourse
marizes the similarities and differences between the green on how to design and manage cities of the future in a more
city and the sustainable city [12, 22]. sustainable and resilient manner.
Thus, the green city and the sustainable city are inter- Ecological City: The ecological city emerged in the
dependent: the green city contributes to strengthening 1970s and 1980s in response to growing environmental
environmental sustainability, which in turn supports the concerns, emphasizing the reduction of cities’ ecological
social and economic goals of the sustainable city. By footprint. This concept promotes practices such as preserv-
combining these two approaches, cities can aspire to be ing green spaces, waste management, and promoting public
both environmentally healthy, socially just, and economi- transportation to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and mini-
cally prosperous, thereby creating sustainable urban envi- mize environmental impacts [12, 36].
ronments for current and future generations. Inclusive City: During the 1990s and 2000s, attention
shifted towards social inclusion in urban development.
The inclusive city emphasizes spatial equity, fair access

Table 2  Similarities and differences between the green city and the sustainable city
Green city Sustainable city

Common objective of environmental sustainability

Promotion of environmentally friendly practices
Creation of more sustainable urban environments
Integration of ecological solutions in urban planning
The green city primarily focuses on the environmental dimension The sustainable city takes a holistic approach by integrating the social
and economic aspects of sustainable development
The green city primarily focuses on urban environmental sustainability The sustainable city is much broader and encompasses a multitude of
sectors, including industry, agriculture, education, health, housing,
transportation, culture, innovation, and many others
The green city emphasizes specific solutions such as preserving green The sustainable city aims to achieve economic progress while promot-
spaces, improving energy efficiency in buildings, and promoting ing social equity and a better quality of life for its residents
green mobility
The green city can be seen as an important step towards urban sustain- The sustainable city aspires to create deeper and more lasting changes
ability in how cities are designed, managed, and experienced
The green city focuses on specific initiatives, strategies, or isolated The sustainable city adopts an integrated approach and involves greater
projects collaboration among different stakeholders, including local govern-
ments, businesses, and communities, to promote long-term sustain-
ability goals
Participatory approach: involvement of citizens Collaborative approach: working in partnership
J. Umm Al-Qura Univ. Eng.Archit.

Fig. 5  The emergence of related

concepts

Resilient
Smart City City

Green City

Inclusive City

Ecological City

to services and opportunities, as well as citizen partici- 6 The green city as a driver of sustainable
pation in decision-making processes. This concept rec- development
ognizes the importance of ensuring that all populations,
including marginalized groups, benefit from urban devel- The foundations of both the green city and sustainable
opment [36]. development concepts are rooted in specific dimensions that
Green City: The green city emerges as an evolution of define them. Initially, the concept of sustainable develop-
the ecological city concept, with a stronger emphasis on ment, stemming from the Brundtland Commission, is based
promoting the natural environment within urban areas. This on three essential pillars: environment, social, and eco-
includes creating green spaces, preserving natural ecosys- nomic. These three dimensions are considered interdepend-
tems, and promoting sustainable lifestyles. The green city ent and complementary, aiming to strike a balance between
aims to improve residents’ quality of life while reducing the environmental preservation, social equity, and economic
environmental impact of cities. prosperity. Over the years, the concept of sustainable devel-
Smart City: With the advent of information and commu- opment has been applied to various fields, from agriculture
nication technologies, the concept of the smart city emerges to urban planning, industry, and public policies. This has led
as a response to urban challenges in the twenty-first century. to a growing awareness of the need to integrate these three
The smart city utilizes data and technologies to improve dimensions into the planning and management of all aspects
the efficiency of urban services, optimize resources, and of society to ensure balanced and sustainable development
enhance the quality of life for residents. This includes initia- [12, 22, 27, 46].
tives such as smart transportation systems, smart electrical On the other hand, the concept of the green city encom-
grids, and connected buildings [3, 5, 15, 30, 37]. passes several specific attributes that contribute to its defi-
Resilient City: The concept of a resilient city emerged nition. These attributes define the overall vision of a green
in response to the challenges cities face: climate change, city, where environmental, social, and economic sustainabil-
natural disasters, population growth, social issues, and more. ity is at the heart of all urban activities and initiatives. They
Urban resilience aims to reduce vulnerability and enhance a include green infrastructure, green mobility, green energy,
city’s capacity to withstand risks. It focuses on reducing vul- green building, waste management, biodiversity, and urban
nerabilities and improving a city’s ability to cope with risks. agriculture.
This can include measures such as sustainable urban plan- The green city places emphasis on environmental sustain-
ning, disaster risk management, resilient infrastructure, eco- ability in its initiatives, aiming to shape cities that are more
nomic diversification, citizen participation, climate change balanced, healthy, and pleasant to live in for current and
adaptation, and social inclusion. The goal is to create cities future generations. Through sustainability-centered urban
capable of maintaining their functionality, protecting their planning, the green city plays a crucial role in combating
inhabitants, and proactively adapting to future challenges climate change, preserving biodiversity, and creating resil-
[7, 13, 36]. ient and robust communities. As such, it becomes a powerful
 J. Umm Al-Qura Univ. Eng.Archit.

driver for promoting beneficial sustainable urban develop- The promotion of sustainable cities and communities
ment for both residents and the environmental ecosystem (SDG 11) is at the core of the green city vision, aiming to
[2, 47, 52]. create urban environments where people can live, work,
and thrive in a balanced and environmentally respectful
6.1 Analyzing the green city through the lens manner. Additionally, by promoting sustainable produc-
of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) tion and consumption (SDG 12) through efficient resource
management and waste reduction, it contributes to preserv-
The indicators of SDG 11 will play a crucial role in assess- ing natural resources and combating environmental deg-
ing urban sustainability, which is why we have chosen to radation. Moreover, the green city plays a crucial role in
include them in our analysis of "green city" development the circular economy (SDG 12) and in combating climate
initiatives [45]. change (SDG 13) by reducing greenhouse gas emissions
By analyzing the green city through the lens of the SDGs, and promoting adaptation to climate impacts. It also con-
we highlight the cross-cutting components that are at the tributes to preserving biodiversity (SDG 15) by preserv-
core of urban sustainability and play a crucial role in achiev- ing green spaces and promoting harmonious coexistence
ing sustainable development goals. between urbanization and natural ecosystems. Finally,
The green city thus acts as a key lever for achieving the by facilitating cooperation between local governments,
SDGs (Fig. 6), which encompass the three essential dimen- businesses, and civil society organizations to implement
sions of sustainable development: environmental, social, and green city initiatives and mobilize financial and technical
economic [43, 45]. resources (SDG 17).
Firstly, green cities contribute to eliminating hunger The green city plays a crucial role in achieving the Sus-
(SDG 2) by promoting a more equitable urban environment tainable Development Goals (SDGs) by offering innovative
and ensuring adequate access to resources for all citizens. and sustainable solutions to current urban challenges. These
Additionally, by improving health and well-being (SDG 3) goals encompass economic, social, and environmental pros-
through reducing air pollution and promoting an active life- perity, which are essential pillars for balanced and sustain-
style, they contribute to creating healthier and more resilient able urban development.
communities. By promoting the use of renewable energies Indeed, the green city contributes to achieving these goals
in urban infrastructures and encouraging energy efficiency by implementing practices and policies conducive to the cir-
in buildings (SDG 7), the green city contributes to transi- cular economy, reducing carbon emissions, preserving urban
tioning to a greener economy and reducing greenhouse gas biodiversity, improving air and water quality, and promoting
emissions. Furthermore, by promoting decent work and eco- sustainable mobility. These actions aim to create more resil-
nomic growth (SDG 8) through creating new green jobs and ient, inclusive, and environmentally respectful cities, while
developing sustainable sectors, it strengthens the economic enhancing the quality of life for residents and promoting
viability of urban communities. balanced urban growth.

Fig. 6  The Global Goals fro

sustainable Development.
Source: https://​www.​mobil​iseyo​
urcity.​net/​fr/​mobil​ite-​active
J. Umm Al-Qura Univ. Eng.Archit.

6.1.1 SDG 2: Zero Hunger They also promote conscious consumption by advocating

practices such as circular economy and fair trade.
Promoting urban agriculture in green cities contributes to
strengthening food security by providing local sources of 6.1.7 SDG 13: Climate Action
healthy food.
They also support fair food distribution initiatives to Green city actions aim to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
reduce inequalities in access to food. and enhance the resilience of urban communities to climate
change impacts.
They encourage adaptation to changing climate con-
6.1.2 SDG 3: Good Health and Well‑being ditions by integrating adaptation measures into urban
planning.
Green city initiatives reduce air pollution, thereby improv-
ing air quality and respiratory health for residents. 6.1.8 SDG 15: Life on Land
They encourage active lifestyles by promoting walking,
cycling, and other healthy transportation methods, which Green cities preserve natural ecosystems by protecting green
helps reduce sedentary-related illnesses. spaces, promoting urban biodiversity, and rehabilitating
degraded areas.
They promote harmonious coexistence between urbaniza-
6.1.3 SDG 7: Affordable and Clean Energy tion and natural ecosystems, ensuring the sustainability of
land resources.
Green cities adopt renewable energy sources and encour-
age energy efficiency in buildings to reduce greenhouse 6.1.9 SDG 17: Partnerships for the Goals
gas emissions and ensure equitable access to energy for
all. The green city can foster collaboration among various urban
They also promote sustainable mobility by investing in stakeholders, such as local governments, businesses, NGOs,
efficient and environmentally friendly public transportation and civil society, to implement sustainable development
systems. initiatives.

6.2 The green city and the environmental, social,

6.1.4 SDG 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth and economic dimensions of sustainable
development
Green city projects provide employment opportunities in
sectors such as eco-friendly construction, waste manage- Green cities transcend their mere environmental dimension
ment, renewable energy, and sustainable transportation. by intrinsically integrating the Sustainable Development
They foster inclusive economic growth by creating decent Goals (SDGs), allowing them to influence social and eco-
jobs and stimulating innovation in green industries. nomic aspects in a concerted and interdependent manner.
Indeed, an effective green city approach goes beyond
implementing environmental measures and also incorporates
6.1.5 SDG 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities strategies and policies that promote social justice, economic
equity, and urban resilience. This means that actions taken
Sustainable urban planning and the creation of green spaces within a green city framework aim to address the needs of
promote safe, inclusive, and resilient urban environments populations, reduce inequalities, promote social inclusion,
for residents. and foster sustainable and equitable local economies [45].
They ensure that urban infrastructure is tailored to the Environmentally, green cities act to preserve ecosystems
needs of all residents, including disabled individuals and by conserving green spaces and implementing sustainable
marginalized groups. natural resource management practices. They also engage in
reducing greenhouse gas emissions by promoting the use of
renewable energies, improving building energy efficiency,
6.1.6 SDG 12: Responsible Consumption and Production establishing sustainable transportation modes, and ensuring
efficient waste management.
Green city initiatives encourage waste reduction, recycling, On the social front, green city initiatives aim to improve
and responsible waste management to minimize the environ- residents’ quality of life by creating a healthy, safe, and
mental impact of urban activities. inclusive urban environment for all. They ensure equitable
 J. Umm Al-Qura Univ. Eng.Archit.

access to essential services and green spaces, contributing Evaluation of challenges and resources: A city must con-
to enhanced mental health and well-being among residents. duct a thorough assessment of the environmental, social,
Economically, green cities support economic growth by and economic challenges it faces, as well as its available
fostering the creation of green jobs in sectors such as renew- resources. This may include analyzing energy consumption,
able energies, energy efficiency, urban agriculture, and waste waste management, water usage, air quality, urban mobility,
management. They also encourage local entrepreneurship etc.
and the development of sustainable technologies, stimulating Defining a vision and objectives: The city must develop
innovation and enhancing economic competitiveness. More- a clear vision of what it aims to achieve in terms of urban
over, the promotion of sustainable tourism and the circular sustainability. This vision should be supported by specific,
economy strengthens the economic viability of green cities. measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound objectives.
This synergy among the environmental, social, and eco- For example, reducing carbon emissions by 50% by 2030,
nomic dimensions demonstrates that the green city is much increasing the share of renewable energy to 50% of total
more than just a collection of ecological measures. It is part energy consumption, etc.
of a holistic vision of sustainable urban development, where Political commitment and stakeholder mobilization:
every action taken to improve the environment also has a Strong political commitment is essential to successfully
positive impact on citizens’ well-being and the economic transition to a green city. Municipal leaders must actively
vitality of the city. Thus, the green city positions itself as promote sustainability and mobilize key stakeholders, such
a crucial lever for achieving the Sustainable Development as citizens, businesses, community organizations, and uni-
Goals (SDGs) by harmoniously merging environmental, versities, to support urban sustainability efforts.
social, and economic aspirations for a resilient and prosper- Planning and cross-cutting integration: Integrated
ous sustainable city [43, 45]. urban planning is necessary to incorporate sustainability
principles into all aspects of urban development, including
6.3 Strategies for implementing green cities land use, transportation, water management, energy effi-
ciency, etc. It is important to adopt a cross-cutting approach,
Several studies have examined the most successful green involving multiple sectors and stakeholders for effective
cities in Europe, highlighting various exemplary practices coordination.
in sustainable urban planning. These concrete examples Use of policies and regulatory tools: Green cities adopt
demonstrate the effectiveness of certain specific strategies policies and regulations supportive of sustainability, such as
in addressing contemporary urban challenges [30]. For eco-friendly building standards, tax incentives for renewable
instance, Copenhagen in Denmark is often cited as one of energy, incentives for sustainable mobility, waste manage-
the most advanced green cities [33]. The city has established ment regulations, etc. These policies must be supported by
an extensive network of bike lanes and promoted cycling appropriate regulatory tools and effective implementation.
as the primary means of transportation, thus reducing C ­ O2 Use of technologies and innovations: Green cities inte-
emissions from commuting. Additionally, Copenhagen has grate advanced technologies and innovations to optimize
heavily invested in green infrastructure such as urban parks resource use, improve energy efficiency, manage waste, treat
and green roofs, improving air quality and providing recrea- water, etc. This may include the use of smart systems, sen-
tional spaces for citizens [33]. sors, energy distribution networks, energy-efficient solutions
Amsterdam in the Netherlands is another notable example in buildings, etc.
of a successful green city [9, 25]. The city has adopted an Awareness and citizen participation: Green cities
integrated approach to stormwater management by combin- actively involve citizens in the transition to sustainability.
ing natural solutions like rain gardens and urban wetlands This can be achieved through awareness campaigns, edu-
with technical infrastructure. This approach not only reduces cation, public participation programs, consultations, and
flood risks but also contributes to urban biodiversity and the collaborations with local communities. It is essential to
creation of attractive green spaces. However, the successful create opportunities for citizens to contribute to decision-
transition to sustainability and the creation of a green city making and be involved in the implementation of sustainable
rely on several key elements to effectively integrate these projects.
sustainable practices into urban development. Best practices Monitoring, evaluation, and adjustments: Once sus-
in sustainable urban planning in green cities are diverse and tainability measures are in place, it is important to regularly
adaptable based on the specific challenges each city faces. monitor and evaluate their effectiveness. This helps meas-
Nonetheless, the transition to sustainability and the estab- ure progress against set objectives, identify areas requiring
lishment of a green city rely on several key elements that are adjustments, and make necessary changes to continuously
crucial for achieving this transformation [9, 25]. improve sustainability practices.
J. Umm Al-Qura Univ. Eng.Archit.

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