Unit 3

Electricity

Electricity is the flow of charged particles (electrons or ions)

through a body.
Electric Conductor VS Electric Insulator:
Electric Conductor is a substance that allows the flow of charges
through it.

Electric Insulator Does not allow the flow of charges through it.

Electric Conductivity in Solids, Liquids and Gases:

1- In Solids:
a- Metals:
 Metals have free moving charges (electrons). These are
the outermost electrons that are not tightly bound to the
atoms due to Metallic bonding.
 These electrons can move from one atom to another
carrying electric energy.

b- Non-Metals: Most non-metals are non-conductors as they do not

have free electrons (ex: Plastic, Glass and Wood), but others (as
graphite) can conduct electricity as they have free moving
electrons.

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 2- Liquids:
o If a liquid has free ions (ex: Salt Solution) or free moving
electrons (ex: Mercury as a liquid metal), then it is electrical
conductor.

Salt Solution (or any

liquid with ions) 

Pure water is not a good conductor of electricity, as it does not have

ions. Because the electricity is transported by the ions in solution, the
conductivity increases as the concentration of ions increases.

3- Gases:
- Gases do not conduct electricity if the atoms are neutral. But if there
are ions, electricity can be conducted.

Hint: Normally, the atoms are neutral because the

number of protons inside the nucleus equals to the
number of electrons in the outer shells. But if the
atom loses electrons it becomes a positive ion. If it
gains electrons it becomes negative ion.

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Electric Charging:
The main concept that applies is that
unlike charges attract while like charges
repel. These are called non-touch forces.

Electrostatic Charging by Friction:

When rubbing two different types of solid
insulators against each other, one of them
loses electrons and become positive
charged. While the other gains electrons
and become negative charged.

 Now they are Electrostatically Charged

 This doesn’t mean that they can conduct electricity, they are just
charged.
 Protons never move!!
 It is applicable for metals also (but they shouldn’t be earthed)
 Plastics are the best in Electrostatic Charging, while wood is poor.

Example: Rubber has a much greater attraction for electrons than a

piece of animal fur. As a result, if they are rubbed together, the atoms
of rubber pull electrons from the atoms of animal fur, leaving both
objects with equal but opposite charges.

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How to test if the rod is charged?
- By bringing the rod near small pieces of paper or stream of water
from the tap. The rod will attract them.

Example: why do we feel electric shock while opening car door handle?
- Because your body is charged, so it discharges this extra charge through the
door handle.

Example: We can also feel this charge as the fuel flows through the hose to the
car in the gas station. The charge accumulates in the car so it should be earthed.

Electric Circuits:
Each electric component has its own
symbol that is used in drawing the circuit.
This symbol is different from the real shape
of the component.

The main source of electricity in a circuit is

the battery:

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In the shown circuit, the bulb lights up because the battery drives
charges (electrons) through it. How does this happen???

 Electrons gain electric energy

from the battery and then move
from the negative pole of the
battery to the positive pole. This
energy is used when electrons
pass through the bulb and are
transformed to light and heat
energy waste.

Electric Current (I): It is produced due to the motion of charges

(electrons)
When a battery is connected to a circuit, the electrons move
from the negative pole to the positive pole, while the current
moves in the opposite direction  This is called “Conventional
Current Direction” from the positive to the negative pole.

 Current cannot flow in a circuit if it is opened!!

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Electric Quantities:
1- Electric Current Intensity (I):
It is the rate of flow of charge or
the amount of charge (Q) that flows
through a conductor (Ex: Lamp or
resistor or any component) in one
Second. Its unit is Ampere (A).

2- Electromotive Force (e.m.f.):

It is the amount of electrical energy gained by one Coulomb of charge
in a battery to flow around the whole circuit.

 It is measured in Volts (V)

𝟏 𝑱𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆
 1 Volt =
𝟏 𝑪𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒃
 e.m.f. of the battery is constant, whatever the components of the
circuit, then it starts running out by time while the circuit is working.
3- Potential Difference (V):
It is the amount of electrical energy lost by one Coulomb of charge in a
conductor (any element in the circuit)

 Sometimes it is called Voltage drop

 It is measured in Volts (V)

Electrons

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 4- Resistance:
The electrical resistance of an electrical conductor is a measure of the
difficulty to pass the electric current through that conductor.

 It is measured in ohms (Ω)

 Symbol of a resistor:

( ) 𝑽
Resistance (ohms Ω) = or R =
( ) 𝑰

Resistance (R) and Current (I) are

inversely proportional, for constant
Voltage (V)

As Resistance Increases the current

allowed to pass decreases

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 Ohm’s Law:
Ohm’s law states that Current and Voltage are directly proportional for
constant resistance.

The graph is a straight line passing through

the origin, so they are directly proportional.

The slope of the line is the resistance

- So this device has constant resistance.

Ohmic Resistor

Ex: Which line represents a resistor with a higher value of

resistance?

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Some common electrical devices:
1- Ammeter

 It is used to measure the current intensity (I).

 Units : Amperes (A)
 It is connected in series to the object that we need to measure its
current.

Measuring the current in one Measuring the current in each of

resistor the two resistors

 Ammeters have very small/ negligible resistance, that

doesn’t affect the circuit.

2- Voltmeter:

 It is used to measure the potential difference / e.m.f

 Its unit is Volts (V)
 It is connected in parallel to the object that we need to measure its
voltage.
 It has very high resistance to prevent the current from passing
through it, instead of the main component.

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 3- Bulb / Lamp:

 It is characterized by its Power and Voltage.

 Ex: a bulb with Power = 100 W and Voltage = 220 V
As the Volt increases, the power increases, so the
Brightness increases.
 As the current passes through the filament lamp its wire heats up
until it glows and produces light.

Experiment: Design an experiment to determine the value of

the resistance of a fixed resistor.
 Connect the circuit as shown

 Record the readings of the voltmeter and the

ammeter.
 Calculate the value of the resistance R =
 Change the value of the e.m.f by changing the
battery, and record the new values of V, I and R.

Conclusion:
 The value of the resistance is constant
 V and I are directly proportional  Ohm’s Law

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Hints:
 Make sure you are working at constant temperature, as changing
the temperature will change the resistance.
 We can use variable battery instead of changing the
battery

Factors affecting the resistance of a wire:

a- Length of the wire (L)
 R is directly proportional to L

As L increases  R increases
As L decreases  R decreases

b- Cross-sectional area of the wire (A) or the Diameter (D):

 R is inversely proportional to A

As A increases  R decreases
As A decreases  R increases

𝒅𝟐
A=𝜫𝒓 =𝜫 𝟐
𝟒
Hint: R is inversely proportional to A, so R is inversely
proportional to 𝑟 or 𝑑 .

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Example: what will happen to the resistance if:
1- Area is doubled  R will be halved.
2- Radius in doubled  R will be quartered.
3- Diameter is doubled  R will be quartered.

c- Temperature:

 For Metals: (Ex: Filament bulb)

When the temperature of a conductor / wire increases, its
resistance increases.

Example: in filament lamp, as it works for a period of time its

temperature starts increasing, so the resistance increases.

The Slope of the “V-I” graph = Resistance.

 Here the slope is increasing so the

resistance is increasing.
 We can say that as V increases, R
increases.

Hint: Look at the difference between this graph and the graph of
ohm’s law of the Ohmic resistor.

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 Series Vs Parallel Connections
Resistors or any electric components can be connected
either in Series or in Parallel in the circuit.

Two Lamps in Series Two Lamps in Parallel

Two Resistors in Series Two Resistors in Parallel

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 1-Series Circuits:

a- The total current (It) coming out of the battery is constant

and has the same value anywhere in the circuit, so all the
components in the circuit have the same current.
It = I1 = I2
b- The emf (voltage) of the battery is divided among all the
components in the circuit.

emf = V1 + V2
If we need to calculate the value of each voltage (V1 and V2).

o V1 = I . R1
o V2 = I . R2
Hint:
 For Resistor R1, as its value of resistance increases the value
its Voltage (V1) increases, as it becomes stronger and can
take larger portion of the emf.

 So the larger the resistance, the more volt it gets in series

connection.

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 c- Total resistance (Rt) = R1 + R2 + R3 +R4 + …

Total Resistance= 3+5+6=14Ω

The Poles of the lamps in Series:

The Positive Pole of the battery has to be

connected to the positive pole of each
component in the circuit.

Example 1:
emf = 18 V
R1= 6 Ω , R2 = 3 Ω
Find:
a- R total
b- I total
c- V1 and V2

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Solution:
a- R total = 6 +3 = 9 Ω
b- I total = = = 2 A (I has the same value for all components)
c- V 1 = I X R1 = 2X6 = 12 V

V 2 = I X R2 = 2X3 = 6 V
Check: V total (emf) = V1 + V2
18 = 12 + 6

Example 2:
emf = 24 V
R1= 5 Ω

I total = 2 A
Find: R2

Solution: Another Solution:

( )
R total = = = 12 Ω Emf = V1 + V2

R total = R1 + R2 Emf = It X R1 + It X R2

12 = 5 + R2  R2 = 7 Ω 24 = 2 X 5 + 2 X R2  R2 = 7 Ω

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Example 3:

There are three identical lamps in this

circuit, Calculate the following:
a- R1, R2 and R3
b- R total
c- Which Lamp will be the brightest?
d- If the resistance of lamp 1 increases to 15 Ω, what will
happen to lamps 1, 2 and 3 ?
Solution:

a- Use the rule R =

R1 = =6Ω
.
R2 = = 10 Ω
.
R3 = =8Ω
.
b- R total = R1 + R2 + R3 = 6+10+8 = 24 Ω
c- The brightest lamp is the one with the highest voltage
 Lamp 2
d- If the resistance of lamp 1 increases to 15 Ω, it will get
more Volt, so it will become brighter, while the
other two lamps will become dimmer as their
voltage will decrease.

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 2-Parallel Circuits:

a- The total current coming out of the battery (It) is

divided among the branches (resistors in parallel)
It = I1 + I2
Hint: the branch with higher resistance will have Lower Current!
b- The potentoial difference (Voltage) has the same value
for all the components in parallel
Emf = V1 = V2

𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕
c- Total Resistance (Rt) =
𝑺𝒖𝒎
 this rule is used if we have two resistors only
If we have more than two resistors:
1 1 1
𝑅𝑡 = ( + + + …)
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

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Hints:
- R total is not the sum of resistors as we do in Series !!
- The R total of all resistors in parallel should be less than
the least individual resistor.

The Poles of the lamps in Parallel:

The Positive Pole of the battery has to be

connected to the positive pole of each component
in the circuit.

Example 1:
Emf = 6V

R1 = 6 Ω

R2 = 3 Ω

Find: I1, I2, It and Rtotal

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Solution:

To get the values of currents I1 and I2, we have to know the voltage
of the lamps as they are in parallel with the battery so they have the
same voltage of the battery. V1 = V2 = 6V
𝑽𝟏 𝟔
I1 = = =1𝐴
𝑹𝟏 𝟔
𝑽𝟐 𝟔
I2 = = =2𝐴
𝑹𝟐 𝟑

It = I1 + I2 = 1+2 = 3A
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕 𝟔𝑿𝟑
R total = = =2Ω
𝑺𝒖𝒎 𝟔 𝟑

Example 2:

Emf = 20 V

R1 = 5 Ω

It = 5 A

Find: I1, I2, R2 and Rtotal

Solution:

a- The voltage is constant as they are in parallel, so Lamp 1 has

Voltage = 20 V
I1 = 𝑹𝟏
𝑽𝟏 𝟐𝟎
= =4𝐴
𝟓

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 b- It = I1 + I2
5 = 4 + I2  I2 = 1 A

𝑽𝟐 𝟐𝟎
c- R2 = = = 20 Ω
𝐈 𝟏

𝑽𝒕 𝟐𝟎
d- Rt = = = 4Ω
𝐈 𝟓

𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕 𝟓 𝑿 𝟐𝟎
or using the rule R total = = = 4Ω
𝑺𝒖𝒎 𝟓 𝟐𝟎

Example 5: Find the resistance of the following circuits:

First get the total of R1 and R2 =

First get 8+4 = 12 𝛀 𝑹𝟏 𝑿 𝑹𝟐
𝟏𝟐𝑿𝟏𝟐 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
Then 𝑹𝒕 = =6𝛀
𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐
Then get the total of R3 and R4 =
𝑹𝟑 𝑿 𝑹𝟑
𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟒

Then add the two values

𝟐𝑿𝟏
𝑹𝒕 = + 𝟒 + 𝟔 = 10.7 Ω
𝟐 𝟏

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 Series Circuits Vs Parallel Circuits:

1- In Parallel Circuits, each device can be switched On or Off

independently if we put a switch beside each lamp, while in Series
they are dependent (they are all controlled by one switch).
2- In parallel Circuits each component will be supplied with the main
value of the voltage (Voltage will not be divided as in Series
connections).
3- In Parallel Circuits, if any Lamp is faulted (broke down), the rest of
the circuit will work normally (Independently), While in Series
Circuits all the lamps will be switched off.
4- However in parallel connection, the battery runs out quickly.

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 Power
We already Know: Power = (Watt)

In electricity we have more rules for Power:

P=IXV
or P = I X R

or P =

We can use any one of them as they all give the same result !!

Then to calculate the Energy consumed = Power x Time

How to control the current in the circuit (How to control

the Brightness of a lamp)?
1- Variable Resistor (Rheostat):
It is used to vary the resistance in the circuit, so
the current is varies, so the brightness of the
lamps in the circuit varies.

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 Variable resistor is connected in Series to the lamp
that we need to control its brightness.

Example: If we need to control the brightness of the lamp in the

following figure, we connect a variable resistor in series to it as shown.

Slider

 As the slider moves from “a“ “c” , the resistance increase, as the
length of the resistance inside the circuit increases. As the resistance
increases, the current in the circuit will decrease, so the lamp will
become dimmer.
 Moving the slider towards “a” decreases the resistance. So the total
current in the circuit increases, so the lamp will light brighter.

Or we can just draw it this way 

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 Example: Explain why the following lamps have different brightness?

Variable
Resistor

Lamp

Explanation: as the resistance of the variable resistor increases the

current in the circuit decreases (as they are inversely proportional), so
the brightness of the lamp decreases.

2- Potential Divider
It is a circuit where the main voltage (emf) of the supply is
divided among two resistors connected in Series.
a- Fixed Potential Divider:

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  If we have R1 = R2  so the voltage of the
battery will be divided equally among the two
resistors. (V1=V2= )

 If R1>R2  The Voltage of R1 will be higher

than the Voltage of R2 (V1>V2)

 If R2>R1  The Voltage of R2 will be higher

than the Voltage of R1 (V2>V1)
Important Hint: The larger resistor takes more
voltage. The lamp you need to control its
brightness is connected in parallel to any of the two resistors.
To make it more bright connect it parallel to the larger
resistor.
b- Variable Potential Divider (Potentiometer):

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The output Voltage (Vout) is proportional to the distance
between “a” and the slider/pointer “b”.
 As the pointer moves towards “c”, the distance ab (Shaded
Part) increases, so the Vout increases.
 As the pointer moves towards “a”, the distance ab (Shaded
Part) decreases, so the Vout decreases.

Example:
 If the pointer K is at the middle, both
lamps will have the same voltage.
 If we move the pointer towards X,
Lamp L2 will be in parallel to more
resistance so it will brighter.
 If we move the pointer towards Y, Lamp L1 will be in
parallel to more resistance so it will brighter.

Circuit Breakers and Fuses:

If the current passing through a wire or a device increases and exceeds
a certain limit, it can cause:

- Overheating and Melting the wires

- Damage the equipment
- Cause firing.

So we have to protect the circuit from overheating due to excessive

current.

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This is done through Circuit
Breakers or Fuses

The Fuse:
It consists of a short length of thin wire that melts if the current
intensity exceeded a certain value  So the whole circuit will
be switched off to protect the components in the circuit.
Example: If a metal wire can withstand maximum current of 8 A afterwards
it melts, we should connect it to a fuse with rating 8A or less. But if we
connect it to a fuse with rating 10A, it will be useless and it will not protect
the wire, which can lead to melting the wires and firing.

Circuit Breaker:
It does the same job of the fuse, through the use of
an electromagnet that opens the switch in the circuit
if the current exceeds a certain value to protect the
wire and the devices.
Live (220V).

Hazards of Mains electricity:

1- Overheating can lead to fires or damaging the equipment:
 We can avoid it using a fuse attached to the Live wire.
2- Electric Shocks, we can avoid it by:
 Never using the devices in damp conditions
 Wires to be well insulated (avoid exposed wires)
 Using the Earth cable connected to the metal casing.

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 Convex Lens
It is a lens that converges the light rays together by refraction so it is
also called “Converging Lens”

c: optical center

F: Focal point or optical focus

Focal Length: the distance between

the focal point and center of lens.

Hint: Bending of the light rays happens twice, at the

entrance and at the exit of the lens (due to changing
medium). But we draw the bending one time at the
center line of the lens to make it easier.

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There are three cases:

a- Any ray coming parallel to the principal axis of the lens will be
bent to pass through the focal point.

b- Any ray passing through the focal point will be refracted to

become parallel to the principal axis.

c- Any ray passing through the center of the lens will not diverge (No
change in direction).

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Producing an image of a luminous object (ex. candle or lamp)
To be able to draw the image formed by the lens, we draw three rays
from the top of the object (one is parallel to principal axis, one passing
through the F and one passing through the center). The intersection of
the three lines forms the image. We have different cases:

Case 1: If the object is very far from the lens > 2 x Focal length (F)

Properties of the image in this case:

Smaller , Inverted and Real (can be projected on a screen)

Case 2: If the object is at a distance = 2 x F

Properties of the image in this case:

Same size, Inverted, Real (can be projected on a screen)
and Equidistant from the lens as the object (at same distance)

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Case 3: If the object is at a distance between the F and 2F

Properties of the image in this case:

Larger, Inverted and Real (we can get it on a screen)

Hint: As the object becomes closer to the lens, the image becomes:
1- Larger
2- Farther from the lens
And vice versa !!

Case 4: If the object is exactly at the Focal Point (F):

No image is formed
(parallel rays do
not meet and their
extensions also do
not meet).

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Case 5: Object between the Center of the lens(c) and the Focal point(F):

Properties of the image in this case:

Larger or Magnified
Upright
Virtual (Not real) as it is not formed by real rays

 This case is used in Microscopes to enlarge objects.

 Convex lenses are used in cameras and sight correcting eyeglasses.

Hint: if asked about magnifying glass  so we are talking about Case ”5”, so the
object should be inside the focal length.

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 List of Rules
Unit 1 “Measurements and General Physics”
𝑺𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒆𝒔
Average =
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒆𝒔

Volume of Cube = s x s x s= s3

Volume of Cuboid = L x w x h

Volume of Cylinder = π r2 h = area of cross-section x height

𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝑲𝒈 𝒈
Density= ( 𝒐𝒓 )
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒎𝟑 𝒄𝒎𝟑

𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
Average speed =
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆

𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝒗 𝒖)
Acceleration= (m/sec2)
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆

𝒚𝟐 𝒚𝟏
Slope=
𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟏

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 Gravitational Potential Energy:
Distance-time graphs: Slope =
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
= Speed G.P.E= m x g x h
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
𝟏
Speed-time graph: Slope =
𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅
= Acceleration
Kinetic Energy: K.E. = x m x v2
𝟐
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆

Distance = Area Under the Graph Work Done: WD= Force x

Distance
𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲
Power = (J/s=Watt)
Newton’s Second Law: F= m x a 𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞

𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒇𝒖𝒍 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
Weight (w) = Mass (m) x gravitational acceleration (g) Efficiency = x100
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕

Springs: Force (F) = Spring Constant (K) x Extension (x) Pressure = 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 (N/m2) (Pascal)
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂

Unit 3 “Electricity”

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 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 (𝑸) 𝟏 𝑱𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆 (𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚)
Current (I) = 1Volt =
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝑻) 𝟏 𝑪𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒃 (𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆)

𝑷𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑫𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 (𝑽) 𝑽

Resistance (ohms Ω) = or R =
𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 (𝑨) 𝑰

𝝆. 𝑳
Resistance of a wire: R =
𝑨

Series Connections: The current is the same, while the volt of the battery is
divided among the components according to their resistance (the higher
resistance takes higher Volt).

Total Resistance in Series circuits: R1+R2+R3

Parallel Connections: All components take the whole EMF (Volt) of the battery,
while the current of the battery is divided among the components according to
their resistance (the higher resistance takes less current).

Total Resistance in parallel circuits:

𝑹𝟏 𝒙 𝑹𝟐 For any number of resistors:
If 2 Resistors only Rt =
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐

𝐕𝟐
Power (Watt): P = I X V or P = 𝐈 𝟐 X R or P =
𝑹

Energy (joules) E = Power (Watt) x time (sec)

Unit 4 “Waves”:
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆
Periodic Time (T) =
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔

𝟏 𝟏
Frequency (f) = & T=
𝑻 𝒇

Wave Equation:
𝟐𝒅
Echo: Speed = m/sec
𝑻

Mr. Hussein Khaled

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