Introduction to Information

Technology
UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION
TECHNOLOGY
Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Development of Information Technology
1.2.1 Historical Perspective
1.2.2 Definition of Information Technology (IT)
1.3 Computer Technology
1.3.1 Processor Technology
1.3.2 Storage Technology
1.3.3 Software Aspects
1.4 Communications Technology
1.5 Reprographic and Micrographic Technologies
1.5.1 Reprography
1.5.2 Micrography
1.6 Summary
1.7 Answers to Self Check Exercises
1.8 Key Words
1.9 References and Further Reading

1.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you will be able to:
• understand the concept of information technology;
• define information technology and describe its development;
• identify the different components of information technology and their applications; and
• appreciate the impact of information technology on information creation,
storage, processing, retrieval and dissemination.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Technology has been defined as "systematic knowledge and action, usually of industrial
processes but applicable to any recurrent activity". In providing tools and techniques for
action, technology at once adds to and draws from a knowledge base in which theory and
practice interact and compact. At its most general level technology may be regarded as
definable specifiable way of doing anything. In other words, we may say a technology is a
codified, communicable procedure for solving problems.
Technology, Manfred Kochen observed, impacts in three stages. First, it enables us to
do what we are now doing, but better, faster and cheaper; second, it enables us to do
what we cannot do now; and third, it changes our life styles.
Information technology is a recent and comprehensive term, which describes the
whole range of processes for generation, storage, transmission, retrieval and
processing of information.
In this Unit, an attempt is made to discuss the components of information technology
and to identify elements that really matter m the investigation and implementation of
new information technologies in information systems and services.
1.2 DEVELOPMENT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
Despite the impression often given that information technology has suddenly burst on
the scene, its roots could be traced well into the past.
1.2.1 Historical Perspective
The history of man-made information technology is one of slow evolution dating back to
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Information Technology:
Concept and Basics 5,000 years. It has followed the mechanical and later electronic rather than
biochemical path, with primitive signs, hieroglyphics, the alphabet writing, the book
printing, and computer type-setting - a more or less linear development. More
recently, the telephone, radio, television, satellite transmission, transistor, the
computer, and the microprocessor represent distinct qualitative changes in the
information technology, with the fact that we now have to accept the composite term
information technology to include a whole range of new developments. It has been
said that information technology is the science of information handling, particularly
by computers used to support the communication of knowledge in scientific
technical, economic and social fields.

1.2.2 Definition of Information Technology (IT)

The term `Information Technology' (IT) has varying interpretations. Macmillan

Dictionary of Information Technology defines IT as "the acquisition, processing,
storage and dissemination of vocal, pictorial, textual and numerical information by a
micro-electronics-based combination of computing and telecommunications". Two
points are worth consideration about this definition:

1) The new information technology is seen as involving the formulating, recording

and processing and not just transmitting of, information. These are elements in
the communication process which can be separated (both analytically and in
practice) but in the context of human communication they tend to be intertwined.

2) Modem information technology deals with a wide variety of ways of representing

information. It covers not only the textual (i.e., cognitive, propositional and
verbalised forms, we often think under the head information), but also
numerical, visual, and auditory representations.

UNESCO defines Information Technology as "scientific, technological and

engineering disciplines and the management techniques used in information handling
and processing information, their applications; computers and their interaction with
man and machine and associated social, economic and cultural matters". (Stokes)

This definition, while emphasising the significant role of computers, appears not to
take into its purview the communication systems. It may, however, be stated that
communication systems are as essential to information technology as computers. As
a consequence, we have a convergence of three strands of technologies: computers,
micro-electronics and communications. In other words, a mosaic of technologies,
products and techniques have combined to provide new electronic dimensions to
information management. This mosaic is known by the name new information
technology. It is important to bear in mind that information technology is not just
concerned with new pieces of equipment but with much broader spectrum of
information activities. Information technology encompasses such different things as
book, print; reprography, the telephone network, broadcasting and computers.

In the following sections let us briefly consider the major components of information
technology namely: computer technology, communications technology and
reprographic and micrographic technologies.
Self Check Exercise
l) Briefly explain the meaning of the term ‘Information Technology?
Note: i) Write your answer in the space given below
ii) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of this Unit.
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 Introduction to Information
1.3 COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY Technology

Computer technology may conveniently be grouped into: processor technology,

storage technology and software aspects.
1.3.1 Processor Technology
Computers consist of electronic components assembled in a design or "architecture" that
will perform necessary functions of input, output, computation and control (control of
both the computer itself and of attached peripheral devices that perform input and output
functions and store the files).
In the past, electronic components were expensive, so a minimum number were used in a
single processor that alternately performs input, control, processing and output. Besides,
the first generation of computers, operated by means of vacuum tubes or valves, were
relatively bulky and energy consuming. The first major innovation, leading to micro-
electronics was the discovery of transistor, a product of solid state physics, which used
semiconductor materials. The most important development of these today is based on the
non-metallic element `silicon'. Being much smaller than the vacuum tube, the transistor
quickly replaced it in all electronic equipment. However, transistors and other equipment
had to be wired together and a single piece of equipment might have thousands of such
components. The wiring and assembly of such elements were a delicate and costly
process. This naturally paved the way for research towards the concept of integrated
circuit (IC). At first IC's were simple but, as the technology developed, they rapidly
became smaller and more complex. This led to the miniaturisation and refinement.
The central feature of micro-electronics is the development of micro-processor, a special
form of IC with functions of arithmetic, logic and control - similar to those of Central
Processing Unit (CPU) of a computer and contained in a single chip. In addition, the
microprocessor includes units to interpret instructions from the stored programme to
supply the control memory the information necessary to retrieve instructions and send out
data as required. The microprocessor is the building block from which modem computer
systems are assembled. The microprocessor uses very, little energy and has few
environmental requirements of older machinery. Air conditioning, for example, might not
be necessary for a general purpose computer using microprocessor technology. The
practical significance of this is that it is mow possible to bring the computer to the
problem instead of bringing the problem to the computer. The aspects referred to above
form a major hardware component of a computer.
13.2 Storage Technology
In the previous section, the, recent innovations relating to the processing aspects of
computer technology were discussed briefly. In considering some of the advances in
devices for digital information storage, it may be stated that most of the primary storage in
computers is now supplied by semi-conductor circuits. There have been significant
developments in memory technology affecting three areas of performance spectrum; the
high speed, high performance; the midrange and the low speed bulk memory systems.
It is now possible that even a small computer system might have cache memory, a
small associative memory retaining most recently referenced information and in a
readily available place. In some cases, cache memory may be at the top of a
hierarchy of memories having a wide variety of characteristics. Memory
management, dynamic memory allocation, and virtual memory schemes, generally
found in large computer systems, are now appearing on computers which are small
and less costly.
The development of charge coupled devices (CCDs) and bubble memories has
filled the gap which previously existed in the continuum of memory devices such as
fixed-head magnetic disks and these are slower than other semi-conductor memories.
These memories have advantage over magnetic disks in that they contain' no
mechanical parts and could be used to store significant amount of information and
can be treated as a structured file system.
There has been a continuous improvement in recording densities of magnetic media.
Floppy disks and microfloppies provide a convenient media to store data. The
development of video
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Information Technology:
Concept and Basics disk has added a new dimension to the information storage technology. Video disks
could' be used to store large volumes of information in digital form. This kind of
mass storage devices are believed to be very useful in the development of
information storage and retrieval systems. It May be stated that all these innovations
in storage technology provide us a variety of alternatives depending on the
requirements of speed of operation. These developments add more capabilities to the
storage aspects and may be considered advances in the storage technology.
1.3.3 Software Aspects
Software is a generic term covering the concepts, procedures and instructions which
enable computer systems to do useful things. Usually, software is conceived in terms
of computer programs, discrete units of software which make the computer to carry
out specific tasks, and or systems or packages.
The importance of software is obvious, since it is the software which applies the
power of the computer to solve the users' problems. Many of the users need a clear
understanding of the capabilities of software more than hardware aspects. It is known
for some years now that the "rapid increase in the capabilities of computer systems
has not been matched by corresponding increases in the development and quality of
software. This situation has caused much disenchantment with computer systems.
The methods by which computer software is produced have changed considerably in
recent years with the emergence of "software engineering", which enabled
improvements in programming practice, such as structured, or modular
programming.
As one of the solutions to the software problem increased production and availability
of packaged software is encouraged. Another solution to the problem is the use of
fourth generation languages and flexible integrated software to produce prototypes of
programmes to meet the user needs. It is hoped that these solutions would be able to
meet fairly standard requirements. For the average user they mean that there will be
an increasing number of packages to meet most of his needs.

1.4 COMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGY

The development of communications technology is, in a sense, a symbol of man's
effort to communicate rapidly over great distances. Communications technology is
older than computer technology. It has grown as rapidly as the computer technology
in recent times. These two technologies are now fusing into what Anthony Oettinger
has called `compunications'. This newly emergent technology is changing our life
styles as few technologies have before. This new technology has probable and
important uses in the home, office, factory, community and in information exchange
system and holds prospects of immediate relevance to information profession. Some
of the significant aspects of information transmission technology are discussed
briefly in the following paragraphs.
A communication system can establish paths over which messages can be sent
between any two instruments in specified locations at desired times. This type of
system is generally known as switched .network.' Communications technology has
advanced to the extent that now it is possible to hire services from a commercially
operated network. Hence, there is a steady growth of computer-to-computer data
traffic. Also, computer manufactures are offering network architectures which
together offer multiple operating systems running on families of similar computers. A
terminal of a computer network may have access to any of the computers within the
network, if it is authorised to do so. A computer serves as a terminal when connected
for providing computation, information retrieval, etc., in accordance with the request
of the terminal. A multi-lateral access capability allows the users of the terminal to
share these resources. Such networks are characterised by a new technique known as
packet switching in which the message is divided into a number of message blocks
called packets and are transmitted between nodes in store and forward basis. Among
the information resources to be shared are the data bases. A number of information
systems have come into operation based on this concept.

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 Introduction to Information
Another advancement of great significance in telecommunications from the technological Technology
point of view is that of a fundamental and massive shift from analog to digital modes of
transmission. This shift is underpinned by new transmission channels of enormous capacity.
This shift is massive in that it involves the replacement or upgrading of costly equipment. It
also involves types of communications namely voice, facsimile, computer transmissions and
television communication, which will all be affected. For example, every manufacturer of
semi-conductor circuits has started to produce a device called Codec-short for `Coder-
decoder'. This circuit takes the human voice and transmits by the standard voice-grade
telephone channel, samples the signal 8,000 times per second, and encodes it into a digital
bit stream. Digitised signals from hundreds of telephone conversations are then bundled,
transmitted over a high capacity communication links, decoded at the other end, and
reconstituted into a very close approximation of the original voice. While this may appear to
be an elaborate and excessively complicated procedure, the switch from analog to digital
makes good sense from a number of points of view. Firstly, the cost performance of digital
circuits continues to improve remarkably. Secondly, noise problems inherent in analog
devices can be eliminated. This transformation from analog to digital mode has resulted in
the intelligent communication channel and has reduced even the thin line of distinction
between communications and computing.
As a result of rapid technological progress, a variety of services, which have traditionally
been considered separate, are now becoming increasingly similar. This tendency is
generally referred to as convergence of service modes. Telecommunications can now
handle not only speech and data but also visual information in a unified manner.
Broadcasting is now capable of providing two-way or selective dissemination of audio
and visual information by way of a broad-band cables in addition to conventional one
way dissemination. With the result, two traditionally separate 'services,
telecommunications and broadcasting tend to merge together in their mode of operation
and thereby provide users with diversified types of information more efficiently. This
innovation could be utilised for the publication of journals through the extensive use of
techniques like facsimile text processing and word processing. Library and information
services may also be included into the integrated whole. To handle the economy of scale,
the concept of Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is evolving very rapidly.
1.5 REPROGRAPHIC AND MICROGRAPHIC
TECHNOLOGIES
1.5.1 Reprography
Reprography, as a term, has gained international recognition in 1963. It includes "photocopying
, microcopying, duplicating and in-plant printing and is characterised by the small scale of its
operatives". Reprographic techniques include such processes as diffusion transfer, physical
transfer, quick stabilisation, diazo, thermography, and electrostatography for copying
documents. Reprographic technology has been playing a vital role in the dissemination of
recorded information and has now come to stay as one of the means to provide access to
document resources geographically located in different places. Document delivery service
largely depends on the facilities afforded by reprography.
1.5.2 Micrography
Micrographic technology is an outgrowth of photographic technology. Since this technology
is being increasingly used to supplement computer systems, strong electronic and photo-
electronic influences make it multi-technology dependent. Micrographic technology finds its
application not only as a publishing medium but also, as a communication medium,
computer output medium, and storage medium. In the past, the use of microform as a
publishing medium was limited because of inherent limitations. It may be stated that the
widely known field of use for this technology was in connection with archivation and for file
and library compaction, in which microforms replace traditional paper publications.
Micropublishing for selective retrieval should be seen as user-oriented application in the
context of changing information' transfer needs. It involves two separate, but interlinked
distribution processes, (i) publication of full content on microforms, and (ii) distribution of
retrieval support information (i.e., index, access to database, etc.). This support information
is the key to the retrieval. It can be made available on any medium (such as paper,
microfilm, magnetic tape or floppy disk) that provides ease of access to location codes for
the full information on microforms.
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Information Technology:
Concept and Basics These micro-publications are resources and often essential tools for certain
information workers. Their value for the user depends primarily on the human
engineering of the retrieval support hardware and software and relevance of
information that can be obtained in response to a particular problem. The production
process for a micro-publication reflects a dual information flow. The content is either
microfilmed or if it is available in machine-readable form, converted directly into
microfiche by a COM system. The primary information is inexpensively duplicated
and distributed to all those who are in need of it. 1VIicroforms permit (as publication
and storage media) compaction, organisation for ease of use and partial or full
automation of retrieval. Most important, however, are the economic advantages and
the potential for up-to-date complete information supply in a decentralised and user-
oriented form. As information transfer medium, microforms exhibit many desirable
features suitable for use in IRS Systems with automated retrieval and on-demand
reproduction. These computer microforms (CMF) systems offer high on-line storage
capacity and economic on-demand publishing capabilities, provided special
microforms with high reduction ratios are used.

The new technologies are causing rapid changes. The factors which are having
impact are computers, microprocessors, lasers, digitisation of information and screen
based technology including television and telecommunications. Some of the aspects
relevant to information profession are developments in keyboards, OCR, input to
photosetting systems, electronic full page composition techniques, and graphic
reproduction. Data capture in machine-readable form is becoming easier with the
advances in word processing and direct entry photosetters. Increasing digitization of
data makes printing a more systems oriented process.
Self Check Exercise
2) Explain in simple terms the significant features of computer technology.
3) What is the meaning of ‘compunication’?
3) Differentiate between reprography and micrography.
Note: i) Write your answer in the space given below
ii) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of this Unit.
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 Introduction to Information
1.6 SUMMARY Technology

The main purpose of this Unit is to introduce to you the concept of Information
Technology (IT) and explain its components or ram mitts. To achieve the above
objective, an attempt has been made to provide to you, in as brief a mamma as
possible, the basic knowledge which an information professional will heed in trying
to understand what Information Technology is all about.
It has been mentioned in the text of this Unit that the expression Information
Technology is a composite term conveying the convergence of computer,
communications, reprographics and micrographics. A succinct description of these
component technologies has been provided in this Unit. Since there are going to be
separate Units discussing computers and communications basics, only a broad tine of
these aspects is included in this Unit. It is hoped that the explanation provided in the
Unit and the descriptive account would be helpful to the students of BLIS
Programme in. the proper understanding of Information Technology and its relevance
to information systems and services.
1.7 ANSWERS TO SELF CHECK EXERCISES
1) The term Information Technology (IT) has different interpretations. For example,
Macmillan Dictionary of Information Technology defines Information
Technology as "the acquisition, processing, storage and dissemination of vocal,
pictorial, textual and numerical information by a micro-electronics-based
combination of computing and telecommunications".
On the other hand, UNESCO defines IT as "scientific, technological and
engineering disciplines and the management techniques used in information
handling and processing information; their applications; computers and their
interaction with man and machine and associated social, economic and cultural
matters (Stokes)
From the first definition, IT is seen as involving the formulating, recording and
processing and not just transmitting of information. These are elements in the
communication process which can be separated but in the context of human
communication tend to be intertwined. Secondly, IT deals with a wide variety of
ways of representing information. It not only covers the textual (i.e., cognitive,
propositional and verbalised forms, which we normally associate with
information) but also numerical, visual and auditory representations.
The UNESCO definition mostly emphasises the significant role of computers
while not highlighting the importance of communication systems. However, it
must be stated that communication systems are as essential to IT as computers. In
other words, a mosaic of technologies, products and techniques have combined
to provide new electronic dimensions to information management. ,This mosaic
is known by the name new Information Technology. It is important to bear in
mind that Information Technology is not just concerned with new pieces of
equipment but with mach broader spectrum of information activities.
2) Computers consist of electronic components assembled in a design or
architecture that will perform necessary functions of input, outputs computation
and control (control of both the computer itself and of attached peripheral devices
that perform input and output functions and store the files),
In the past, electronic components were expensive therefore, a minimum number were
used in a single processor that alternately used to perform input, processing and output.
The first major innovation leading to micro-electronics was the discovery of transistors,
which used semiconductor materials. The most important development of these today is
based on non-waffle element `Silicon'. The next innovation of significance was the
development of Integrated Circuit (IC). In the beginning, the ICs were simple, but as
the technology developed, they rapidly became smaller and more complex. This
resulted in the miniaturisation and refinement of computers. A significant feature of
micro-electronics is the development of micro-processor, a special form of IC with
functions of arithmetic, logic and control, similar to those of CPU of a computer and
contained in a single chip.
11
Information Technology:
Concept and Basics In addition, microprocessor includes units of stored programme to supply memory
the information necessary to retrieve instructions and control to send out data as
required. The microprocessor is the building block from which modern computer
systems are assembled. The microprocessor uses less energy and few environmental
requirements of old machinery. The practical significance of this is that it is now
possible to bring the computer to the problem instead of bringing the problem to the
computer.' The significant aspects discussed earlier form a major hardware
component of a computer.
Similarly, there had been significant developments in memory technology. It is
now possible that even a small computer system might have cache memory, a
small associative memory retaining most recently referenced information and in a
readily available place. Memory management, dynamic memory allocation and
virtual memory schemes which are generally found in large computer systems,
are now appearing on computers which are small and less costly.
There has been a continuous improvement in recording densities on magnetic media.
Floppy disks and microfloppies provide a convenient media to store data. The
development of videodisk has added a new dimension to the information storage
technology. Videodisks could be used to store large volumes of information in
digital form. It may be stated that the innovations in storage technology provide a
variety of alternatives to choose depending on the speed of requirements.
The importance of software is obvious, since it is the software which applies the
power of the computer to solve users problems. The methods by which computer
software is produced have changed considerably in recent years with the
emergence of `software engineering', which enabled improvements in
programming practice, such as structured, or modular programming.
These developments in computer technology enable us to develop efficient
information systems and services and help the users in a purposeful manner.
3) The development of communications technology is a symbol of man's effort to
communicate rapidly over great distances. Communications technology is older
than computer technology. In recent times, it has grown as rapidly as computer
technology. These two technologies are now fusing into what Anthony Oettinger
has called `Compunications'. This newly emergent technology is changing our
life: styles as few technologies have before. This new technology has important
uses in the home, office, factory, community and in information exchange system
and holds prospects of immediate relevance to information profession. Hence,
every information professional must make efforts to understand the nature and
role of `Compunications'.,
4) Reprography includes 'Photocopying, microcopying, duplicating and in-plant
printing and is characterised by the small scale of its operatives'. Reprography as
a term gained ' international recognition in 1963. Reprographic techniques
comprise such processes as diffusion transfer, quick stabilisation, diazo,
thermography and electrostatography for copying documents. Reprographic
technology has been playing a significant role in the dissemination of recorded
information and is accepted as one of the means to provide access to document
resources geographically located in different places. Document delivery service
has largely became possible due to the facilities provided by reprography.
On the other hand, micrographic technology is an outgrowth of; photographic
technology. Since micrographic technology is used to supplement computer
systems, strong electronic and photo electronic influences make micrography a
multi-technology dependent.
Micrography finds its application not only as a publishing medium, but also, as a
communication medium, computer output medium and storage medium. However,
the widely known field of use for micrographic technology is in connection with
archivation and for file and library compaction, in which microforms replace
traditional paper publications. As information transfer medium microforms exhibit
many features suitable for use in ISR Systems, with automated retrieval and on-
demand reproduction. Computer microform(CMF) system offer high online storage
capacity and economic on-demand publishing capabilities.
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 Introduction to Information
1.8 KEY WORDS Technology

Compunications : The fusion of computer and

telecommunication technologies into one
technology has been defined as compunication
by Anthony Oettinger
Information Technology : The science of information handling,
particularly by computers, used to support the
communication of knowledge in scientific,
technical, economic and social fields
Integrated Circuits : A chip on which a number of transistors and
their interconnecting patterns on an extremely
small scale, formed by photolithographic
techniques
Large Seale Integration (LSI) : Generally applied to integrated circuits
containing from 100 to 5000 logic gates or
1000 to 16,000 memory bits.
Microelectronics : A branch of electronics concerned with the
design, production and application of
electronic devices of a very small dimension
characterised by very high component packing
density
Microprocessor : The single chip equivalent of the central
processing unit of a main computer. The
microprocessor can be regarded a chip with
fixed circuitry but capable of being adopted by
any user to meet the needs of his particular
application
Processing Technology : An aspect of computer technology which deals
with the methods and techniques associated
with the processing aspects in a computer.
Storage Technology : A part of computer technology which deals
with different storage media used for
information storage. The characteristics and
attributes relating to different types of digital
storage are discussed in this area of technology.
Transistor : It is basically a single semi-conductor device
on a piece of silicon

1.9 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Baker, K. (1982). The Impact of Information Technology. Amsterdam: North
Holland. pp. 77-80.
Bowden, D. and Blakeman, K. (1990). Going, Automated: Implementing and Using
Information Technology in Libraries and Information Units. London: ASLIB.
Finnegan, R. (1989). Communication and Technology. Linguistics and
Communication. 9 (3), 107-127.
Kochen, Manfred (1981). Technology and Communication in Future. JARS. 148-157.
McGraw-Hill Encyclopaedia of Science and Technology (1992): An International
Reference Volume Including Index 7th ed. New York: McGraw Hill. Vol. 18, p.151.
Peltu (1982). Information Technology: An Over View. In: Taylor, H. (ed.).
information Alanagement and Organisational Change. London: ASLIB. pp.81-86.
Prem Singh and Khanna, 1.K, (1994), Information Technology in Libraries. Delhi:
Pragati Publications.
Rajan, T.N. and Satyanarayana, R. (1987). Application of Information Technologies
in India. In: Handbook of Libraries and Infonnation Centres in India. New Delhi:
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Information Technology:
Concept and Basics Information Industry Publications.
Satyanarayana, R. (1991). Information Technology and University Libraries in India.
In: Prasher, R.G. ed. University Libraries in India: 1980s and Beyond. New Delhi:
Medallion. Pp.19-5O.
Satyanarayana, R. (1996). Information Technology and Its Facets. New Delhi:
Mamak Publications.
Smith, R.L. and Cambell, B. (1982). Information Technology Revolution. New York:
Longman,
Stokes, A.V. (1985). Concise Encyclopaedia of Information Technology. 2nd ed.
London: Gower. Pp.114-115.

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