am

ith
ba
bu
va
jra
la
gm
ai
l.c
om
 ART & CULTURE
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Chapter – 9
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY THROUGH AGES
1. Introduction: The progress in science and technology can be traced back to the period of Stone age:
Different colours used to make paintings on walls of caves and teeth drilled to fill cavities.

2. Progress in Mathematics
 Geometry (Rekha Ganita): Town planning of Harappa: Indicate good knowledge of
measurement and geometry + Vedic Aryans used the knowledge of geometry to build fire altars,
descriptions found in Sulvasutras and Taitriya Samhita + Brahmagupta introduced the concept of
Cyclical quadrilateral + Baudhayana discovered the Pythagoras theorem in Baudhayana
sulvasutra + Apastamba provided proof to Pythagoras theorem and concepts of practical geometry
such as acute, obtuse and right angles and approximated square root of 2 + Aryabhatta formulated
the area of a triangle and had given value of Pi.
 Arithmetic (Anka Ganita): Aryabhata invented zero, decimal system, numerals from 2 to 9 +
The first reference of rule of three is found in Aryabhatiyam + Brahmagupta introduced negative
numbers and described them as debts + Mahaviracharya Ganit sara sangraha described finding of
Lowest common multiple.
 Algebra (Bija Ganita): Aryabhatiyam enunciated rules for geometric progression, arithmetic
progression + Bhaskara II developed surds and laws related to their operations + Concept of partial
symbolism + Bhaskaracharya Lilavati contains Chakrawat method to solve algebraic equations.
 Trigonometry: Aryabhata introduced concept of sines known as Jaya + Varahamihira improved
accuracy of sine tables developed by Aryabhata + Nilakantha Somasutvan Tantrasamgraha
contains rules of trigonometric functions.

3. Progress in Astronomy
 Taitiriya Brahmana: Earliest reference of astronomy; makes mention of Sun, Moon, Nakshatras
and seasons; also mention rules of making a panchanga in Vedanga Jyotisha.
 Romaka Siddhanta was composed by Srishena.
 Aryabhatta estimated circumference of earth, postulated a new theory that earth was round and
rotate on its own axis + He was the first to explain true causes of solar and lunar eclipses + He
also put rules of planetary movement.
 Varahamihira wrote Brihatsamhita, Panchasiddhantika, Yogamaya, Laghukatha and
Vivahapatal.
 Brahmagupta was a precursor to Newton: Proclaimed that all things fall to earth automatically,
emphasized that it was nature of earth to attract things towards itself in his book
Brahmasphutasiddhanta and Khandakhyadyaka.
 Bhaskaracharya wrote Siddhanta Shiromani.
 Aryabhatta stated that earth is round and rotates in its own axis, determining true position of
planets, movement of the sun and the moon, calculation of eclispses.

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4. Progress in Medical Science

 Mehrgarh (Neolithic site): Evidences of dentistry, teeth drilled and filled with some material.
 Harappan civilization : Key hole skull surgery (trepanation) evidence found at Kalibangan and
Lothal.
 Atharva veda: Diseases were caused by demons entering human body and can be cured by
magical charms and spells + It mentions cure for diarrhea, sores, cough and leprosy.
 Ayurveda is beginning of rational system of medical science, contains methods of curing
different types of ailments.
 Atreya taught medicine branch at Taxila Universiy: compiled by his disciple Agnivesha : Put
in book form by Charaka in 100 AD.
 Charaka Samhita deals with use of plants and herbs for medicinal purposes + Extensive note on
digestion, metabolism and immune system + Emphasized that human body functioning depends
on three Doshas: Bile, Phlegm and wind + Genetics also finds a mention in charaka Samhita.
 Sushruta Samhita deals with practical problems of Surgery (sastrakarma) and Obstetrics +
Rhinoplasty and Ophthalmology (ejection of cataracts from eye) mentioned + references of
serious kinds of operations and description of plants used for treatment of diseases.
 Vaghbatta Astangasamgraha (7th century AD) also has references to various diseases.
 Dhanvantari Navanitakam: Manual of recipes, formulation and prescriptions for treatment of
various diseases.
 Sarangdhara Samhita emphasized use of opium in medicines and for urine examination.
 Unani system came from Greece with book Firdausu hikmat written by Ali-bin-Rabban.
 Other works: Hastyayurveda (Ayurveda of Elephants) authored by Palakappya + Ashvasastra
(veterinary science of horses) written by Salihotra + Nagarjuna developed a new system of
medicine called Ras Chikitsa and propounded theory that metallic minerals have property to cure
diseases.

5. Progress in Physics and Chemical Science (Rasayan Shastra)

 Physics: Materials on Earth classified into Panchbhootas + Last miniscule matter called as
Paramanu; five different types of paramanu for five different elements (idea of splitting an atom)
+ Kanada and Pakudha Katyayana first coined idea of atoms and material world being constituted
of atoms.
 Colours used to make paintings on walls of caves during the pre-historic age.
 Vedic period: Knowledge of tanning of leather, fermentation of grains and fruits for producing
liquor and dyeing of wool.
 Nagarjuna tried to convert base metals such as iron and copper into metals such as gold and
silver : gave impetus to development of metallic salts + Wrote a treatise Rasaratnakara which
deals with preparation of liquids and emphasized on survey of alchemy + Used animal and
vegetable products to prepare elixir of life from Mercury + Wrote Uttaratantra which deals with
preparation of medicinal drugs.
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 Varahamihira claimed presence of termites (Deemaks) and plants to indicate presence of water
in particular area + Earth cloud theory mentioned in Brihatsamhita which related earthquake to
influence of plants, behavior of animals, underground water and unusual cloud formation.
 Advent of Mughals: Manufacture of gunpowder + Saltpetre, Sulphur and charcoal used to
produce different varieties of gun powder + Ain-i-Akbari discusses regulation of perfume office;
Noor Jahan discovered attar of roses.

6. Progress in Ship building and navigation

 Yukti kalpa taru, a Sanskrit treatise deals with techniques used in ship building + Drigha type

om
of ship (long and narrow hull) and Unnata type of ship (higher hull).
 Important Terms: Nava bandhan kilaha (anchor of ship), Vata vastra (sail), rudder of ship (jeni

l.c
pata), keel of ship (nava tala) and machayantra (compass of the ship).
7. Progress in Metallurgy
ai
 Harappan period: Highly developed; reflected in various images of copper and bronze.
gm
 Indian steel known as wootz known for its high quality which was used to manufacture famous
Damascus swords.
 Mehrauli Iron pillar manufactured by Chandragupta II (metal is rust free even after remaining
la

open for thousands of years) and Sultanganj Buddha statue made of copper using lost-wax
jra

technique are fine examples.

******
va
bu
ba
ith
am

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Chapter - 10
MARTIAL ARTS IN INDIA
1. Introduction: Earliest reference of martial arts is found in Dhanurveda (Upaveda of Rigveda) which
deals with the science of archery + Oldest recorded organized unarmed martial art in India is Malla-
yuddha (combat wrestling) + Martial artists need to acquire knowledge of Marma Shastra (study of
vulnerable spots in human body).
 One of the oldest martial arts originated during
period 200 BC- 200AD
 Introduced by a legend, sage Parasurama
who built temples.
 Region: Kerala and nearby areas of Tamil
Nadu.
 It includes mock duels (armed and unarmed combat) and physical exercises; It is
Kalaripayattu not accompanied by any drumming or song.
 Most important key is footwork which includes kicks, strikes and weapon-based
practice.
 This is practiced also by women, Unniyarcha; a legendary heroine won many
battles using this martial art.
 Techniques: Uzhichil or the massage with Gingli oil, Maipayattu or body
exercises, Puliyankam or sword fight, Verumkai or bare-handed fight etc.
 It was banned by British colonial rulers.
 Weapon-based Indian martial art and a kind of
staff fencing from Tamil Nadu.
 Techniques: Swift movements of the foot, use of
thrust, cut, chop, sweep to achieve mastery &
development of force, momentum & precision at
Silambam
different levels of the body.
 It also used animal movements of the snake,
tiger, eagle forms and footwork patterns.
 Bamboo staff is the primary weapon; involves stick fighting.
 Kuttu varisai is unarmed variety of Silambam.
 It is a weapon-based art form performed by Sikhs of Punjab.
 Involves skillful use of weapons including stick, kirpan, talwar and kataar

Gatka

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 Unarmed martial art from Varanasi, Uttar

Pradesh.
 Incorporates development of all three aspects
Musti physical, mental and spiritual.
Yuddha  It makes proper utilization of punches and elbow
strikes; kicks and knee strikes are comparatively
less used in Musti Yuddha, as punches mostly
dominate the fight
 It is weapon-based martial art form popular in
Kolhapur region, Maharashtra.
Mardani  Vita (corded lance) and Pata (sword) are
Khel weapons used.
 Focuses primarily on skills of weaponry and
swift movements
 The Rajputs developed this martial art form
originated from Bihar.
 Involves fighting using sword and shield.
Pari Khanda  The steps and techniques used in this form also
used in Chhau dance

 It is the traditional form of combat-wrestling; first

reference found in Mahabharata.
 It incorporates grappling, joint-breaking, punching,
biting, choking and pressure point
 Closely related to Southeast Asian wrestling styles such
as naban.
Malla-
 Manasollasa written by Chalukya King Someswara
Yuddha
contains its description.
 It has 4 variants:
o Hanumanti: For technical superiority
o Jambuvanti: Focuses on locking and holding till opponent gives up.
o Jarasandhi: Breaking limbs and joints
o Bhimaseni: Focuses on sheer strength
 It is a popular art form of wrestling originated
from village of Dungtland, Mizoram.
 The contest takes place on a carpet or grass in a
Inbuan circle of 15-feet diameter.
 Bending of knees and stepping out of marked
circle are prohibited

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 Manipur
Cheibi gad-ga  It involves a duel fight; sword and shield used as fighting equipment.
 Skill rather than brute force declares victory during the competition

 It is a popular martial art form from

Manipur; also known as Huyen Lallong.
 Swords and spears are primarily used in it.
 Sarit Sarak is the weaponless version of
Thang-ta.
Thang-ta

om
 It is practiced in 3 different ways: Firstly,
ritualistic in nature linked with tantric
practices, secondly, the spectacular

l.c
performance involving sword and spear dances. These routines can be converted
into actual fighting practices. The third way is the true combat application.
 ai
It is a martial arts form originated in
gm
Kullu region, Himachal Pradesh.
 The competition involves a mix of
culture, sport and martial arts; held on
la

Biashaki day.
Thoda
 It relies on a player’s skill of archery
jra

and can be dated back to the time of

Mahabharata where bows and arrows
va

were used.
 Techniques used: Wooden bows, arrows are used
bu

 It is a performing martial arts form

popular in southern parts of state of
ba

Odisha.
Ranapa
 It is made of wood and attached to legs of
ith

Nacha
paiks to increase their heights
am

It is an Odia term that means “warrior scholl”.

 Served as training schools of the peasant militia
in Odisha, eastern India
 Performance art with rhythmic movements and
Paika weapons being hit in time to the drum
Akhada  Acrobatic maneuvres and use of the
khanda(straight sword), patta(107acrific –
sword), sticks and other weapons
 Paikas were Khandayats (one who has control
over his swords)

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 It is a weapon based martial arts form

originated in ancient Kashmir.
 Armed sqay makes use of a curved
single-edge sword paired with a shield, or
one sword in each hand.
Sqay  Unarmed techniques incorporate kicks,
punches, locks and chops. Sqay have
different techniques single sword double sword free hand techniques and lessons
of both freehand and sword.
 It has 2 events: Combat (Loba) which is one to one and Artistic event which
is one without music.
 It is one of the ancient martial arts of Andhra Pradesh, practiced by the royal
armies
 The place where Kathi Samu is performed is known as ‘garidi.’
Kara Kathi  Stick fight known as ‘vairi’ has an important role in Kothi Samu and it is the
Samu prelude to the actual swordfight.
 ‘Gareja’ in which a participant holds four swords, two in each hand and ‘Dal Farri
Khadga’ are other important aspects of the sword skills.
 It was patronized by Chera, Chola and Pandya kings of south India.
 It is a weaponless form of martial arts; warriors are empty handed.
Bandesh
 Fighters aim at maiming and defeating but not killing
 Weaponless form - practiced by monks in ancient times.
Varma Kalai  It combines disciplined combat, yoga and Ayurveda.
 It was primarily used for self-defense which targets vital points of human body
 It involves weaponless fighting popular in Madhya Pradesh.
Binot
 Wrestling techniques used against armed as well as unarmed attackers
 Saldu is the prominent sports and form of wrestling of the Nicobarese tribe
 The field is divided by a line in the centre, and there are no boundary lines
Saldu
 The number of players is as desired, but each team is to comprise an equal number
of players
 It is an indigenous form of wrestling quite popular with the Nicobarese
tribe
Kirip
 The wrestler, using various parts of the body, including the leg, tries to
thrust the opponent to the ground
 Rod pushing sport is an indigenous game of Mizoram.
 A circle of 16 ft diameter with a straight line across the circle at the center is drawn.
Insu Knawr
 Suk or a wooden rod or bamboo rod shall be approximately 8 ft long and 2.5 –
3 inches in diameter

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Chapter - 11
PROGRESS OF LITERATURE IN INDIA
1. Introduction: Indian literature broadly divided into religious literature such as Vedas, Puranas,
Epics etc and secular literature such as Arthashastra, Rajatarangini etc.

2. Literature During Vedic Age

 Vedas: The word ‘Veda’ signifies knowledge + They are collection of hymns, charms and
prayers revealed by Lord Brahma to sages+ Oldest known works of literature+ Also known as
Shruti literature (knowledge received by sages through hearing) and Nitya (timeless and
universal in nature) + Compiled around 3000 BC- 1000BC + There are four major vedas and
each veda has 4 sub-parts- Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads.
 Rigveda
o It is the oldest among four vedas and oldest literature of Indo-Europeans.
o Focuses on world prosperity and natural beauty+ Most of hymns lay emphasis on themes
of life, death, creation and for seeking soma.
o Rig Veda Samhita is a collection of 1,028 hymns (suktas) arranged in 10 Mandalas (2nd, 3rd,
4th, 5th, 6th and 7th mandalas are the oldest).
o First Mandala is primarily dedicated to Indra and Agni.
o Gayatri mantra is part of 3rd Mandala of Rigveda: Composed by Vishwamitra dedicated
to god Savitr.
o 9th Mandala : All hyms dedicated entirely to Soma.
o Purusha Sukta hymn is present in 10th mandala of Rigveda.
o Chief deity is Indra+ other gods are Agni, Varuna, Rudra, Aditya, Vayu; female goddesses
like Usha (Goddess of dawn), Prithvi (Goddess of earth) and Vak (Goddess of speech) also
mentioned.
o The Universe devised from Prajapati, the principle basis of creation.
o Hotri priests were associated with Rigveda.
o Aitareya Brahmana (first reference of origin of kingship) and Kaushitaki Brahmana are
part of Rigveda.
o Varna System, Four-fold division of society, ‘Sudra’, Gamester’s Lament also find
mention in Rig Veda.
o Upaveda of Rigveda is Dhanurveda (science of archery)
o Thirty manuscripts from Rigveda are accepted into UNESCO’s Memory of the World
Register.
 Yajurveda (worship of ritual knowledge)
o Collection of hymns used by priests during rituals and ceremonies; originally recited by
Adhvaryu priests; also called as Vajasaneyi 109acrifi and Taittiriya Samhita.

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o Shukla Yajur Veda contains only mantras+ It contains the Madhyandina and Kanva
recensions.
o Krishna Yajur Veda (Black Yajur Veda) – it includes mantras as well as prose
explanations+ It contains Kathaka, Maitrayani, Taittiriya and Kapishthala recensions.
o Upaveda of Yajurveda is Shilpa veda (science of art and craft)
o Oldest example of prose literature of Indo-Europeans.
o Taittiriya Brahmana and Satapatha Brahmana (reference to Upanayana, agricultural
rituals) are part of Yajurveda.
o Taittiriya Upanishad, Brihadaranyka Upanishad (first reference to transmigration of

om
soul), Isa Upanishad are part of Yajurveda.
 Samaveda

l.c
o Hymns mostly taken from Rigveda Samhita arranged according to needs of musical
notation; Also known as book of chanters.
ai
o Earliest literary reference about origin of Indian music.
gm
o Udgatri priest was associated with samveda.
o Panchavimsha Brahmana, Jaminiya Brahmana, Chhandogya Upanishad belongs to
Samaveda.
la

o Upaveda of Samaveda is Gandharva veda.

jra

o It contains the famous Dhrupada Raga, later sung by Tansen in medieval times+ Recensions
(Shakhas) are Kauthuma, Ranayaniya and Jaiminiya (Talavakara).
va

 Atharvaveda/Brahma veda
o It is the latest veda and a collection of spells, charms and magic+ purpose is to keep away
bu

evils, gain material success and making new friends.

o Focuses on peace and prosperity and treatment of several ailments.
ba

o Paippalada and Saunakiya recensions are part of it+ also deals with black and white magic.
o First reference to word ‘Gotra’ found in Atharvaveda
ith

o Sabha and samiti mentioned as twin daughters of Prajapati.

o Gopatha Brahmana and Mundaka Upanishad (phrase Satyameva Jayate mentioned)
am

belong to it.
o Ayurveda is the Upaveda of Atharva Veda.
 Brahmanas
o These are prose explanations of the Samhita portions and give explanations of sacrificial
rituals and their outcome.
o Advocate Karma marga (path of rituals) for attainment of salvation.
o Every Veda has several Brahmanas attached to it:
 Aitareya or Kaushitaki Brahmanas to Rig Veda.
 Tandya and Jaiminiya Brahmanas to Sama Veda
 Taittiriya and Shatpatha Brahmanas to Yajur Veda
 Gopath Brahmana, Jaimaniya Brahmana and Panchvish Brahmana to Atharva Veda
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 Aranyakas
o Also called as Forest books, they constitute the philosophy behind ritual sacrifices.
o Emphasis on meditation and opposed to sacrifices and rituals.
o They are concluding portion of the Brahmanas and interpret rituals in a philosophical way.
 Upanishads
o They constitute last part of vedas: also known as Vedanta (end of vedas).
o Contain philosophical ideas about sacrifice, the body, and universe+ concept of atman and
Brahman.
o Early Upanishads written in prose such as Brihadaranyaka Upanishad and Chandogya
Upanishad+ Later Upanishads such as Kathopanishad written in verse form.
o Believe in efficacy of Jnana marga (path of knowledge) to attain salvation.
o Tradition was part of guru-shishya 111acrifice.
o Monotheistic elements are predominant: Brahma considered as ultimate reality of
universe.
o Believes that individual soul is identical with supreme soul and his realization leads to
salvation.
o Satyamev Jayate in the National Emblem is taken from Mundaka Upanishad.
o Upanishads emphasize efficacy of ‘Jnana Marga’ to attain salvation; Brahm considered as
originator of universe;
o Mundaka Upanishad contains Satyameva Jayate; Brihadaranyaka Upanishad contains first
reference of transmigration of soul; Chandogya Upanishad refers to first three ashrams and
anuloma and pratiloma marriages.
o Katha Upanishad
 Belongs to the Yajur Veda, consists of two chapters, each of which has three sections.
 It employs an ancient story from the Rig Veda about a father who gives his son to death
(Yama), while bringing out some of the highest teachings of mystical spirituality.
 There are some passages common to the Gita and Katha Upanishad.
o Aitareya Upanishad
 The Aitareya Upanishad belongs to the Rig Veda.
 It is the purpose of this Upanishad to lead the mind of the 111acrifice away from the outer
ceremonial to its inner meaning.
 It deals with the genesis of the universe and the creation of life, the senses, the organs, and
the organisms.
 It also tries to delve into the identity of the intelligence that allows us to see, speak, smell,
hear, and know.
 Recensions (Shakhas)
o Rig Veda- Shakala shakha is the only surviving recension of the Rig Veda.
o Sam Veda- Kauthuma, Ranayaniya, and Jaiminiya (or Talavkara)
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o Yajur Veda- Recensions of Shukla (also known as Vajasaneya) Yajur Veda are Madhyandina
and Kanva + Black school represented by the Kathaka, Kapishthala, Maitrayani and Taittiriya
recensions.
o Atharva Veda- Shaunaka and Paippalada are the recensions of the Atharva Veda.
 Vedangas: mean limb of veda; composed to facilitate proper understanding of vedas.
o Nirukta vedanga deals with etymology.
o Vyakarana vedanga deals with grammar.
o Shiksha vedanga deals with phonetics.
o Chhanda vedanga deals with science of metres
o Jyotish vedanga deals with astronomy.
o Kalpa vedanga deals with ritual portion
 Shrauta Sutra – prescribes rules for performance of sacrifices and rituals.
 Grihya Sutra –It includes rituals pertaining to Samskaras such as Upanayana (initiation),
Vivaha (marriage), and Antyeshti (funerary practices).
 Dharmasutra – pertaining to the rituals Dharma.

3. Literature during Post-Vedic age

 Sutra Literature: These are created by reorganizing hymns in short forms + They are 4 in
number:
o Srautasutra used by priests during rituals and ceremonies.
o Sulvasutra deals with methods of making fire altars
o Grihyasutra deal with rules and regulations of householders
o Dharmasutra was book of the rulers.
 Puranas
o These consist of narrative stories about the creation of universe and illustrate till supposed
destruction of the universe.
o Mostly written in Sanskrit with few in vernacular languages.
o Period of Composition: Overlap to some extent with Vedas, but their composition stretched
forward into the 4th-5th centuries CE.
o Total of 18 major puranas; important ones include Bhagvata, Brahma, Vayu, Agni, Garuda,
Padna and Matsya.
 Upa- Puranas
o Sarga: primary creation of the universe.
o Pratisarga: recreation, secondary creation after annihilation.
o Manvantaras: reigns of the various Manus.
o Vamsha: genealogy of gods and rishis.
o Vamshanucharita: history of Solar (Suryavanshis) and Lunar (Chandravanshis) dynasties.

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 Dharmashastra: Sanskrit texts which deal about morality and religious duty + They
provide guiding rules and principles for the order and regularity of society and righteous
conduct. Eg – Vaishyas’s duty is to engage in trade + It refers to fulfilment of Purusharthas
such as Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha; It is further subdivided into:
o Dharmasutras (600-300 BCE)
o Smritis (200 BCE – 900 CE)
o Tikas and Bhashyas
 These are based on ancient Dharmasūtra texts, which emerged from the literary
tradition of the Vedas (Rig, Yajur, Sāma, and Atharva) composed in 2nd millennium

om
BCE to the early centuries of the 1st millennium BCE
 The hymns of Ṛigveda are one of the earliest texts composed in verse.
 The Brāhmaṇa which belongs to the middle vedic period followed by the vedāṇga are

l.c
composed in prose.

ai
 The basic texts are composed in an aphoristic style known as the sutra which literally
means thread on which each aphorism is strung like a pearl.
gm
4. Literature During Mauryan Age
la

 Arthashastra: This book is written by Kautilya in Grantha script+ It deals with politico-
administrative and a book on statecraft+ It is divided into 15 Adhikaranas (parts) and 150
jra

prakaranas (chapters)+ Bhattasvamin wrote a commentary on it called as Pratipada-

Panchika.
va

5. Literature During Post-Mauryan Age

bu

Author Book Main Theme

Nagarjuna Satasaharika, Deals with Mahayana Buddhism
ba

Prajnaparamita and
Madhyamika karika
ith

Nagarjuna Milinda panha Discussion between Nagarjuna and Indo-Greek ruler

Menander
am

Ashvagosha Sariputra-prakarana It mainly deals with Buddha’s life.

Visuddhimagga Buddhaghosa It is a collection of Theravada teachings
Charaka Charaka Samhita It deals with medicine
Patanjali Mahabhashya It is a commentary on Panini’s treatise Ashtadhyayi.
 Panini (520-460 BC): Sanskrit grammarian who gave a comprehensive and scientific theory of
phonetics, phonology, and morphology
o He is considered the founder of the language and literature
o Astadhyayi (Astaka)  around the 3rd-4th century BC; it consists of 8 chapters, each
subdivided into quarter chapters
o Panini gives formal production rules and definitions to describe Sanskrit grammar

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6. Literature During Gupta Period

Author Works Main Theme
Dramas: Abhijnana Shakuntalam:
 Abhijnana Shakuntalam  Story of king Dushyanta, and Shakuntala.
 Malavikagnimitram Malavikagnimitram
 Vikramorvasiyam  Love story of Sunga king Agnimitra (son of
Pushyamitra Sunga) and Malvika
Epics:  Mentions that Pushyamitra Shunga
 Raghuvamsa performed Rajasuya sacrifice
 Kumarasambhava Vikramorvasiyam
 Love story of Puruvas, a Vedic King and
Kalidasa (court of
Poetry: Urvashi in Sanskrit.
of Chandragupta II
Raghuvamsa
(Vikramaditya))  Ritusamhara
 Sanskrit epic poem narrating genealogy of
 Meghaduta.
Lord Rama’s Raghu Vamsa beginning with
King Dileep up to Agnivarna.
Ritusamhara
 Mentions the feelings, emotions and
experiences of lovers in six seasons.
Meghaduta
 It is a poem around Yaksha, who is subject
of Lord Kubera.
Asanga Sutralankara It deals with Yogacara school of Buddhism
Sushruta Sushruta Samhita It deals with surgical branch of medicine.
(Father of Surgery)
Abhidammakosa It deals with a wide range of philosophical,
Vasubandhu
cosmological, ethical, and salvational doctrine.
Mrichchakatikam Love story of Charudatta of Ujjain and
Shudraka
courtesan Vasantasena.
Kiratarjuniyam Describes the combat between Arjuna and
Bhairavi
Kirat (Lord Shiva) at Indrakeeladri Hills
Mudrarakshasa and Mudrarakshasa:
Devichandraguptam It describes how Chandragupta Maurya
ascended the throne after defeating Nandas.
Vishakadatta Devichandraguptam:
It is a Sanskrit political drama narrating king
Ramagupta surrendering his queen
Dhruvadevi to a Shakas.
Vatsyayana Kamasutra It is a treatise on human sexual behavior.

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Panchatantra and Treatise on political science and human

Vishnu sharma
Hitopadesha conduct.
Aryabhatta Aryabhattiyam Astronomy
Brihatsamhita and Pancha- Astronomy
Varahamihira
Siddhantika
 Amarasimha: Sanskrit grammarian and poet from ancient India and was one of the Navratnas
during the Gupta dynasty’s rule
o Amarakosha: It is a vocabulary of Sanskrit roots consists of verses that can be easily
memorized; it is divided into 3 khaṇḍas or chapters.
o Svargadi-khaṇḍa (heaven and others) has words pertaining to gods and heavens.
o Bhuvargadi-khaṇḍa (earth and others) deals with words about earth, towns, animals and humans.
o Samanyadi-khaṇḍa (common) has words related to grammar and other miscellaneous words

7. Literature of Post-Gupta an Early Medieval age

Author Works
Bhavabhuti Mahavirachitra – based on the Ramayana, such
 Dramatist of the later Sanskrit dramatic as the Mahaviracharita (Exploits of a Great
period Hero), which depicts the early life of Rama and
 Court poet of King Yashovarman of Uttaramcharita (The Latter History of Rama),
Kannauj, in north India in 8th CE. which shows the final years of Rama’s life as
written in the Uttara Kanda of the115amayana.
Malatimadhava – His 3rd drama + based on
Malati and Madhava, is a Prakarana play
centered on the love story of Malati, the daughter
of a minister and Madhavya, her beloved.
Haribhadra suri Yogashastra
Mallisena Syadavadamanjari
Brahmagupta Brahmasphutasiddhanta
King Harshavardhana Nagananda, Ratnavali (Theme – devious path
adopted by minister Yaugandharaya of Vatsa
king Udayana of Kaushambi to get his king
married to Ceylonese princess Ratnavali) and
Priyadarshika
Banabhatta Kadambari, Harshacharita
Kalhana Rajatarangini
Hemachandra Kumarapalacharita and Parishistaparvana
Bhaskaracharya Siddhanta Shiromani

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8. Sangam Literature: It refers to assembly of Tamil poets organized under the patronage of Pandya
kings + Sangam age called as Augustan age of Tamil literature + Classified into two categories:
Puram (deals with material aspects) and Agam (deals with love) + Compiled during 3rd century BC
to 3rd century CE in poetic format around theme of love and war + The heroic poems were
composed on the principle of oral bardic literature.
 Ettutogai: It consists of eight works which are Aingurunooru, Narrinai, Aganaooru,
Purananooru, Kuruntogai, Kalittogai, Paripadal and Padirruppatu.
 Pattuppattu: It has a collection of 10 poems + Some large poems belong to Agam group and
others to Puram group.

om
 Pathinenkilkanakku: It contains eighteen works about ethics and morals + Most important is
Tirukkural authored by Thiruvalluvar.

l.c
 Silapaddikaram: It is the oldest tamil epics composed by Ilango Adigal+ Major theme is story
of kovalan and Madhavi.
ai
 Manimekhalai: Written by Sittalai Sattanar continues the story of Silappadikaram in next
gm
generation in which Manimekhalai is the daughter of Madhavi and Kovalan.
 Tolkappiyam: written by Tolkappiyar and it is a work on Tamil grammar and poetics + It
provides insights on the political and socio-economic conditions of the time.
la

 Agattiyam: It was written by sage Agastya on grammar.

jra

 Tirrukural: Also known as Bible of Tamil land+ it was written by Tiruvallur+ It deals with
matters related to government+ It speaks about an ideal king and largely limited to ruling elites.
va

 Jivaka Chintamani: Written by Liruttakkadevar; themed around story of Jivaka who possessed
supernatural powers; it is alos known as marriage book.
bu

 3 Major sangams
Sangams Place Chairman Texts compiled
ba

Agatiyyam, Paripadal, Mridukugu

First sangam Ten-Madurai Agastya
etc. No book has survived.
ith

Second sangam Kapatapuram Tolkappiyar Tolkappiyam

Third sangam Madurai Nakkikar Manimekalai and Silapaddigaram
am

 Sangam poems contain several incidental references to material culture, often as part of the
poem’s setting or in similes and allusions.
 The social classification of varna was known to Sangam poets. There is mention of the Arashar
(kings), Vaishiyar (traders), and Velalar (farmers). The Brahmanas are also mentioned, some of
them closely associated with the courts of kings and patronized by ruling elites.
 Sangam Poems are pervaded with a warrior ethic. Puram in sangam litrauture are the War Poems
that deals with the outer life of people. Speak of public celebration of the feats of the heroes even
the death of heroes in wars.
 Sangam literature reflects a belief in sacred or magical forces called ananku that were supposed
to inhabit various objects.

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9. Miscellaneous
Author Works
Gangadevi Maduravijayam
Allasani peddana Manucharitam
Amuktamalyada (in Telugu language), Jambavati kalyanam (in
Krishnadeva raya Sanskrit language) and Usha parinayam (in Sanskrit language).
Pampa Adi Purana and vikramarjiva Vijaya
Bandhuvarma Harivamshabhyudaya and Jiva sambodhana
Ponna Shanti purana
Nandi Timmana Parijathapaharanam
13th century Kannada poet and writer in Hoysala Empire. He wrote
Hastimalla
Purvapurana.
11th -century Sanskrit poet from Kashmir in India. His work is called
Kshemeshvara
Dasavatar Charita.
Akbarnama: history of Akbar’s forefathers from Timur to Humayun
and Akbar. The 3rd volume of the book is Ain-i-Akabari, which gives
the administrative details of Akbar’s time.
Ruqaat: collection of letters to the princes of Akbar.
Insha-i-Abu’l Fazl: collection of letters written by Akbar to his
Abul Fazl
contemporary rulers and nobles.
Ain-I Akbari: Persian language which deals with the administration of
Mughal Emperor Akbar, household, army, the revenues and geography
of his empire. It also describes statistical details about crops, yields,
prices, wages, and revenues.
Din Bandhu Mitra Play ‘Neel Darpan’ to portray the oppression of indigo farmers.
Bankim Chandra Novel ‘Anand Math’- set in the background of the Sanyasi Rebellion
Chattopadhyay (1770-1820), when Bengal was facing a famine
Somadeva Kathasaritasagara
Bilhana Vikramankadeva Charita
Subandhu Sanskrit romantic play ‘Vasavadatta’

 Yogavasistha
o Translated into Persian multiple times throughout the Mughal Dynasty, as commanded by
Akbar, Jahangir, and Darah Shikuh.
o Nizam al-Din Panipati completed one of these translations, known as the Jug-Basisht, in
the late 16th century AD.

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Chapter – 12
FAIRS AND FESTIVALS of INDIA
1. Introduction: Fairs and festivals are an important aspect of any society. In India, traditional fairs and
festivals are connected with religious beliefs, local customs, changing seasons, harvests, etc.
 Important Festivals of India
Festival Name Significance
[Students: Festivals are arranged in the
order they are celebrated in a year]
Torgya Dance Festival  3-day monastery festival observed by
(Arunachal Pradesh) the Monpa tribe of Arunachal Pradesh.
 Purpose: to send away evil forces and avert
natural calamities.
 It includes performance of sacred dances by
brightly costumed monks in the
monastery’s courtyard.

Lohri Festival (Punjab)  People celebrate passing of biting cold of

winters with bonfire within communities.
 It is celebrated on the last day of the Paush
month (12-13 January); coincides with Pongal
and Makar Sankranti.
 It is the coldest day of the year.
 Rice-flakes and sweets made from jaggery
(gur) and sesame seed like Gajak are tossed
into the bonfire.
 It is a Hindu harvest festival dedicated to Sun
Makar Sankranthi god Surya celebrated in the month of January.
 This marks the beginning of Uttarayana or the
half year long northern sojourn of the Sun.
 Other names:
 Andhra Pradesh, Telangana- Pedda
Panduga; Sikhs – Maghi
 Central India- Sukarat
 Tamil Nadu- Thai Pongal
 Assam- Magh Bihu
 Kite flying is a special feature of this festival.

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Kavadi Attam (Kerala)  Lord Murugan is worshipped in this festival.

 Devotees invoke Murugan for healing their
spiritual debt.
 Kavadi is a semi-circular wooden structure
carried by devotees on shoulders.

om
Nazu Festival (Nagaland)  It is celebrated by Pochury tribe of Nagaland.


l.c
It is held in February for 10 days prior to
sowing of seeds.

ai

Phek is the venue of festival in Nagaland.
Khupielilie dance is performed by women of
gm
Pochury tribe.
la
jra

Sekrenyi Festival (Nagaland)  It is celebrated by Pochury and Angami tribe of

Nagaland in the month of February.
va

 It is also known as Phousnyi by Angami tribals.

 Thekra Hie: Young people sing traditional
bu

songs during this event.

 On eighth day, village gathers for the bridge
ba

pulling ceremony
 Rice beer and meat are served to participants.
ith


am

Sammakka Saralamma Jatra It is held by Koya tribe of Telangana to

/Medaram Jatara (Telangana) celebrate fight of a mother (Samakka) and
her daughter (Saralamma) against local
rulers to oppose unjust laws.
 Medaram is located in Eturnagaram
wildlife sanctuary.
 It is the biggest Tribal festival in Asia
which is attended by one crore people on an
average.

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Khan festival (Arunachal Pradesh)  It is celebrated by Miji tribe of Arunachal

Pradesh.
 A piece of wool is tied by a priest around
everyone’s neck as part of a ceremony; thread is
supposed to bring good luck to everyone.

Lui Ngai Ni Festival (Manipur)  It is a seed sowing festival of Naga tribes of

Manipur; symbolizes the beginning of seed-
sowing season.
 It is celebrated annually in the month of
February.
 It is organized to honour the gods of crop.

Losar festival (Arunachal Pradesh)  It is the famous festival of Tawang district

of Arunachal Pradesh.
 It is celebrated by tribes who believe in
Mahayana sect of Buddhism like
Sherdukpens, Khamba, Memba, Monpa
tribes etc.

Nyokum Festival (Arunachal Pradesh)  It is celebrated in the month of August in the

state of Arunachal Pradesh.
 Goddess Lakshmi and other deities are
worshipped.
 Animals such as chicken, pigs and dogs are
sacrificed.

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Maha Shivratri  It is a Hindu festival celebrated every year to

honour Lord Shiva.
 It marks the day of marriage of Lord Shiva.

Sankarni Festival (Nagaland)  It is celebrated by Zemi tribe of Nagaland.

 Zemis accept contributions from families both
in cash and kind.

Mlokom Yulo Festival  It is celebrated by Bagni community of

(Arunachal Pradesh) Arunachal for five days.
 Festival starts with the worship of god Doni-
Yulo and Kamio-Yulo worshipped by offering
rice beer.

 It's known as the 'Festival of Colours,' and it's

Holi celebrated with enthusiasm across the country.
 Holi is celebrated in many ways around the
country; for example, in Vrindavan and
Mathura, Lathmar Holi is observed, in which
the ladies of the family come out and beat their
husbands with sticks.
 In many regions of rural Maharashtra, it is
known as Rangapanchami
Ganguar Festival (Rajasthan)  It is also celebrated by people in some parts of
West Bengal and Gujarat.
 People celebrate harvest, spring season and
fidelity in marriages.
 It commences after Holi and continues for 16
days.

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Ugadi (Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka)  It is the new year celebrated by the people of
Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.
 Maharashtra –Gudi Padwa
 Marwaris of Rajasthan – Thapna
 Sindhi people- Cheti Chand
 Manipur- Sajibu Nongma Panba
 Punjab- Baishaki
 It is the Persian new year festival celebrated by

om
Nowruz
Parsi community of India.
 It celebrates beginning of season of

l.c
regeneration.
 Sacred prayer site holds image of Zarathustra.
ai
gm

 It is a Marathi new year festival started by

la

Gudi Padwa (Maharashtra)

Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj to welcome new
jra

year.
va
bu

 It is celebrated by Gallong community of

ba

Mopin Festival (Arunachal Pradesh)

Arunachal Pradesh.
 People worship goddess Mopin to get rid of evil
ith

spirits and diseases.

 Popir dance is associated with this festival.
am

Baishaki  It is a harvest festival celebrated by Hindus and

Sikhs; commemorate creation of Khalsa Panth
by Guru Gobind Singh.
 Hindus celebrate it as solar new year.

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Bihu (Assam)  Three Bihus: Bohag Bihu is celebrated in mid-

April which heralds coming of new year.
 Second is Magh Bihu observed in mid-January
is related with agriculture
 Third is Kati Bihu commemorated in mid-
October in which people perform rituals in the
midst of paddy fields to wish for good paddy
crop

Mahavir Jayanti  It is the birth anniversary of Vardhamana

Mahavira, the 24th and last Jain thirthankara.
 Also called as Veer Teras representing 13th day
of Chaitra month in Jain calendar.

Moatsu Festival (Nagaland)  It is celebrated by the Ao people of Nagaland in

the first week of May every year.
 It is celebrated after sowing of seeds
 The festival provides them a period of
recreation and entertainment after the stressful
work of clearing fields, burning jungles, sowing
seeds, cleaning up the Tsubu (wells).
 Symbolic celebration known as Sangpangtu is
observed during this festival.
Eid-UL-Fitr  It marks the end of the holy month of Ramzan,
during which pious Muslims have fasted from
dawn to sunset
 It is celebrated on the 1st Rabi-ul Awwal of
Arabic calendar. This festival is commonly
referred to as ‘sweet Id’ by children, as
vermicelli or ‘seveyian’ are offered to all

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Rath Yatra (Odisha)  It is a Hindu festival celebrated at Jagannath

Puri where idols of Lord Jagannath, Subhadra
and Balabhadra carried in a procession to
Gundicha temple; return journey is called
Bahuda yatra.

Hemis Festival (Ladakh)  Hemis festival is celebrated to mark the birth

anniversary of Guru Padmasambhava.
 During this festive season, Lamas called
'chhams,' perform masked dances and sacred
plays to the accompaniment of cymbals, drums
and long horns.
 It is celebrated in courtyard of Hemis Gompa,
biggest Buddhist monastery in Ladakh.

Bonalu (Telangana)  ‘Bonalu’ is a traditional folk festival celebrated

every year in the Telugu month of Ashadham
(falling in June/July), in Telangana.
 It involves devotees offering the traditional
'bonam' (derived from Bhojanam, meaning
meals) to the goddess Mahankali at 25 temples.

Paryushana  It is a Jain festival celebrated in the months of

August-September. Also known as Pajjosavana.
 The two sects of Jains refer to it by different
names:
 Svetambaras refer it Paryushana. They observe
it for 8 days. Recite Kalpa sutra on fifth day.
 Digambaras refer it Das Lakshana. They
observe it for 10 days. Recite Tattvartha sutra
on fifth day.

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Onam (Kerala)  It is celebrated in the Hindu month of Sravana

on the day of Sravana Nakshatra (September-
October)
 The festival commemorates the appearance of
Vamana avatar of Vishnu and the subsequent
homecoming of the legendary King Mahabali.
 Snake boat race (Vallam kali) is organized on
the day of this festival.

om
Dusshera  It is celebrated in the month of Ashvin
(September-October).

l.c
 First nine days are celebrated as Navratri. The
Navratri festivities of Gujarat, with its music
ai and dance (Garba) are of exceptional appeal.
 The festival marks Lord Rama’s victory over
gm
Ravana.
la

Deepawali  India’s ‘Festival of Light’ (Dipawali) falls 20

jra

days after Dusshera on the Amavasya or ‘New

Moon’ night of the Hindu month of Kartik
va

(October-November)
 In Bengal and some other parts of Eastern India,
bu

Kali is worshipped on this occasion.

 Dipawali marks the beginning of new
ba

commercial year for many and businessmen

finalize their old account books and open new
accounts.
ith

 People welcome Lakshmi, the goddess of

am

prosperity and wealth.

Hornbill Festival (Nagaland)  It starts in the 1st week of December; celebrated
with great fanfare in Kohima.
 Conserving, sustaining richness of heritage and
culture of Nagas is the main theme of the
festival.

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Christmas  It is celebrated on 25th December every year to

commemorate the birth of Jesus Christ.
 Gifts exchanged on Christmas eve; popular
belief that Santa claus brings gifts for kids on
Christmas day.

Chapchar Kut (Mizoram)  It is a harvest festival named after the

bamboo that has been cut and is drying for
burning and subsequent cultivation.
 The traditional bamboo dance performed by
women called cheraw, is a big part of the
festival.

Fig: Harvest Festivals of India

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 Important Fairs of India

Fairs/Melas Significance
 It is the world's largest religious gathering conducted
in four sites on a rotating basis: Allahabad,
Haridwar, Nashik-Trimbak, and Ujjain.
 The mela is held every three years at various
Kumbh Mela locations and every twelve years at any given
location.
 Simhastha Kumbh is hosted in Nashik and Ujjain
when a planet is in Leo at the time of the mela.
 Ardh-Kumbh Melas are conducted every sixth year
in Haridwar and Allahabad, and a Maha Kumbh is
held once every 144 years.
 Every year in the month of Magh (January-
February), Allahabad hosts the Magh Kumbh.
 It has been recognized by UNESCO as Intangible
cultural heritage of humanity.

 It is an annual 5-day camel and other livestock fair

organized at Pushkar in Rajasthan.
Pushkar Mela (Rajasthan)  Camel races, moustache competitions, turban tying
competitions, dancing and camel riding, and other
events take centre stage once the festival begins.
 The Pushkar valley is formed between the Aravalli
hills.
 The Pushkar Camel Fair was started to attract the
local camel and cattle traders for a business meeting
during the holy Kartik Purnima festival.

 It is an annual fair held during monsoon at

Ambubachi Mela (Assam) Kamakhya temple in Guwahati (Assam).
 It is the celebration of yearly menstruation cycle of
goddess Kamakhya.

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Chapter – 13
ACCOUNTS OF IMPORTANT FOREIGN AMBASSADORS AND TRAVELLERS
1. Megasthenes: He was the ambassador of Bactrian king Seleucus Nicator in the court of
Chandragupta Maurya; stayed in India from 304 BC to 299 BC and wrote a book called Indica.
 References from Megasthenes Indica:
o There are seven castes in Indian society during Mauryan period: Philosopher,

om
Farmers/Husbandmen, Herdsmen, Trades and artisans, warriors, overseers and councilors.
o Slavery and Usury (money lending) was completely absent in India.
o Laws in India were severe and crimes were rare.

l.c
o Pataliputra was surrounded by a wooden palisade; had well-developed municipal
administration.
ai
o There was peace and prosperity throughout Mauryan empire; there was no famine in
gm
India.
o Indians worshipped Dionysius (Shiva) and Heracles (Krishna).
o India has a number of mountains with a wide variety of fruit trees.
la

o Indian elephants are far superior to Libyan elephants in terms of strength and size.
jra

o Gold, silver, copper, and iron are all abundant in India.

o India's plains are extremely fertile; Rice, millet, a crop called bosporum, cereals, pulses, and
va

other food plants were main crops.

2. Deimachus: He was sent as an ambassador by Syrian King Antiochus I to court of Bindusara + As
bu

per his accounts, King Bindusara wrote to Antiochus I to send dried figs, sweet wine and a sophist;
but he did not send sophist as Greek law prohibited it.
ba

3. Fa-hien: He visited India during reign of Gupta king Chandragupta II Vikramaditya.

ith

 References from Fo-Kwo-Ki (The Travels of Fa-Hien)

- Government in India was quite competent.
am

- There were no restrictions on movements of the people.

- No executions were given by kings, only fines were imposed on criminals + repeated
offenders had their right hand cut off as a punishment.
- No wine shops found in market places in India.
- Bodyguards and attendants received salaries in cash for their work.
- Mode of payment for buying commodities was cowries (shell).
- Chandalas were untouchables and lived separately from rest of people.
- Fa-Hien did not record anything about India's political situation and Chandra Gupta II, under
whose rule he must have spent more than five years.
4. Hiuen Tsang: He visited India during the reign of emperor Harshavardhana; compiled his
observations in his book Si-yu-ki. His main observations are:
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 Houses were constructed of wood, bricks and dung + Streets were circular and dirty.
 He was amazed at the prosperity of India; wrote that people had high standard of living.
 Prayag and Kannauj were important cities during that time.
 Nalanda and Valabhi were important centres of Buddhist learning.
 Criminal law was severe and offenders were given imprisonment + roads were not safe and he
himself got robbed.
 Government was liberal in case of tax and revenue collection; tradesmen should pay duties at
ferries.
 Caste system dominated the Hindu society; Sati system was prevalent; women were respected
in general.
 Onion and garlic were rarely used in India.

5. Al Masudi: He was an arab merchant who visited Indian Pala kingdom of Bengal about 850 AD +
Called Pala kingdom as ‘Ruhma’ and wrote about its military power + Describes about brisk trade
between the eastern seaboard of India and Malacca + Turks who emigrated to India lost their national
characteristics and acquired new characteristics suited to the new environment.
6. Al-Biruni: He was the first Muslim Indologist who accompanied invading horses of Ghazni (1018
AD- 1019 AD) + He compiled his observations in his book called as Kitab-ul-Hind + He praised the
knowledge of Indians in science and mathematics but extremely critical of Indian socio-cultural life.
7. Marco Polo: He visited India in 1292 AD- 1293 AD on his way from China to Persia + Popularly
called the ‘Prince of medieval travellers’ + visited south India during reign of Pandyan king
Maravarman Kulashekar + Also finds mention Kakatiya queen Rudramma.
8. Ibn Batuta: He came to India during reign of Sultan Muhammad- bin- Tughluq + wrote a travelogue
titled Kitab-i-Rehala + visited Vijayanagar empire during the reign of King Harihara I.
9. Nicolo Conti: He was a native of Italy; visited India during king Devaraya I of vijayanagar + Noted
that king was more powerful than other kings in India + About 90,000 men in Vijayanagar city could
bear arms.
10. Abdur Razzaq: He was ambassador of King Shah Rukh of Persia to court of Zamorin of Calicut +
All the inhabitants of vijayanagar wore jewels and gold ornaments + Vijayanagar city had 7
concentric fortified walls.
11. Duarte Barbosa: He was a native of Portugal who visited Vijayanagar in 1516 AD during the reign
of king Krishnadeva Raya + Mentions that practice of sati was prevalent rampantly in India.

12. Fernao Nuniz: He was a native of Portugal; visited during the reign of Achyuta Raya (1535- 1537
AD) + noted presence of women soothsayers, astrologers and wrestlers in vijayanagar + Child
marriage was common and Brahmins were honest and good at accountancy. + wrote a book titled
‘The Chronicles of Ferno Nuniz’.

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13. Francois Bernier:

 Bernier's expedition to Abyssinia was diverted to India. In1658 A.D., he set out for India and
arrived in Surat.
 On his route from Surat to Agra, he met the vanquished Prince Dara Shikoh and became
acquainted with the Mughal emperors.
 He took refugee with Daneshmand Khan (Mughal Nobleman), who escorted him to Aurangzeb
court when Dara Shikoh left owing to treason from his servants.
 Bernier spent 12 years in Aurangzeb's court and wrote a book called 'Travels in the Mogul Empire'
on his experiences.
 He intricately detailed the political intrigues, military strategies and tactics, Shah Jahan's four
sons' succession war, social and economic aspects of the empire, and its geographical and
strategic scope.

14. Jean Baptiste Tavernier (1605-1689)

 French gem (particularly diamond) trader and traveller in the 17th century.
 Between 1638 and 1643 AD, during his second voyage, he came to India and travelled as far as
Agra before arriving in the Kingdom of Golconda.
 He also paid a visit to the Shahjahan's court and went on his first excursion to the diamond mines.
 Tavernier wrote Les Six Voyages de Jean Baptiste Tavernier in 1675 at the behest of his patron
Louis XIV (6 Voyages, 1676): great detail on diamonds and Indian diamond mines.
 He is best known for his discovery or purchase of the 116-carat Tavernier Blue diamond, in 1666.
 The diamond was likely sourced by Tavernier in 1666 at the Kollur mine in Guntur district of
Andhra Pradesh. Tavernier sold it to Louis XIV of France.

15. Jean de Thevenot (1666 AD): French traveller, who has given a good account of cities like
Ahmedabad, Cambay, Aurangabad and Golconda.

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Chapter - 14
INDIAN HANDICRAFTS
1. Glassware: First reference of glass making found in Mahabharata + The first material evidence
comes from beautiful glass beads from the Ganges Valley PGW culture (1000 BC) + It was referred
to as kanch or kaca in the Vedic text Satapatha Brahmana + Archaeological evidence discovered
at Maski, a Chalcolithic site in Deccan + The most beautiful glass bangles are made in Hyderabad and
are known as Churikajodas. + Ferozabad (UP) is famed for its glass bangles and utilitarian glassware.

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2. Ivory Crafting: Practised since vedic times; referred as ‘danta’ + An inscription from Sanchi has
been discovered dating from 2 BCE: mentions the Vidisha guild of ivory workers and sculptures in

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Sanchi stupa + Archaeological remains of an ivory comb discovered at Taxila (2nd century A.D) +
Traditional ivory carving centres include Delhi, Jaipur, and parts of West Bengal.
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3. Terracotta crafts: It means baked earth which is a type of semi-fired ceramic clay + Bankura Horse,
Panchmura Horse, Terracotta temples and Buddhist viharas are the best examples of terracotta art.
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4. Silver Jewellery: Filigree work is one of the most well-known methods + Silver anklets known
as painri and paijam are very popular in Odisha + Gunchi is silver crocheted decorations that are one-
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of-a-kind + Bidri work done in Karnataka's Bidri village employs silver inlay work against dark
backgrounds.
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5. Pottery: Earliest evidence of pottery discovered from Chopani Mando (Uttar Pradesh) + People of
chalcolithic culture were the first to make paintings on their pottery.
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 Black and Red ware (BRW) pottery (2400 BC to 1st century CE): Discovered for the first time
at archaeological site of Atranjikhera + These are oldest pottery which are black from inside and
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their outer body was red; attained through inverted firing method.
 Ochre coloured pottery (OCP) (2000 BC to 1500BC): Discovered for the first time at Bisauli
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and Rajpur Parsu in Uttar Pradesh + This pottery was ochre or brownish red in colour + OCP was
used in Punjab, Haryana, UP and Northern Rajasthan, Lal Quila, Ahichhatra and Katpalan +
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Painting of humped bull on a pot discovered at Lal Quila + Structures made of wattle and daub
used by people of OCP culture.
 Painted Grey ware (PGW) pottery (1000 BC- 600BC): The concentration of PGW sites are in
Indo-Gangetic plains (Haryana), Sutlej basin and Upper Ganga plains + PGW used by Aryans
during later vedic age + They are painted by using black colour and deep chocolate colour on
their outer as well as inner surfaces + PGW users practiced agriculture; evidence of cultivated
crops found at only Hastinapura and Atranjikhera + Spread of PGW culture from Punjab, Haryana
to eastern parts of Uttar Pradesh.
 Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) pottery (600 BC to 100 AD): These are made using
a fast turning wheel + Fragments of NBPW found at Bairat, Rupar, Sonpur and Kumrahar riveted
with copper pins + Main concentration of NBPW was in Gangetic valley; influence of Greek
culture was more in Afghanistan-Pakistan region.
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 Red wares (100 BC to 300 AD): Red wares were entirely monochrome and turned on wheels +
Pots decorated using geometrical designs such as opposed triangles, religious motifs like
swastika, fish, taurine, chaitya and Dharmachakra found.
 Pottery of Harappan civilization: They used six types of pottery such as Black and red ware,
lustrous red ware, buff ware, red ware, coarse red ware and grey ware + Harappan pottery was
made on fast wheels + Naturalistic designs consisting of flowers, palm tree, leaves, animals and
snakes painted + Story of cunning fox mentioned in Panchatantra found at Lothal + Rakhigarhi:
Deceased women offered more than double number of earthen wares + Widows were denied
burial rites with pottery and other items.
Name of Pottery Place of Origin
Khurja Pottery Uttar Pradesh
Black Pottery Azamgarh, Uttar Pradesh
Blue Pottery Jaipur, Rajasthan
Kagzi Pottery Alwar, Rajasthan
Pokhran Pottery Pokhran, Rajasthan
Dalgate Pottery Jammu and Kashmir
Karigari Pottery Tamil Nadu
Surai West Bengal
Gopichandan Saurashtra

6. Bronze crafts: Oldest art forms, as evidenced by the bronze statue of a Dancing Girl from
Mohenjodaro + Matasya Purana contains the earliest literary evidence about various methods of
casting bronze + Uttar Pradesh is the leading producer of bronze crafts, with major centres such
as Etawah, Sitapur, Varanasi, and Moradabad.
Important centres of Brass work:
Gaja Tandava (Kerala) Shiva dancing in Tandava position
Dokra Casting (Odisha and West Bengal) Used for ornaments made of brass
Pahaldar Lamps (Jaipur and parts of U.P) Copper and brass lamps in different styles and shapes.

7. Leather products: Art of leather tanning documented since 3000 BCE + Rajasthan has the largest
leather market, where camel leather is used to make bags of various shapes and sizes + Kolhapuri
chappals are popular in Maharashtra + Punjabi juttis are also well-known due to the use of an applique
technique on the footwear + Manoti Art is another major technique of leather art practised in Bikaner.

8. Important tribal crafts:

 Toda tribe: The embroidered cloth is used as a shawl which is locally known as putkuli.
 Kota tribe: Musical instruments like tambourine, hard drum and brass cymbals are manufactured.
 Irula tribe: Musical instruments such as drum, conch, Nagasore and long flute (Buhin).
 Paniya tribe: Known for their basketry.
9. Jewellery related crafts:
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 Kundankari Jewellery: It is a traditional form of gemstone jewellery from Rajasthan.

 Meenakari Jewellery: It is an art of embellishing different types of metals such as gold and silver
+ It has its roots in Rajasthan introduced by Raja Man Singh of Amer.

10. Fabrics of India

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Chapter – 15
INITIATIVES OF UNESCO
1. UNESCO World Heritage sites: UNESCO selects, recognizes and maintains a list of heritage sites
having historical, cultural, scientific or any other form of significance.
 Selection criteria: World Heritage committee prescribes that at least one of the following 10
criteria should be fulfilled to be included in World heritage sites.
 10 parameters: Human creative genius + Interchange of values + Testimony to cultural

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tradition + Significance in human history + Traditional human settlement + Heritage with
events of universal significance + Natural phenomena or beauty + Major stages of Earth’s

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history + Significant ecological and biological processes + The significant natural habitat for
biodiversity.
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 Recent Updates: Dholavira and Ramappa temple are the latest addition to the list under the
‘Cultural’ category + Decision was made in UNESCO World Heritage committee’s 44 th session
held in China + At present, total World Heritage sites in India are 40.
o Dholavira (Gujarat)
 It is the 1st site of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization in India to get the tag.
o Kakatiya Rudreswara temple/ Ramappa temple (Telangana)
 It was built by Racherla Senapati Rudrayya, a general of Kakatiya king Ganapatideva
around 1213 AD.
 The temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva, where Lord Ramalingeswara is worshipped.
 Features of the temple:
- The structure is of the pyramidal type,
consisting of four storeys
- It stands on a 6 feet high star-shaped
platform with walls, pillars and ceilings
adorned with intricate carvings.
- Sandbox technique: flooring is granite and
the pillars are basalt; act as cushion in case
of earthquakes.
- The lower part of the temple is red sandstone while the white gopuram is built with
light bricks that reportedly float on water.
- Distinctive and pyramidal Vimana made of lightweight porous bricks called floating
bricks that reduced the weight of the roof structures.
- European merchants and travellers were mesmerized by the beauty of the temple and
remarked that the temple was the "brightest star in the galaxy of medieval temples of
the Deccan".
o 6 sites added to tentative list: Maratha military architecture in Maharashtra, Hire Benkal
megalithic site in Karnataka, Bhedaghat-Lametaghat in Madhya Pradesh, Ganga ghats in
Varanasi, temples of Kancheepuram, Satpura Tiger Reserve in Madhya Pradesh.
2. UNESCO Intangible cultural heritage list: It is a list established in 2008 made up of intangible heritage
elements that demonstrate diversity of cultural heritage and raise awareness about its importance.
LIST OF INTANGIBLE CULTURAL HERITAGES IN INDIA
Recognized by UNESCO
1. BUDDHIST CHANTING 2. KALBELIA
The sacred texts chanted by the Buddhist A folk song and dance form of Rajasthan.
lamas (priests) in the Ladakh region. Each Khanjari’ percussion instrument and the
of the Buddhist sects has several forms of Poongi’, a woodwind instrument are used
chanting. during the performance. Kalbelia songs
disseminate mythological knowledge through
stories. At times, the lyrics are spontaneously
composed and improvised during the
performance

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3. CHHAU DANCE 4. KOODIYATTAM

A tradition from eastern India that enacts A Sanskrit theatrical tradition of Kerala,
episodes from epics including the traditionally performed in theatres called as
Mahabharata and Ramayana, local folklore Kuttampalams located in the Hindu temples.
and abstract themes. It is closely connected
to the regional festivals specifically the
Chaitra Parva.

5. KUMBH MELA 6. MUDIYETT

The festival of a sacred pitcher where the A ritual dance drama from the state of Kerala
pilgrims bathe or take a dip in the sacred based on a mythological tale of the battle
river. between Darika - the demon and goddess Kali.
7. NAWRUZ 8. RAMLILA
The Persian New year celebrated The traditional performance of Ramayana
worldwide. It involves street performances performed across North India during the festival
of music and dance, public rituals involving of Dussehra. Most representatives are those
water and fire, traditional sports and the performed in Sattna. Vrindavan, Varanasi, and
making of handicrafts. Ramnagar.
9. RAMMAN 10. SANKIRTANA
A religious festival in honour of the Includes a set of arts performed to mark
tutelary god, Bhumiyal Devta practised in religious occasions and various stages in the life
the villages of Saloor-Dungra in the state of of the Vaishnava people of the Manipur plains.
Uttarakhand. Each of the caste and
occupational groups has distinctive roles in
the festival.
11. TRADITIONAL BRASS AND COPPER 12. VEDIC CHANTING
CRAFT OF UTENSIL MAKING The tradition of Vedic chanting, chanted during
The craft of the Thatheras of Jandiala Guru sacred rituals and recited daily by the Vedic
constitutes the traditional technique of communities known not only for the rich
manufacturing brass and copper utensils in content of its oral literature but also for the
Punjab. ingenious techniques employed by the Brahmin
priests.
13 YOGA 14. DURGA PUJA
The art of unifying the mind with body and Annual festival celebrated in September or
soul for greater spiritual, mental and October, in Kolkata, in West Bengal + 10-day
physical well-being. It consists of a series worship of the Hindu mother-goddess Durga.
of poses, meditation, controlled breathing, Small artisanal workshops sculpt images of
word chanting etc. Durga and her family using unfired clay pulled
from the Ganga River. The worship begins on
the inaugural day of Mahalaya, when eyes are
painted onto the clay images to bring the
goddess to life. It ends on the 10th day, when the
images are immersed in the river from where the
clay came + signify ‘home-coming’ or a
seasonal return to one’s roots.

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3. Draft National list of intangible cultural heritage: Launched by the Ministry of Culture  to raise

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awareness about various intangible cultural heritage elements from different states of India, at
national and international level + It is also a part of the Vision 2024 of the Ministry of Culture.
 It has been classified into 5 broad domains:
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 Oral traditions and expressions, including language as a vehicle of the intangible cultural heritage
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 Performing arts
 Social practices, rituals and festive events
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 Knowledge and practices concerning nature and the universe

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 Traditional craftsmanship.
4. UNESCO Creative cities network: It was created in 2004 to promote cooperation with and among
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cities that have identified creativity as a strategic factor for sustainable urban development.
 7 fields: Crafts and Folk Arts, Media Arts, Film, Design, Gastronomy, Literature and Music.
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 6 Indian cities in the network

o Hyderabad – Gastronomy (2019)
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o Mumbai – Film (2019)

o Chennai - Creative city of Music (2017)
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o Jaipur - Crafts and Folk Arts (2015)

o Varanasi - Creative city of Music (2015)
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o Srinagar- Creative city in crafts and folk arts (2021)

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Chapter – 16
CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS
[Refer Sunya CA Notes for more!]
1. Statue of Equality: It is the statue of the famous saint Ramanujacharya located in Hyderabad + The
statue was designed by DNV Prasad Sthapathy + It was constructed by Aerosun corporation of China
+ It is made of Panchaloha (amalgam of gold, silver, brass, copper and titanium).

2. Statue of Unity: It is the statue of Sardar Vallabhai Patel located on banks river Narmada at Kevadia
in Gujarat + It is the world’s tallest statue (182 metres) + It was designed by Ram V Sutar + Spring
temple Buddha located at Lushan (China) is second highest statue in the world.

3. Guru Ravidas Jayanti: Guru Ravidas was a 14th century Bhakti saint who gained prominence due
to his belief in one God and his unbiased religious poems + His devotional songs made an instant
impact on the Bhakti Movement and majority included in Guru Granth Sahib + He is considered to
be a disciple of the bhakti saint-poet Ramananda and a contemporary of the bhakti saint-poet Kabir
+ He preached about the omnipresence of God and rejected the idea that lower caste people cannot
meet God.

4. Fossils of ‘Dickinsonia’ found at Bhimbetka: Researchers have discovered three fossils of the
earliest known living animal, the 550-million-year-old ‘Dickinsonia’ on the roof of the Bhimbetka
Rock Shelters + It is further proof of the similar paleoenvironments and confirms Gondwanaland by
the 550 mega annum.

5. Kathak legend Birju Maharaj passes away: He was a wonderful singer with a strong grip over
Thumri, Dadra, Bhajan and Ghazals + He was an exponent of the Kalka-Bindadin Gharana of
Lucknow + He received India's second-highest civil honour, the Padma Vibhushan, in 1984 for his
contributions in the field of dance.

6. PM Modi pays tributes to Tamil poet Thiruvalluvar: Also called Valluvar he was a Tamil poet-
saint regarded as a cultural and moral icon for Tamils + His primary work Thirukkural (contribution
to Tamil Literature) contains 1330 couplets (kurals) divided into three parts with teachings on
dharma, artha, and kama (virtue, wealth and love).

7. Adi Shankaracharya’s statue unveiled at Kedarnath: He wrote Brahmasutrabhasya,

Bhajagovinda Stotra, Nirvana Shatakam + He established four Mathas in the four corners of India
at Shingeri, Puri, Dwaraka and Badrinath for propagation of Sanathana Dharma + He propounded
Advaita Vedanta: brahman as transcending individuality and empirical plurality; seeks to establish
that the essential core of one’s self is brahman.

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8. Wanchuwa festival of Tiwa tribe: This festival is celebrated by Tiwa tribesmen of Assam to mark
their good harvest + With bamboo sticks in hand, the people proceed to rhythmically beat the rice
powder, and occasionally pause to move around the circle.

9. Rare black rock art depictions: Recently rare black stick-like

drawings of human beings have been discovered in two caves at
Paibogula village in Kurnool district of Andhra Pradesh + These
drawings are supposed to be dating back to the Megalithic Period
(1500 to 500 BC) and early Historical period (500 BC to 600 AD)
+ These caves are locally known as Yedoorlagayi, Siddhulagayi,
and Gurralapadah.

10. GI tag to Karuppur kalamkari paintings: These are traditional

dye-painted figurative paintings done in Thanjavur region,
Tamilnadu + It had canopies, thombai (cylindrical hangings) and
‘thoranams’ (door hangings) comprising of motifs of yazhi,
peacock and images of deities + They evolved under the patronage
of Nayaka rulers in the early 17th century.

11. GI tag to Kallakurichi wood carvings: These carvings are done for designs and ornaments + It is
indigenous to Madurai region, Tamil Nadu + It is made using pens, palm stems, date trees, brushes
made of bamboo sticks and coconut tree stems.

12. Buddhist site of Thotlakonda: It is found at a hill of Mangamaripeta Village, Visakhapatnam

District, Andhra Pradesh + Findings of excavations- Ancient pottery such as tan ware, black red ware,
coins from the Satavahana period and labels with Brahmi inscriptions + It housed remnants of a
monastery, practising Hinayana Buddhism.
13. Menhir from Megalithic period found in Basrur: The discovery takes back the antiquity of Basrur
to between 1,000 BC and 800 BC, which is the Megalithic period + It was found on the roadside near
the Venkataramana temple.

14. Cherry Blossom Festival: It is a three-day Festival, held annually inaugurated by Chief Minister of
Meghalaya + Festival coincides with the actual blooming of cherry blossom flowers + Cherry
Blossom is a flower of many trees of genus Prunus or Prunus Cerasus. These flowers are also known
as Japanese cherry and Sakura.

15. mYoga App: It was launched to provide yoga training videos to be available across the world in
different languages + Currently it is available in English, Hindi and French languages but will be
launched in other UN languages also + It was developed in collaboration between WHO and Ministry
of Ayurveda, Yoga and Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and Homoeopathy.

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CHAPTER 17
HISTORICAL PERSONS
 One of the 9 jewels of Akbar’s court and is credited with composing many ragas.
 He is remembered for his epic Dhrupad compositions and two classic books on
music Sri Ganesh Stotra and Sangita Sara.
Tansen
 Aka Sangit samrat.
 The title of Tansen was given by Raja Vikramjit Singh of Gwalior. Akbar gave

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the title of ‘Mian’.
 Founded a Sanskrit-Tamil school at Srirangam in Tamil Nadu state, which
Sri Ranganathamuni
continues to be a great Vaishnavite centre in South India.

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 He composed the song Vande Mataram in Sanskrit, which was a source of
inspiration to the people in their freedom struggle.
Bankim Chandra
Chattopadhyay


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Founded a monthly literary magazine, Bangadarshan, in 1872.
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His famous novels - Kapalkundala (1866), Debi Choudhurani, Bishabriksha (The
Poison Tree), Chandrasekhar (1877), Rajmohan’s wife and Krishnakanter Will.
 Tyagaraja was born on 14th May 1767 in the village of Thiruvayaru in the
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Thanjavur district of Tamil Nadu.

 Saint Tyagaraja was a renowned composer of Carnatic music.
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 He has composed thousands of devotional compositions, mostly in Telugu in the

praise of Lord Rama, many of which remain popular today.
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Tyagaraja  He saw the reigns of four kings of Maratha dynasty — Tulaja II (1763-1787),
Amarasimha (1787-1798), Serfoji II (1798-1832) and Sivaji II (1832-1855), but
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he served none of them.

 He took music training from Sonti Venkataramayya.

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In his praise and honour of Lord Rama he wrote numerous musical operas, and
created several new ragas
 He was a 15th-century Hindu saint and is the earliest known Indian musician to
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compose songs called sankirtanas in praise of the god Venkateswara, a form of

Vishnu.
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Annamacharya  He was born in Tallapaka, a village in Kadapa district of Andhra Pradesh, India.
 He is believed to have been the avatar of Nandaka, the sword of Vishnu. He is
widely regarded as the Andhra Pada kavitā Pitāmaha(Godfather of Telugu
songwriting).
 A disciple of Nagarjuna, is a central figure in the development of early Indian
Aryadeva (3rd Madhyamaka philosophy.
century)  Aryadeva’s Hundred Verses Treatise (Bai lun) was one of the three basic texts of
the Chinese Madhyamaka school founded by the central Asian monk Kumarajiva.
Dignaga, (born c. 480  Buddhist logician and author of the Pramanasamuccaya (“Compendium of the
CE—died c. 540) Means of True Knowledge”), a work that laid the foundations of Buddhist logic.

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