Geography with Sandeep Sir

Biogeography
Soils
Soils constitute a major element in the natural environment, linking climate and
vegetation, and they have a profound effect on man's activities through their relative fertility.
Although they are often dismissed as being rather lifeless and merely the static medium for plant
growth, soils are very much dynamic entities in which physical, chemical and biological activities
are continually taking place. The scientific study of soils is known as pedology; the process of soil
formation is referred to as pedogenesis (soil genesis)

Soil is the upper weathered layer of the Earth's crust affected by plants and animals. A
vertical section through this zone constitutes a soil profile; in each soil profile there are usually
several distinguishable layers or horizons, which enable different types of soil to be recognized.

Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Soil

Soil contains matter in all three states: solid, liquid and gaseous. The solid portion is
partly organic and partly inorganic. The inorganic, or mineral, part of the soil is made up of particles
derived from the parent material, the rocks which weather to form the soil. The organic portion
consists of living and decayed plant and animal materials such as roots and worms. The end-product
of decay is humus, black amorphous organic matter. Soil water is a dilute but complex chemical
solution derived from direct precipitation and from run-off, seepage, and groundwater. The soil
atmosphere fills the pore spaces of the soil when these are not occupied by water. Soil atmosphere
and water are present in inverse proportion to each other

The texture of a soil refers to the sizes of the solid particles composing the soil. The
sizes range from gravel to clay. The proportions of the different sizes present vary from soil to soil
and from layer to layer. Standard soil textural classes can be defined according to the ratio of sand,
silt and clay, and can be represented on a triangular diagram.

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

1
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

Texture largely determines the water-retention properties of the soil. In a sandy soil,
pore spaces are large and water drains rapidly: in a clay soil, the individual pore spaces are too small
for adequate drainage. Generally speaking, loam textures are best for plant growth.

Included in the clay fraction of the soil are soil colloids tiny particles with unusual
chemical properties. The colloids may be organic, made up of very finely divided humus, or mineral,
in which case they are referred to as clay minerals. Together, the two types make up a clay-humus
complex. Most soils have more clay minerals than organic colloids. The clay minerals are minute
thin flakes but they are of great importance because they are in a state of continuous chemical
change, which is fundamental to soil formation.

Soil acidity is a property related to the proportion of exchangeable hydrogen ion

present in the soil in relation to other elements. The degree of acidity is measured on the logarithmic
pH scale which ranges from 0 (extreme acidity) to 14 (extreme alkalinity). Few soils reach these
limits; a pH value of about 6.5 is normally regarded as the most favorable for the growth of cereal
crops.

The bases in the soil are essential as nutrients for plant growth. Some nutrients such
as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and calcium are required in relatively large quantities; others such as
iron, copper, sodium and magnesium are only needed in traces but are none the less equally
important. Plants also obtain some of their essential elements from the atmosphere. In turn, animals
derive their elements through the plants.

Colour varies considerably in soils and can tell us much about how a soil is formed
and what it is made up of. In recently formed soils, the colour will largely reflect that of the parent
material, but in many other cases, the colour is different from the underlying rock. Soils can range
from white to black, usually depending on the amount of humus. In cool humid areas, most soils
contain relatively high humus content and are generally black or dark brown, whereas in desert or
semi-desert areas, little humus is present and soils are light brown or grey. Reddish colors
in soils are associated with the presence of ferric compounds, particularly the oxides and hydroxides,
and usually indicate that the soil is well drained, although locally the colour may be derived from a
red-coloured parent material.

SOIL HORIZONS (SOIL PROFILE)

Most soils have distinctive horizontal layers that differ in physical and chemical
composition, organic content, or structure. We call these layers as soil horizons.

They develop through interactions among climate, living organisms, and the land
surface, over time. Horizons usually develop either by selective removal or accumulation of certain
ions, colloids, and chemical compounds. This removal or accumulation is normally produced by
water seeping through the soil profile from the surface to deeper layers. Horizons often have
different soil textures and colors .A soil profile, as shown in Figure, displays the horizons on a cross
section through the soil.

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

2
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

There are two types of soil horizons: organic and mineral.

Organic horizons, marked with the capital letter O, lie over mineral horizons and are
formed from plant and animal matter. The upper Oi horizon contains decomposing organic matter
that you can easily recognize by eye, such as leaves or twigs. The lower Oa horizon contains humus,
which has broken down beyond recognition.

There are four main mineral horizons. The A horizon is enriched with organic matter,
washed downward from the organic horizons. Next is the E horizon. Clay particles and oxides of

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

3
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

aluminum and iron are removed from the E horizon by downward-percolating water, leaving behind
pure grains of sand or coarse silt.

The B horizon receives the clay particles, aluminum, and iron oxides, as well as
organic matter washed down from the A and E horizons. It‘s dense and tough because its natural
spaces are filled with clays and oxides.

Beneath the B horizon is the C horizon. It consists of the parent mineral matter of the
soil. Below this regolith lies bedrock or sediments of much older age than the soil. Soil scientists
limit the term soil to the A, E, and B horizons, which plant roots can readily reach.

SOIL FORMING PROCESSES

The processes contributing to soil formation involve gains and losses of material to
the profile, movement of matter from one part of the profile to another and chemical transformations
within individual horizons. In this respect soils can be regarded as another example of open-system
phenomena; in theory, if all gains and losses were balanced, the soil will remain in steady state
equilibrium and be unaltered through time. However, in pedogenesis, not all changes may be towards
equilibrium, but may be progressive, and in some cases, irreversible.

Rock weathering is also an important prerequisite to the formation of soils. A typical soil
profile will reveal a gradation of weathering downwards to parent rock.

There are four classes of soil-forming processes: soil enrichment, removal,

translocation, and transformation.

Soil Enrichment

In soil enrichment, matter—organic or inorganic—is added to the soil. Surface

mineral enrichment of silt by river floods or as wind-blown dust is an example. Organic enrichment
occurs as water carries humus from the O horizon into the A horizon below.

Removal Process

In removal processes, material is removed from the soil body. This occurs when
erosion carries soil particles into streams and rivers. Leaching, the loss of soil compounds and
minerals by solution in water flowing to lower levels is another important removal process.

Cheluviation is downward movement of materials in the soil which is very similar to

leaching. However cheluviation occur through the influence of organic agents which are also referred
to as chelating agents. The process involves plant acids rather than mere water as the case with
leaching.

Translocation Process

This is not a single process; the term embraces several kinds of movement of material
within the soil body, principally by the agent of water. The direction of movement will vary, but may
be expected to be predominantly downward in humid environments.

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

4
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

Downward Translocation: Fine particles particularly clays and colloids are

translocated downward, a process called eluviation. This leaves behind grains of sand or coarse silt,
forming the E horizon. Material brought downward from the E horizon—clay particles, humus, or
sesquioxides of iron and aluminum—accumulates in the B horizon, a process called illuviation.

The topmost layer of the soil is a thin deposit of wind-blown silt and dune sand,
which has augmented the soil profile. Humus, moving downward from decaying organic matter in
the O horizon, has enriched the A horizon, giving it a brownish color. Eluviation has removed
colloids and sesquioxides from the whitened E horizon, and illuviation has added them to the B
horizon, which displays the orange-red colors of iron sesquioxide.

The translocation of calcium carbonate is another important process. In moist

climates, a large amount of surplus soil water moves downward to the groundwater zone. This water
movement leaches calcium carbonate from the entire soil in a process called decalcification. Soils
that have lost most of their calcium are also usually acidic, and so they are low in bases. Adding lime
or pulverized limestone will not only correct the acid condition, but will also restore the missing
calcium, an important plant nutrient.

In dry climates, annual precipitation is not sufficient to leach the carbonate out of the
soil and into the groundwater below. Instead, it is carried down to the B horizon, where it is
deposited as white grains, plates, or nodules, in a process called calcification. Calcification can
produce a cemented layer, known as a hard pan that interferes with both eluviation and illuviation.
This renders the soil less fertile by preventing the exchange of nutrients.

In colder climates, a pan can also form from the accumulation of oxides of iron and
aluminum by illuviation. This type of pan can block drainage and keep the soil saturated for long
periods, resulting in chemical reducing conditions.

Upward translocation can also occur in desert climates. In some low areas, a layer of
groundwater lies close to the surface, producing a flat, poorly drained area. As water at or near the
soil surface evaporates, groundwater is drawn upward to replace it by capillary tension, much like a
cotton wick draws oil upward in an oil lamp. This groundwater is often rich in dissolved salts. When
the salt-rich water evaporates, the salts are deposited and build up. This process is called
salinization. Large amounts of these salts are toxic to many kinds of plants. When salinization
occurs in irrigated lands in a desert climate, the soil can be ruined, with little hope of revival.

Transformation Process

The last class of soil-forming processes involves the transformation of material

within the soil body. An example is the conversion of minerals from primary to secondary types,
another example is decomposition of organic matter by microorganisms to produce humus, a process
termed as humifcation. In warm moist climates, transformation of organic matter to carbon dioxide
and water can be nearly complete, leaving virtually no organic matter in the soil.

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

5
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

6
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

FACTORS CONTROLLING SOIL FORMATION

Many years ago, the Russian pedologist Dukuchaiev firmly established that there
were five main factors which controlled the operation of the soil processes just outlined: parent
material, climate, organisms, topography/Relief and time. Any given soil can be regarded as the
product of the interaction of all these factors, although locally one factor may exert a particularly
strong influence.

Parent Material

It is a popular misconception that the type of parent material alone determines the
kind of soil present. In many soil profiles, only in the C horizon is the soil material similar to the
parent material, and major soil types may transcend geological boundaries.

The main ways in which parent material is liable to have a lasting effect on soils is
through texture and fertility. Also, soil texture is largely determined by the size of mineral grains
within the parent material. Thus sandstones and grit stones result in free-draining coarse-textured
soils, whereas shales are likely to give rise to much finer soils. Soils vary in their fertility because the
parent material supplies many of the initial bases and nutrients in the soil, although they may become
redistributed by the soil processes. In particular, the division between calcareous and non-calcareous
parent materials has a lasting effect on the soil. Calcareous rocks tend to give rise to base rich soils
because of calcification, whereas soils on non-calcareous rocks are liable to podsolization and a
degree of acidity.

Soil chemistry is influenced by the original source of parent material. For example,
iron-rich bedrock produces soils rich in iron oxides, whereas limestone forms calcium-rich soils.
Some types of secondary minerals, weathered from particular primary minerals, can produce soils
with unique properties.

Climate
This factor has a major influence in governing the rate and type of soil formation,
particularly through precipitation and temperature regime. The main effect of temperature on soils is
to influence the rate of chemical and biological reactions. Soil temperature affects the chemical
development of soils and the formation of horizons.

In cool climates, bacterial action is relatively slow and a thick layer of decomposing
vegetation covers the ground. In the tropics, bacteria thrive, and although the leaf fall in tropical
forests is great, much of this is consumed and translocated down the soil profile. Below 10°C,
biological activities are slowed; and at or below the freezing point (0°C; 32°F), biological activity
stops and chemical processes affecting minerals are inactive. Thus, decomposition is slow in cold
climates, and so organic matter accumulates to form a thick O horizon. This material becomes
humus, which is carried downward to enrich the A horizon. In contrast, bacteria rapidly decompose
plant material in the warm, moist climates of low latitudes. O horizons are lacking, and the entire
soil profile will contain very little organic matter.

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

7
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

As we have seen, precipitation controls the downward movement of nutrients and

other chemical compounds in soils by translocation. If precipitation is high, water will wash nutrients
deeper into the soil and out of reach of plant roots. If precipitation is low, salts will build up in the
soil and restrict fertility.

The intensity of the leaching process very much depends on the extent to which
precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration. In climates where this is the case, leached soils are
sometimes referred to as pedalfers, so called because the removal of free calcium leaves behind
aluminium and iron oxides. In contrast, where precipitation is less than the potential
evapotranspiration—that is, there is a soil-water deficit—the excess of calcium carbonate and other
salts gives rise to Pedocals, soils typical of dry climates.

Relief
The configuration, or shape, of the ground surface, known as relief, also influences
soil formation. Of the relief factors affecting soils, probably the most significant is that of slope
angle. Generally speaking, soil horizons are thick on gentle slopes and thin on steep slopes. This is
because the soil is more rapidly removed by erosion on the steeper slopes. In addition, slopes facing
away from the Sun are sheltered from direct insolation and so tend to have cooler, moister soils.
Slopes facing toward the Sun are exposed to direct solar rays, raising soil temperatures and
increasing evapotranspiration.

Time

The characteristics and properties of soils require time for development. For example,
a fresh deposit of mineral matter, like the clean, sorted sand of a dune, may require hundreds to
thousands of years to acquire the structure and properties of a sandy soil. A soil scientist‘s rule of
thumb is that it takes about 500years to form 2.5 cm (1 in.) of topsoil.

Organisms

Living plants and animals, as well as their nonliving organic products, have an
important effect on soil. Plant roots, by their growth, mix and disturb the soil and provide organic
material directly to upper soil horizons.

Organisms living in the soil include many species, from bacteria to burrowing
mammals. Earthworms continually rework the soil not only by burrowing, but also by passing soil
through their intestinal tracts. And moles, gophers, rabbits, badgers, prairie dogs, and other
burrowing animals make larger, tube like openings.

Human Activity

Human activity also influences the physical and chemical nature of the soil. Clearing
of native vegetation for crops can induce erosion, removing upper layers that are rich in organic
matter. Large areas of agricultural soils have been plowed and planted for centuries. As a result, both
the structure and composition of these agricultural soils have undergone great changes. These altered
soils are often recognized as distinct soil classes that are just as important as natural soils.

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

8
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

THE CLASSIFICATION & DISTRIBUTION OF SOILS:

It is very difficult to achieve a classification of soils that is both meaningful to
the geographer and at the same time an accurate reflection of all soil types and
gradations. Two main types of classification used today may be recognized as those based on the
assumed origins of the soil; and those based on the observable properties of the profile. Examples of
each are given below.

ZONAL SYSTEM:
One of the most popular classifications of soils has been the zonal system. This was
proposed many years ago by Russian pedologists (Dukuchaiev, Glinka) who recognized the strong
relationship between climate, vegetation and soil zones throughout the world. Three main classes of
soil are recognized.
1. Zonal soils are those that are well developed and reflect the influence of climate as the major
soil-forming factor.
2. Intrazonal types are well-developed soils formed where some local factor is dominant.
3. Azonal soils are those that are immature or poorly developed.

World Pattern of Soil

Zonal Types:
Podzols (ash-soil):
The effect of the cheluviation process is to produce soils with a characteristic
bleached E horizon. In some profiles, the humus is washed down the profile and accumulates as a
humus-enriched B horizon, forming a humus podzol. In others, there is a marked concentration of
iron oxide at this level, forming an iron podzol. Sometimes this takes the form of an iron-pan,
impeding drainage, and resulting in a gley podzol. Podzols of these three types are most wide-
spread in the cool climates immediately south of the tundra region, and are found typically in
association with coniferous forest.

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

9
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

Brown Earth:
These soils are found equator ward of the main podzol zone in milder climates
supporting a deciduous forest cover. The soils still exhibit leaching, but of a far less intense nature
than podzols. Although free calcium is absent from the upper part of the profile, there is no
downward movement of sesquioxides, and their dispersed distribution gives rise to the overall brown
colour of the soil. In addition, humus is well distributed throughout the profile and is less acidic than
in podzols. Brown earths are widespread in Britain, except in the highland areas
Tundra Soils:
The great variations that exist in the patterns of ground ice in the tundra cause equally
complex variations in soils. Where slope conditions are fairly stable, the slow rate of plant
decomposition usually results in the presence of a peaty layer at the soil surface. In areas of active
slope movement, soils are inevitably thin. In the most extreme conditions where there is no plant
growth, the soils are ahumic. The brown polar desert soils of the Antarctic are of this nature. By
way of contrast, the birch-forested tundra margins in the northern hemisphere possess Arctic brown
forest soils, characterised by a thick dark organic A horizon.

Sierozems:
Sierozems of desertic and semi-desertic areas can be regarded as extreme forms of
chestnut soils in which lime and gypsum come even nearer to the surface because of upward
capillary attraction. Since most of the plants are adapted to arid conditions, there is little leaf fall, and
organic matter in these soils is low. However, when irrigated, Sierozems can be very fertile, because
of their high base status.

Chernozem, Chestnut and Prairie Soils:

The best examples of chernozems and their variants are found in association with
steppe or prairie vegetation. The light rainfall of these areas leads to incomplete leaching and the
formation of a calcium-rich horizon deep in the profile. Above this is a deep dark layer of soil which
can be up to a meter thick. The humus content of this layer is surprisingly often no more than ten per
cent, the dark colour being associated with the base( alkaline )-rich mineral matrix. Chernozems have
a well-developed crumb structure. The ideal parent material for this soil seems to be loess, which is
widespread in the mid-west of North America, Russia and northern China.
Chestnut soils occur on the arid side of the Chernozem belt under a natural vegetation
of low grass-steppe. The illuvial carbonate layer is closer to the surface than in chernozems and they
have a lower organic content.
Prairie soils occupy the transition zone of increasing wetness between chernozems
and forest brown earths.
Grumusols:
These are dark clayey soils of savanna or grass-covered areas which have a warm
climate with wet and dry seasons. There are no eluvial or illuvial horizons, but the whole solum is
rich in bases, especially calcium, and hence its dark colour. These soils are characterised by a high
degree of dry-season cracking

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

10
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

Ferralsols:
Soils of intertropical areas are often referred to as lateritic, but strictly speaking,
laterite is a weathering product and not a soil type. Most tropical soils are, however, rich in ferric
oxide and are collectively known as Ferralsols. The abundance of sesquioxides of iron and
aluminium accounts for the red, brown or occasionally yellow colour of the soil. The A horizon
makes up the first meter of a typical profile, and is usually acidic with a low humus content. The B
horizon commonly extends to fifteen meters or more and is predominantly clayey. Ferralsolic soils
are low in fertility because of the lack of humus and bases.

Intrazonal Types:
Hydromorphic soils are those which have undergone gleying and are associated with marshes,
swamps or poorly drained upland. Two main types can be recognized, according to the position of
the water-table in the profile: groundwater gleys, where ground water is below the surface; and
surface-water gleys.
Gleying is essentially the process of waterlogging and reduction in soils. In
waterlogged soils where water replaces air in pores, oxygen is quickly used up by microbes feeding
on soil organic matter.
Calcimorphic soils develop on calcareous parent material. Rendzinas are dark, organic rich, and are
associated with chalk rock in Britain. Another Calcimorphic soil is terra rossa, which by contrast
is a predominantly mineral soil and is found mainly in the Mediterranean region. The upper
horizons are rich in clay and reddish in colour, sharply contrasting with the parent material.
Halomorphic (saline) soils are mostly found in deserts. There are three common types in this group.

 Solanchak (white alkali soils) develop in depressions and exhibit white salt crusts in dry
periods.
 Solonetz (black alkali soils) are the product of intense alkalinisation and are characterised by
the presence of sodium carbonate.

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

11
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

 Solodic soils develop when leaching in the presence of excess sodium causes the loss of clays
and sesquioxides, forming a bleached, eluviated horizon looking rather like a podzol.

Azonal Soils:
Immature soils may exist because of the characteristics of the parent material or the nature of
the terrain, or simply the lack of time for development. Such situations typically occur in areas where
fresh parent material is being deposited or exposed.
For example, on active flood-plains, alluvial soils have little or no profile development,
because of their frequent burial under new sediments; Regosols are composed of dry and loose dune
sands or loess. Lithosols are accumulations of imperfectly weathered rock fragments on steep slopes
where erosion rates remove soil almost as fast as it is formed.
A number of criticisms have been leveled against the zonal concept.
 One is that the zonal soil type of one climate may well be found in another. For example,
podzols, normally recognized as the zonal soil type of cool continental climates, also occur in
maritime areas and in the tropics.

 Another difficulty concerns the azonal class: Azonal soils are not necessarily a reflection of
the lack of time for development, but may be a result of local factors that have arrested soil
development over a long period.

 A third point is that soil profiles do not always reflect the prevailing climate, and may have
characteristics inherited from previous climates

USDA SOIL TAXONOMY:

In recent years, the US Department of Agriculture has adopted a system of soil

classification based on observed soil properties rather than genetic considerations. For this analysis,
we will group the soil orders based on four factors that can characterize a particular order: maturity,
climate, parent material, and high organic matter.

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

12
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

Soils Characterized By Maturity:

Where materials have been recently deposited soils have no horizons or poorly developed
horizons and are capable of further mineral alteration.

Entisols and Inceptisols

1. Entisols are mineral soils without distinct horizons. They are soils in the sense that they
support plants, and they may be found in any climate and under any vegetation. Entisols lack
horizons, often because they are only recently deposited. They may occur in any climate or
region.
2. Inceptisols are soils with weakly developed horizons, usually because the soil is quite young.
Inceptisols have only weakly developed horizons. Inceptisols of river floodplains and deltas
are often very productive.

Entisols and Inceptisols can be found anywhere from equatorial to arctic latitude
zones. Entisols and Inceptisols of floodplains and delta plains in warm and moist climates are among
the most highly productive agricultural soils in the world because of their favorable texture, ample
nutrient content, and large soil-water storage.

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

13
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

Alfisols and Spodosols

1. The Alfisols are soils characterized by a clay-rich horizon produced by illuviation and a high
base status. The world distribution of Alfisols is extremely wide in latitude, ranging from as
high as 60° N in North America and Eurasia to the equatorial zone in South America and
Africa Because the Alfisols span an enormous range in climate types, four important
suborders of Alf sols, each with its own climate affiliation
 Boralfs are Alfisols of cold (boreal) forest lands of North America and Eurasia. They
have a gray surface horizon and brownish subsoil.
 Udalfs are brownish Alfisols of the mid latitude zone.
 Ustalfs are brownish to reddish Alfisols of the warmer climates.
 Xeralfs are Alfisols of the Mediterranean climate, with its cool moist winter and dry
summer. The Xeralfs are typically brownish or reddish in color.

2. Spodosols have a light-colored albic horizon of eluviation, and a dense spodic horizon of
illuviation. They develop under cold needle leaf forests and are quite acidic. Spodosols are
closely associated with regions recently covered by the great ice sheets of the Late Cenozoic
Ice Age. Spodosols are naturally poor soils in terms of agricultural productivity. Because they
are acidic, lime application is essential.

Oxisols and Ultisols

 Oxisols have developed in the moist climates of the equatorial, tropical, and
subtropical zones on land surfaces that have been stable over long periods of time. We
find these soils over vast areas of South America and Africa in the wet equatorial
climate, where the native vegetation is rainforest.
 Ultisols are similar to the Oxisols, but have a subsurface clay horizon. They originate
in closely related environments. We find Ultisols throughout Southeast Asia and the
East Indies. Other important areas are in eastern Australia, Central America, South
America, and the southeastern United States. Ultisols are also vulnerable to
devastating soil erosion, particularly on steep hill slopes.

Soils Characterized By Climate

Mollisols:

Mollisols are soils of grasslands in sub humid to semiarid climates. They have
a thick, dark brown surface layer, termed a mollic epipedon. Because of their loose texture and high
base status, they are highly productive. In North America, Mollisols dominate the Great Plains
region, the Columbia Plateau, and the northern Great Basin. In South America, a large area of
Mollisols covers the Pampa region of Argentina and Uruguay. In Eurasia, a great belt of Mollisols
stretches from Romania eastward across the steppes of Russia, Siberia, and Mongolia.

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

14
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

Aridisols:

Aridisols are desert soils with weakly developed horizons. They often exhibit
subsurface layers composed of an accumulation of calcium carbonate or soluble salts. With irrigation
and proper management, they are quite fertile. The Aridisols are closely correlated with the arid
subtypes of the dry tropical climate, dry subtropical climate, and dry mid-latitude climate.

Gelisols:

Gelisols are soils of permafrost regions that are churned by freeze/thaw ice action.
They usually consist of very recent parent material, left behind by glacial activity during the Ice Age,
along with organic matter that decays slowly at low temperatures.

Soils Characterized By Parent Materials

Vertisols:

Vertisols develop on certain types of volcanic rock in wet-dry climates under

grassland and savanna vegetation. They expand and contract with wetting and drying, creating deep
cracks in the soil. They are black in color and have a high content of the clay mineral
montmorillonite, which is formed from the weathering of particular volcanic rocks. An important
region of Vertisols is the Deccan Plateau of western India, where basalt, a dark variety of igneous
rock, supplies the silicate minerals that are altered into the necessary clay minerals.

Andisols:

Andisols are unique soils that form on volcanic ash of relatively recent origin. They
are dark in color and typically fertile. In moist climates they support a dense natural vegetation
cover; they form over a wide range of latitudes and climates.

Soils High In Organic Matter

Histosols:

Histosols are organic soils, often termed peats or mucks. They are typically formed in
cool or cold climates in areas of poor drainage. Throughout the northern regions of Spodosols are
countless patches of Histosols. This unique soil order has a very high content of organic matter in a
thick, dark upper layer.

GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS

The most comprehensive basis for the classification of soils is the specific climate and
vegetation under which the soil has grown and developed. Accordingly, the soils of the world can be
broadly classified into two broad classes:-

Pedalfers: These soils have grown in humid areas under rich vegetation cover. These contain a
greater proportion of aluminium and iron. But these lack in such important plant food as potassium,
calcium and phosphorus.

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

15
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

Pedocols
These soils which have grown under arid conditions. These retain all the elements
which go to make plant foods. These soils are found in regions having less than 25 inches of rainfall
per annum. Generally lighter in colour, they do not suffer from leaching and are alkaline. These
broad classes of soil contain further sub divisions or sub-varieties on the basis of the type of
vegetation cover, temperature conditions and the amount of precipitation. Their sub-varieties will be
clear from the chart given below:

SOIL EROSION, DEGRADATION AND CONSERVATION:

Soil erosion and land degradation together, constitute one of the major problems that
disturb the ecological balance of the world. Rapid increase in human population has placed a great
strain on the land and soil resources resulting in land degradation and soil erosion. On a worldwide
basis more than 4.85 billion acres (1.96 billion hectares) or 17% of the earth under vegetation has
been degraded by humans to various extents.

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

16
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

SOIL EROSION

Soil erosion is the loosening and displacement of topsoil particles from the land. Soil
erosion is a natural process that occurs on all lands. Soil erosion may occur at a slow or fast rate. Soil
erosion in nature may be (a) a slow process (or geological erosion) or (b) a fast process promoted by
deforestation, floods, tornadoes or other human activities.

TYPES OF SOIL EROSION:

Soil erosion is classified on the basis of the physical agent responsible for erosion.
The various types of soil erosion are consequently referred to as: (a) Water erosion (b) Wind erosion.

(a) Water erosion

Running water is one of the main agents, which carries away soil particles. Soil
erosion by water occurs by means of raindrops, waves or ice. Soil erosion by water is termed
differently according to the intensity and nature of erosion.

(i) Raindrop erosion: Raindrops falling on land surface cause detachment of the soil
particles. The loose soil particles are washed away by flowing water. Raindrops
thus initiate water erosion. Presence of vegetation on land prevents raindrops from
falling directly on the soil thus erosion of soil in areas covered by vegetation is
prevented.
(ii) Sheet erosion: The detachment and transportation of soil particles by flowing
rainwater is called sheet or wash off erosion. This is very slow process and often
remains not noticed.
(iii) Rill erosion: In rill erosion finger like rills appear on the cultivated land after it
has undergone sheet erosion. These rills are usually smoothened out every year
while forming. Each year the rills slowly increase in number become wider and
deeper. When rills increase in size they are called gullies. Ravines are deep
gullies.
(iv) Stream bank erosion: The erosion of soil from the banks (shores) of the streams
or rivers due to the flowing water is called bank erosion. In certain areas where
river changes its course, the river banks get eroded at a rapid rate. Stream bank
erosion damages the adjoining agricultural lands, highways and bridges.
(v) Landslide: Sudden mass movement of soil is called landslide. Landslides occur
due to instability or loss of balance of land mass with respect to gravity. Loss in
balance occurred mainly due to excessive water or moisture in the earth mass.
Gravity acts on such an unstable landmass and causes the large chunks of surface
materials such as soil and rocks slide down rapidly.
(vi) Coastal erosion: Coastal erosion of soil occurs along sea shores. It is caused by
the wave action of the sea and the inward movement of the sea into the land.

(b) Wind erosion

Soil erosion by wind is more common in areas where the natural vegetation has been
destroyed. Such conditions occur mainly in arid and dry areas along the sandy shores of oceans,

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

17
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

lakes and rivers. The loose soil particles are blown and transported from wind by following three
ways:

(i) Saltation: blown by wind in a series of short bounces.

(ii) Suspension: transported over long distances in the form of suspended particles.

(iii) Surface creep: transported at ground level by high velocity winds.

SOIL EROSION CAUSED BY HUMAN ACTIVITIES

Certain human activities accelerate soil erosion. • Deforestation • Farming • Mining •

Developmental work, human settlements and transport.

Deforestation:
Deforestation includes cutting and felling of trees, removal of forest litter. Browsing
and trampling by livestock, forest fires, also leads to cause deforestation etc. Deforestation leads to
erosion. Deforestation further leads to land degradation, nutrient and the disruption of the delicate
soil plant relationship.

Farming:
Agriculture is a major human activity that causes soil erosion. Crops are grown,
harvested, land re-ploughed, exposed to wind and rain intermittently. All this prevents replenishment
of moisture. Agriculture also causes the worst type of soil erosion on farmland in the form of wash-
off or sheet erosion. On the arid and semiarid areas, sand blows and sand shifts act in a similar
fashion as sheet erosion does, where water is the chief agent. Consequently, a creeping effect of
desertification sets in and the fertility of the land is lost progressively.

The following agricultural practices can lead to accelerated soil erosion:

1. Tilling or ploughing increases the chances of erosion because it disturbs the natural soil
surface and protective vegetation.

2. Continuous cropping: Continuous cropping of the same land and extending of cultivation
of marginal and sub-marginal lands encourages soil erosion.

3. Cultivation on mountain slopes: Cultivation on mountain slopes without appropriate land

treatment measures such as bounding, terracing and trenching cause soil erosion and loss of
soil nutrients.

4. Monoculture: Monoculture refers to the practice of planting of the same variety of crop in
the field. Monoculture practices can lead to soil erosion in three ways.

(i) A monoculture crop is harvested all at one time, which leaves the entire fields bare
exposing it to both water and wind.
(ii) Without vegetation natural rainfall is not retained by the soil and flows rapidly
over the surface rather than into the ground. It also carries away the top soil which results in
soil erosion and degradation.

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

18
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

(iii) In the event any disease or pest invades the field, the entire crop is usually wiped
out leaving the bare soil susceptible to water and wind.

5. Overgrazing: It means too many animals are allowed to feed on a piece of grassland.
Trampling and grazing by cattle destroys the vegetation of the area. In the absence of
adequate vegetative cover the land becomes highly susceptible to both wind and water
erosion.
6. Economic activities: Soil erosion also occurs due to economic activities. The extraction of
useful natural resources such as metals, minerals and fossil fuels etc., from the land causes
serious disturbance to the land leading to soil erosion and drastic changes in the landscape.

7. Developmental activities: Soil erosion may also occur because of various developmental
activities such as housing, transport, communication, recreation, etc. Building construction
also promotes soil erosion because accelerated soil erosion takes place during construction of
houses, roads, rail tracks etc. The construction of such facilities causes massive disturbance to
land, resulting in soil erosion and disruption of natural drainage system

Consequences of Soil Erosion:

1. The fine particles of the topsoil which contain the bulk of nutrients and organic
matter needed by the plants are lost from soil erosion. Wind erosion removes the
finer soil material including organic matter, clay and slit, in a suspension
(colloidal) form and leaving behind coarser, less fertile material.
2. Erosion may result in removal of seeds or seedlings so that the soil becomes bare.
Bare soil is more vulnerable to erosion both by wind and water. Removal of seeds
and seedlings reduces the ability of soil to store water.

3. Sheet, rill, gully and stream bank erosion also cause siltation of rivers, streams and
fields. Deposition of silt results in damage of crops and pastures, and sedimentation
of water bodies like streams, dams, reservoirs etc. Sedimentation of water bodies
deteriorate water quality and damage aquatic habitats and organisms.
4. Gully erosion also results in loss of large volumes of soil. Wider deep gullies
sometimes reach 30 m and thus severely limit land use. Large gullies disrupt
normal farm operation.
5. Stream bank erosion not only causes loss of land, but also changes the course of a
river or stream. Stream banks erosion also damage public roads. Wind erosion also
damages roads and fertile agricultural fields by depositing large quantities of air
blown soil particles.
6. Mass movement of land or landslides also inhibits farm production and land use. It
also causes mortality in animals and humans.
7. Coastal erosion causes the adjourning land to become covered by sand.

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

19
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

Prevention of Soil Erosion

 It is essential to retain vegetation cover that soil is not exposed to rain, vegetation
cover is important because roots of plants hold soil particles together. Plants intercept
rainfall and protect soil from direct impact of raindrops.
 Cattle grazing should be controlled.
 Crop rotation and keeping the land fallow (not planting anything in the soil for some
time) should be adopted
 Vegetation and soil management should be improved in order to increase soil organic
matter.
 To prevent stream bank erosion runoff water should be stored in the catchment for as
possible by maintaining vegetation cover and as by constructing dams for storing
water
 For prevention or reduction of coastal erosion, protective vegetation along the beaches
should be re-established. The best method of controlling coastal dune erosion is not to
disturb the dunes and the coastal system. Further, construction of buildings and other
development should be located behind the dune system.
 The vegetation cover over sandy soils should be kept above 30%.Access of wind to
the soil should be controlled by leaving the stubble or mulch on the soil. (Stubble is
the remains of crop left after harvesting).
 Wind speed can be broken or controlled by planting trees in form of a shelter belt.

LAND/SOIL DEGRADATION

Degraded land is classified on the basis of productive capacity of the land. Slight
degradation refers to the condition that where crop yield potential is reduced by 10%. Moderate
degradation refers to 10-50% reduction in yield potential and in severely degradation means that the
land has yield potential is lost more than 50% of its potential yield capacity (productive capacity).

Some causes of land degradation are:

• Use of agrochemical (chemical fertilizers and pesticides)

• Excessive irrigation
• Cultivation of high yielding plant varieties.

Agrochemical and their harmful effects on land:

Agrochemicals are applied to the soil for two main reasons namely to: (i) replenish or
replace soil nutrients by using chemical fertilizers. (ii) Destroy plant pests by using toxic chemicals
called pesticides.

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

20
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

(i) The adverse effect of use of chemical fertilizer:-

Plants take up nutrients from soil. Repeated crop cultivation depletes nutrients in the
soil. Therefore, nutrients in soil have to be augmented periodically by applying chemical fertilizers.
However, excess use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides leads to the following problems:

 Most of the chemical fertilizers used in modern agriculture contain macronutrients

like nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (NPK). Excessive addition of NPK to the
soil however causes the plants to absorb more micronutrients from the soil. As a result
soil becomes deficient in micronutrients like zinc, iron, copper etc, and the soil
productivity decreases.
 Fertilizer which is not used by plants is washed down with rainwater and carried into
water bodies, resulting in eutrophication or algal bloom leading to death of aquatic
life.
 About one fourth of the applied fertilizer is not used by the crop plants and is leached
down into the soil and underground water aquifer. Excess nitrates in water are
harmful especially in bottle-fed infants in who cause the disease,
methaemoglobinaemia.

(ii) The adverse effects of the use of plant protection chemicals:-

Toxic chemical used to kill pests of cultivated crops. These poisonous chemicals are
collectively called biocides (agents that kill organism) they are not selective i.e., they not only kill
the target pests but may also kill other non/not target and other useful organisms. Moreover, Biocides
tend to remain active long after destroying the target organisms i.e. pests, weeds, fungi or rodents. It
is persistence that makes these chemicals harmful to us.

Problems due to excessive irrigation:

Excessive irrigation of soil may leads to water logging and accumulation of salt in the
soil. Both these degrade the soil.
(i) Water logging: Excessive irrigation of land without proper drainage raises the
water table. This causes the soil to become drenched with water or water logged.
This waterlogged soil cannot support good plant growth due to lack of air
particularly oxygen in the soil, which is essential for respiration of plant roots.
Water logged soils lack mechanical strength and cannot support the weight of plants
which fell down and gets logged thus become submerged in the mud.
(ii) Salt affectation: In areas of high temperature, excessive irrigation of land usually
causes the accumulation of salt in the soil. This is because water evaporates fast
leaving behind traces of salt in the soil. As cycles of irrigation are repeated the left
over salt accumulated and forms a thick layer of grey or white effervescence on the
surface. The productivity of salt affected soil is low. Plants in saline soil are unable
to absorb nutrients and so face water stress (lack of water) even when moisture is
abundant in the soil

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

21
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

Impact of high yielding plant varieties on leads to soil degradation:

High Yielding Varieties (HYV) have helped to increase food production but at the
same time they have greatly impacted to the environment are manmade varieties of agricultural
plants, fodder plants, forest trees, livestock and fishes. The HYVs require adequate irrigation and
extensive use of fertilizers, pesticides to be successful. As we have already seen about land
degradation due to agrochemical.

MEASURES FOR PREVENTING SOIL EROSION AND LAND DEGRADATION

Tree planting:

To prevent wind erosion, trees should be planted in such a way so that they break the
force of the wind. The trees not only cover soil from the sun, wind and water, they also help to hold
the soil particles.

Cultivation and farming techniques

Certain cultivation and farming techniques also reduce soil erosion. These include:

 Cultivation of land at the right angles to the direction of wind helps to reduce soil
erosion by wind.
 Ploughing style: The ploughing style substantially reduces the amount of erosion. Tilling the
field at right angles to the slope called counter ploughing in soil of the land helps prevent or
reduce soil erosion. The ridges that are created act like tiny dams and hold the water and help
its seepage into the soil instead of let it run down freely the slopes causing soil pollution.
Contour ploughing can reduce soil erosion by up to 50%
 Strip Farming: This method is another controlling method of soil erosion. This involves
planting the main crops in widely spaced rows and filling in the spaces with another crop to
ensure complete ground cover. The ground is completely covered so it retards water flow
which thus soaks down into the soil, consequently reducing erosion problems.
 Terracing: It is another method of reducing or preventing soil erosion on mountain slopes. In
this method, terraces are created on the steep slopes. Terracing is usually done on slopes, by
leveling off areas on the slope to prevent the flow of water down it. There are disadvantages
to terracing however, in that the terraces themselves can be easily eroded and they generally
require a lot of maintenance and repair.
 The time or season at which a field is tilled can also have a major effect on the amount of
erosion that takes place during the year. If a field is ploughed in the fall, erosion can take
place all winter long, however if the ground cover remains until spring, there is not as much
time for the erosion to take place.
 No-till cultivation is also used as a preventive method for soil erosion. Specialized
machinery are available that can loosen the soil, plant seeds and take care of weed
control all at once with minimum disturbance to the soil. However there is an adverse effect
due to this practice as weed and insect populations can increase since they are not
continuously being removed and so can compete or destroy crops.

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

22
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

 Polyvarietal cultivation also helps in controlling soil erosion. In this method the field is
planted with several varieties of the same crop. As the harvest time varies for different
varieties of the crops they are selectively harvested at different time. As the entire field is not
harvested at one time and so it is not bare or exposed all at once and the land remains
protected from erosion.
 Addition of organic matter to the soil is also an important method for reducing soil erosion.
This is achieved by ploughing in crop residues or entire the crop grown specifically for being
ploughed into the ground. Microbes in the soil decompose the organic matter and produce
polysaccharides which are sticky and act in gluing in the soil particles together and thus help
the soil to resist erosion.

Agriculture technologies for preventing soil degradation

i. Organic farming or green manures: Instead of applying chemical fertilizer for

supplementing the nitrogen content of soil, we can use the natural process that
involves the use of nitrogen fixing bacteria in the legume root nodules. In addition to
this, the use of organic forms of fertilizers such as cow dung, agricultural wastes also
improves the nutrients status of soils. This may also help to reduce the excessive and
prolonged use of chemical fertilizers and thus minimize their toxic effects.
ii. Bio fertilizers: Micro-organisms are important constituents of fertile soils. They
participate in the development of soil structure, add to the available nutritional
elements and improve the physical conditions of soil. A large variety of micro-
organisms are being used as biofertilisers for improving the nutritional status of crop
fields.
iii. Biological pest control (biological control): The natural predators and parasites of
pests play a significant role in controlling plant pests and pathogens. They are
nowadays used by farmers to control or eliminate plant pests. The biological control
agents of pests do not enter in the food chain or poison animals and so are not likely
to harm mankind.

PROBLEMS OF DEFORESTATION AND CONSERVATION MEASURES:

Forests are ecological as well as socio-economic resource. Forests have to be
managed judiciously not only because they are source of various products and industrial raw
materials but also for environmental protection and various services they provide. Approximately
1/3rd of the earth‘s total land area is covered by forests .The forests provide habitat for wildlife,
resources such as timber, fire wood, drugs etc. and aesthetic environment. Indirectly, the forests
benefit people by protecting watersheds from soil erosion, keeping rivers and reservoirs free of silt,
and facilitate the recharging of groundwater.

DEFORESTATION:

Deforestation is a very broad term, which consists of cutting of trees including

repeated lopping, felling, and removal of forest litter, browsing, grazing and trampling of seedlings.

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

23
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

It can also be defined as the removal or damage of vegetation in a forest to the extent that it no
longer supports its natural flora and fauna.

CAUSES OF DEFORESTATION

The most common reason for deforestation is cutting of wood for fuel, lumber and
paper. Another important cause relates to the clearing of forest land for agriculture, including
conversion to crop land and pasture. The main causes of deforestation are:

(1)Agriculture

The expanding agriculture is one of the most important causes of deforestation. As

demands for agricultural products rises, more and more land is brought under cultivation and for that
more forests are cleared, grasslands and even marshes, and lands under water are reclaimed. Thus
there is much more ecological destruction than gain in term of crop yield. The forest soils after
clearing are unable to support farming for long periods due to exhaustion of nutrients. Once the soils
become unfit for cultivation, the area suffers from to soil erosion and degradation.

(2) Shifting cultivation

Shifting cultivation or Jhoom farming is a 12000-year old practice and a step towards
transition from food collection to food production. It is also known as slash and- burn method of
farming. Annually about 5 lakhs hectares of forest is cleared for this type of farming. This method
of cultivation causes extreme deforestation, as after 2-3 years of tilling, the land is left to the mercy
of nature to recover. Even today, shifting cultivation is practiced in the states of Assam, Manipur,
Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

(3) Demand for firewood

Firewood has been used as a source of energy for cooking, heating etc. Almost 44%
of the total global wood produced fulfils the fuel requirements of the world. Close look at the pattern
of utilization of wood produced will show that the developed countries utilize 16% of their share for
fuel requirements. India consumes nearly 135-170 Mt (Million tons) of firewood annually and 10-15
ha of forest cover is being stripped off to meet the minimum fuel needs of urban and rural poor.

(4) Wood for industry and commercial use

Wood, the versatile forest produce, is used for several industrial purposes, such as
making crates, packing cases, furniture, match boxes, wooden boxes, paper and pulp, plywood, etc.
Unrestricted exploitation of timber as well as other wood products for commercial purposes is the
main cause of forest degradation. For example the apple industry in the Himalayan region has led to
the destruction of fir and other tree species, for making wooden boxes used for transporting apples.
Similarly, plywood crates were used for packing particularly tea and other produce.

(5) Urbanization and developmental projects

Often urbanization and developmental activities lead to deforestation. The process of

deforestation begins with building of infrastructure in the form of roads, railway lines, building of

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

24
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

dams, townships, electric supply etc. Thermal power plants, mining for coal, metal ores and minerals
are also important causes of deforestation.

(6) Overgrazing of forests of moderate cover by animals mainly in the tropical and subtropical and
arid and semi-arid areas has resulted into large-scale degradation of natural vegetation if not the
complete destruction of forests.

(7) Other causes

Recent developments everywhere in world have caused large scale environmental

degradation, especially in tropical forest areas. The large amounts of resources –living and nonliving
(minerals, river, land) found in these forests have attracted both industry and other developmental
agencies, which have severely depleted forest cover. Forest fires whether natural or manmade are
effective destroyers of forest covers.

CONSEQUENCES OF DEFORESTATION

Deforestation affects both physical and biological components of the environment.

(1) Soil erosion and flash flood

A shrinking forest cover coupled with over exploitation of ground water has
accelerated erosion along the slopes of the lower Himalayas and Aravali hills, making them prone to
landslides. Destruction of the forests has altered rainfall pattern. Lack of forest cover has resulted in
water flowing off the ground, washing away the top soil which is finally deposited as silt in the river
beds. Forests check soil-erosion, landslides and reduce intensity of flood and drought.

(2) Climatic change

Forests enhance local precipitation and improve water holding capacity of soil,
regulate water cycle, maintain soil fertility by returning the nutrients to the soil through leaf fall and
decomposition of litter. Forests check soil-erosion, landslides and reduce intensity of flood and
droughts. Forests have profound effect on the climate. Forest absorbed carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere and help in balancing carbon dioxide and oxygen in the atmosphere. The forests play a
vital role in maintaining oxygen supply in the air, we breathe. They also play a vital role in the
regulation of water (water cycle) in the environment and act as environmental buffers regulating
climate and atmospheric humidity.

Heat build-up in the atmosphere is one of the important problems of the century
known as greenhouse effect is the partly caused by the result from deforestation. The entire
Himalayan ecosystem is threatened and is under severe imbalance as snow –line has thinned and
perennial springs have dried up. Annual rainfall has declined by 3 to 4%. Chronic droughts have
begun even in areas like Tamilnadu and Himanchal Pradesh where they were not known earlier.

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

25
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

(3)Loss of wild life

The destruction and alteration of habitats due to deforestation causes ecological

imbalance in the region concerned. The shrinkage of green cover has adverse effects on the stability
of the ecosystem.

CONSERVATION MEASURES

The protection and conservation of forest resources are not only desirable but are also
necessary for the economic development of a nation and maintenance of environmental and
ecological balance from local through regional to global levels. Integrated Conservation Research
(ICR), an ecological group of U.S.A., has launched massive programs of forest conservation in
collaboration with UNESCO‘s MAN AND BIOSPHERE (MAB) programme.

The first and foremost task to conserve forests is to protect the existing forests from
merciless and reckless cutting of trees by greedy economic man. This task may be achieved through
government legislation and by arousing public interest in the importance of the forest resources.

The National Forest Policy of India has also laid down certain basic principles for
proper management and conservation of the forest resources of the country such as
 Classification of forests according to functional aspects into protected forests,
reserved forests, village forests etc.
 Expansion in the forest cover by planting trees in order to ameliorate the physical and
climatic conditions for the welfare of the people,
 Provision for ensuring progressive increasing supplies of fodder for animals and
timber for agricultural implements and firewood to local inhabitants nearer to the
forests,
 Opposition to reckless extension of agricultural land at the cost of forest land,
 Extension of forested area by massive plan of tree plantation on a large-scale at war-
footing so as to bring 33 percent of the country‘s geographical area under forest etc.

Important measure of effective conservation of natural forest is to adapt scientific and

judicious method of cutting of trees by following selective approach. Only mature and desired trees
should be cut and unwanted trees of low economic value should be avoided.
To cover more and more wasteland and already deforested land with forests through
vigorous planning of afforestation. Forests should not be replaced by commercially important fruit
orchards. For example, cultivation of apples in many parts of the Himalayas in general and Himachal
Pradesh (India) in particular has done great damage to the original stands of natural forests. Apple
cultivation causes deforestation in two ways viz. (i) Apple cultivation requires clearance of land from
vegetal cover and (ii) Huge quantity of wood is required for packing of apples every years.
The Integrated Conservation Research, an U.S. ecological research group, has
suggested elaborate programs for the betterment of forests. These programs include (i) agro forestry,
(ii) ethno botany and (iii) natural history-oriented tourism.

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

26
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

SOCIAL FORESTRY&AGRO FORESTRY

Social forestry is management and development of forest with afforestation on barren

lands to achieve environmental benefit and rural development. The term was first used by National
Commission on Agriculture, Government of India, in 1976. It was then that India embarked upon a
social forestry project with the aim of taking the pressure off the forests and making use of all unused
and fallow land. Government forest areas that are close to human settlement and have been degraded
over the years due to human activities needed to be afforested. Trees were to be planted in and
around agricultural fields. Plantation of trees along railway lines and roadsides, and river and canal
banks were carried out. They were planted in village common land, Government wasteland and
Panchayat land.

Government also extended incentives so that the planted sapling would be cared and
maintained. Initially government encouraged free distribution of USUFRUCT species. Programme
was launched as mass mobilisation programme with the intention of involving the common
population.

Benefits:

 Suppose to diversify non-farm options or non-crop income options for poor farmers &
landless laborers.
 It was also designed to ensure better land use where waste land encroached into
forestry plantation.
 The programme was supposed to be one of the initiatives under afforestation scheme
with the objective of increasing farming area of India to meet the total target of 33%
forest area.
 This programme became part of wasteland development programme to encourage
forestry land use on slope and upstream.
 With the introduction of this scheme the government formally recognised the local
communities‘ rights to forest resources, and is now encouraging rural participation in
the management of natural resources. Through the social forestry scheme, the
government has involved community participation, as part of a drive towards
afforestation, and rehabilitating the degraded forest and common lands.

Shortcomings:

 Although social forestry as a concept was revolutionary but in India it was not too
much success. Primarily because of wrong implementation under the incentive given
to farmers & villagers to encourage Social forestry. Many farmers opted for diverting
agricultural land to forestry; this compromises Agricultural prospect & food security.
 Although Programme suggested USUFRUCT species but because of lack of
ecological understanding & lack of specific directive most of the plantation opted for
is eucalyptus which is not ecologically suitable in Indian setting.

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

27
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

Types of Social Forestry:

A) Farm forestry:

At present, in almost all the countries where social forestry programmes have been
taken up both commercially and non- commercially farm forestry is being promoted in one form or
the other. Individual farmers are being encouraged to plant trees on their own farmland to meet the
domestic needs of the family. In many areas this tradition of growing trees on the farmland already
exists. Non-commercial farm forestry is the main thrust of most of the social forestry projects in the
country today. It is not always necessary that the farmer grows trees for fuel wood, but very often
they are interested in growing trees without any economic motive. They may want it to provide
shade for the agricultural crops; as wind shelters; soil conservation or to use wasteland.

B) Urban Forestry:

It is raising and management of trees on private or publically owned lands in and

around urban centres for the purpose of improving urban environment. Urban forestry includes the
management of individual as well as groups of trees. Urban forestry is also not restricted to trees that
have been planted. Many urban trees may have established naturally, although in an environment in
which competition for land is high, they are unlikely to survive long unless actively cultivated and
managed. Urban forestry also includes the management of forests at the urban fringe.

C) Rural Forestry:

I. Community forestry:

It is the raising of trees on community land and not on private land as in farm forestry.
All these programmes aim to provide for the entire community and not for any individual. The
government has the responsibility of providing seedlings, fertilizers but the community has to take
responsibility of protecting the trees. Some communities manage the plantations sensibly and in a
sustainable manner so that the village continues to benefit. Some others take advantage and sell the
timber for a short-term individual profit. Common land being everyone‘s land is very easy to exploit.
Over the last 20 years, large-scale planting of Eucalyptus, as a fast growing exotic, has occurred in
India, making it a part of the drive to reforest the subcontinent, and create an adequate supply of
timber for rural communities under the augur of ‗social forestry‘.

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

28
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

II. Agro forestry:

Agro forestry is defined as a land use system which integrates trees and shrubs on
farmlands and rural landscapes to enhance productivity, profitability, diversity and ecosystem
sustainability. It is a dynamic, ecologically based natural resource management system that through
integration of woody perennials on farms and in the agricultural landscape diversifies and sustains
production and builds social institutions. It combines forestry with:

 Production of multiple outputs with protection of the resource base;

 Places emphasis on the use of multiple indigenous trees and shrubs;
 Particularly suitable for low-input conditions and fragile environments;
 It involves the interplay of socio-cultural values more than in most other land-
use systems;
 It is structurally and functionally more complex than monoculture.

Agro forestry systems include both traditional and modern land-use systems where
trees are managed together with crops and or/ animal production systems in agricultural settings.
Agro forestry is practiced in both irrigated and rain fed
conditions where it produces food, fuel, fodder, timber, fertilizer and fibre,
contributes to food, nutritional and ecological security, sustains livelihoods, alleviates poverty
and promotes productive and resilient cropping and farming environments.

Agro forestry also has the potential to enhance ecosystem services through carbon
storage, prevention of deforestation, biodiversity conservation, and soil and water conservation. In
addition, when strategically applied on a large scale, with appropriate mix of species, agro forestry
enables agricultural land to withstand extreme weather events, such as floods and droughts, and
climate change.

BENEFITS OF AGROFORESTRY SYSTEM:

a) Environmental benefits :
 Reduction of pressure on natural forests.
 More efficient recycling of nutrients by deep rooted trees on the site.
 Better protection of ecological systems.
 Reduction of surface run-off, nutrient leaching and soil erosion through impeding
effect of tree roots and stems on these processes.
 Improvement of microclimate, such as lowering of soil surface temperature and
reduction of evaporation of soil moisture through a combination of mulching
and shading.
 Increment in soil nutrients through addition and decomposition of litter fall.
 Improvement of soil structure through the constant addition of organic matter from
decomposed litter.
 It is also recognized that Agro forestry is perhaps the only alternative to meeting the
target of increasing forest or tree cover to 33 per cent from the present level of less
than 25 per cent, as envisaged in the National Forest Policy (1988).

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

29
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

 Agro forestry is known to have the potential to mitigate the climate change effects
through microclimate moderation and natural resources conservation in the short run
and through carbon sequestration in the long run. Agro forestry species are known to
sequester as much carbon in below ground biomass as the primary forests, and far
greater than the crop and grass systems.

b) Economic benefits:

 Increment in outputs of food, fuel wood, fodder, fertilizer and timber.

 Reduction in incidence of total crop failure, which is common to single cropping or
monoculture systems.
 Increase in levels of farm income due to improved and sustained productivity.
 Agro forestry has significant potential to provide employment to rural and
urban population through production, industrial application and value addition
ventures. Current estimates show that about 65 % of the country‘s timber
requirement is met from the trees grown on farms. Agro forestry also generates
significant employment opportunities.

C) Social benefits:

o Improvement in rural living standards from sustained employment and higher income.
o Improvement in nutrition and health due to increased quality and diversity of food
outputs.
o Stabilization and improvement of communities through elimination of the need to
shift sites of farm activities.

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

30
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

Factors Influencing World Distribution of Plants and Animals:

Humans, animals and plants are globally distributed, they are termed cosmopolitan in
their distribution some other animals have restricted distribution and they are said to be endemic.

Cosmopolitan - same and similar species widely distributed all over the world.

Endemic - same and similar species occurring in the same geographical location and in no other
place. Some animal species are restricted to a particular continent for instance, the giraffe is only
found in Africa and in no other part of the world, the marmoset monkeys are found only in South
America. However, there are also plants and animals that are restricted to a very small area of the
world. For instance, the California red wood trees which are likely restricted to California; they live
for over 2000 years and they are the longest trees in the world, they can‘t be found in anywhere else
in the world. These California red woods are example of plants with a very narrow endemic range.
There may be some plants such as coconuts (Cocos nucifera) which have very wide endemic range
which are defined throughout the tropics and they are said to be pan-tropical in their distribution.

In some cases, the pattern of distribution of plants and animals may be discontinuous
or disjoint. When it is discontinuous or disjoint, then we agree that that particular animal or plant
may be found in two widely separate areas in other word; they may be found let say in Central
America and in Indonesia and not in any other area in between them. However, it is always the
biogeographers‘ task to find out how this type of distribution came about in view of the fact that the
distance which separates them is so great that makes it seem impossible for the species to have
migrated from one area to another. An example of this type of distribution of animal is called Tapir-
an animal that is found in South America and Malaysia. Certainly, questions as to how this
distribution came about must have given rise to a number of theories, some of these theories include:

i. The theory of continental drift which is also known Wegener‘s theory or Jigsaw theory
ii. Darwin‘s theory of evolution
iii. Theory of plate tectonic
iv. The theory of climate

Global distribution of plants and animals depends on abiotic and biotic factors; the
abiotic are the non-living factors and also the biotic factors or the living factors.

Abiotic factors affecting distribution of plants and animals

1. Rocks- the rocks of the lithosphere have to be weathered and the soil has to be formed before
for a plant to grow. The immediate environmental factor affecting plant is therefore the soil
and these soils characteristics mostly depend on the parent rock. Rocks favour certain plants;
and, in some instances, differences in rocks adapt them to different species of Lichens and
Mosses.

2. Food- all living species must have food to survive, without the food they die, this is one of
the foundations for the differences in limitation of plants, animal in different locations of the
world.

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

31
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

3. Air- all living things (plants and animals) need air to breathe and for survival, air is needed
for respiration to take place in organism. All living organisms only survive where there is air
in abundance, when the air pressure is low, especially in higher altitudes some may find it
difficult to breathe because of the insufficient amount of oxygen present at such height.
Oxygen and carbon dioxides are very important for both plants and animals, oxygen is
essential for respiration and it is utilized during various growth and development process,
while carbon dioxide is needed for photosynthesis to take place.

4. Water- water enter the ecosystem through snow, drizzle, sleet, rain, hail which are generally
termed as precipitation. Precipitation determines, along with mean temperature, the world-
wide distribution of Biomes. Some animals are aquatic in nature, they must have water to live
in, and on the other hand, some animals including desert rats are able to survive in arid areas
where they are unlikely ever to drink water. Water is very important for vital functions,
however, only animals that can conserve water are found in the deserts. The desert
animals like pocket mice and kangaroo rats (and their old world counterparts, gerbils) get
most of the moisture they need from the seeds and grains they eat, the reptiles have many
adaptations to conserve water such as producing highly concentrated urine and nearly dry
faeces that allow them to eliminate body waste without losing precious moisture. This is a
similar case with the desert plants. For instance, Xerophytes, such acacia, Camel thorn tree,
Saguaro, prickly pear and Joshua trees, have unique features for adaptation and for storing
and conserving water. They often have few or no leaves, which reduce transpiration. The
plants have fleshly stems and swollen leaves, they absorbs large amounts of water during the
infrequent period of rain, thereby swelling up the stems only to contract later as moisture is
slowly lost through transpiration. The Phreatophytes- are plants that grow extremely long
roots; the roots allow them to acquire moisture at or near the water table

5. Nutrients- Nitrogen is needed to make proteins, enzymes, nucleotides and vitamins.

Phosphorus is used in the formation of phospholipids and other structures.

6. Soil- For plants, soil type is a major factor in deciding the type and variety of species growing
in a particular area as the minerals, water contents, microorganisms etc. all differ in different
soils. Soil is a combination of various organic and inorganic matters and with varying
content, the water retention capacity of the soil, the fertility, and presence of minerals
changes. While clay soil can retain more water but less air, black soil is ideal for plant growth
with balance of air and water retention capacities. The soil's pH helps the absorption of
nutrients by the plant. If the soil is acidic, desertification can take place and ruin the chances
for plant habitat.

7. Temperature- the ability to survive at extremes temperatures varies widely among plants
and animals. Animals respond to variation in temperature both physiologically and
behaviourally. For instance, birds and mammals are hot blooded animals (endotherms); they
maintain relatively high body temperatures using the heat by their own metabolism. Other
animals (such as insects, reptiles, amphibians, fish among others) are termed cold blooded
(ectotherms), they regulate their body temperatures using the surrounding temperature or by
using the ambient temperature. Ectotherms- use sources of heat such as solar radiation (direct

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

32
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

and indirect) and conduction to help adjust their body temperature, hanging the position of
fur or feathers (example of such include the Carolina and Chickadee ), these may seen
through sweating, shivering panting, burrowing, hibernating and seeking shade in trees or
water. Some desert animals may even store water in their body. Consequently, plants like
animals are not able to move away in other to escape the high or the low temperatures in their
environment; in this case, photosynthesis slows down or stops when temperatures get too
high or too low. The leaves of trees can lose some heat by evapotranspiration (the loss of
water through small holes in leaves). However, some plants may have hairy stems and leaves
which helps to withstand the low temperatures, they may also have more solutes in cytoplasm
to reduce freezing point while other have short growth and they grow very close to each other
to resist the cold temperatures and wind.

8. Light- light is an important climatic factor that is used for the production of chlorophyll and
photosynthesis; light has a big influence on a daily and seasonal activity of plants and
animals. Light is need for photosynthesis to take place and it is the main source of energy in
almost all ecosystems. Energy enters the ecosystem through the source of light- the sun.

Biotic factors affecting distribution of plants and animals

1. Competition- Competitive interactions have been seen to be one of the major factors that
diminish populations of plants and animals from their main habitats; plants and animal
compete for space, space is needed for reproduction, exercise and a feeding. There is also
competition for several resources such as food, water, and mates. All of these can affect how
a species is distributed; due to limited resources, populations may be evenly distributed to
minimize competition, as is found in the forests habitat, where competition for sunlight
produces an even distribution of trees.

2. Predation- Predation affects the global distribution and abundance of plant and animal
species, the strength and direction of energy flow within a system and the diversity and
composition of communities. Predators also play an essential role in evolution.

3. Diseases- plants diseases can be fungal, bacterial, viral or through animal in origin; they
include insects/pest, plant diseases, and invasive weeds. These diseases affect food crops,
causing significant losses to farmers and threatening food security. For instance, banana
diseases, Locusts, fruit flies, armyworm, cassava mosaic and wheat rusts are very destructive
to plant live; their outbreaks and upsurges can cause huge losses to crops and pastures,
threatening the livelihoods of vulnerable farmers and the food and nutrition security of
millions at a time. However, plant population will obviously reduce in such environment and
will thrive well in areas where such diseases are not found. Animals are no left out in such
situation, they are also affected by various diseases outbreaks which is brought about
by global warming, which severely affect the balance of an ecosystem; this is seen through
changes in animal and plant global distribution, as well as their behaviour. If there are more
plants than usual in an area, populations of animals that eat that plant may increase. If one
animal's population increases, the population of animals that eats that animal might also
increase. Other changes in the community will cause a population to decrease. If a population

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

33
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

becomes diseased, the population may decrease and the population of animals that eat the
diseased animals will also decrease.

4. Humans- Humans can influence animal and plant populations in various ways hence,
causing them to migrate away from their natural habitat to a new environment. When humans
develop land for houses and buildings, they cut down trees and change animal and plant
habitats. Some animals like the skunk and raccoon the can adapt, but other animals can't
adapt and their populations are affected. Pollution can also hurt animal and plant populations.
Sometimes hunting can affect animal populations. For instance, whale populations have been
lowered because of overhunting. Man contributes to the global distribution of plant animals
through urbanization and agricultural activity, these developments have displaced both
animals and plants from their natural habitats and some plant and animal species are forced to
move to a new and strange environment since they can't cope with the harsh condition, while
others have gone into extinction.

World Distribution of Animals

The study of distributional patterns of animals at global scale is carried out in different ways
e.g.:

a. Collective study of the distributional patterns of all members of particular species.

This involves the division of animals in definite distributional areas on the basis of the
abundance of animal‘s species;
b. Animal distribution is also studied at community level which involves the
consideration and study of total population of all individuals of all species of a given
region.

It may be pointed out that the distributional patterns of animals at global or regional
levels are more complex than the distribution of vegetation because animals are very much mobile.
Thus no animal species is universally distributed because several factors distort the uniformity of
distributional patterns of animals.

Distribution of Land Animals:

The following facts must be taken into account while studying the world distributional patterns
of animals:

i. Physical environmental conditions determine the number, abundance and diversity of animals.
Maximum diversity is noticed among the vertebrate animals of the land and freshwater habitats
of the tropical regions.
ii. There is zonal pattern in the world distribution of animals.

This zonal pattern of the animal distribution is in two forms viz.:

(a) Horizontal zones, and

(b) Vertical zones.

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

34
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

 Latitudes have maximum control on the horizontal zonal patterns of animal distribution
because sunlight decreases from the equator towards the poles, which means there is
corresponding decrease in vegetation and its diversity towards increasing latitudes and
hence species diversity also decreases from the equator towards the poles.
 It may be further pointed out that the origin and evolution of animals first took place in
the tropical or the equatorial regions from where animals were dispersed to other areas.
Thus the development of animal zones in the higher latitudes took place because of the
dispersal and migration of animals from the animal zones of the tropical regions.
 Thus the horizontal animal zones of the higher latitudes are the result of the dispersal
and migration of animals and various phases of speculation. For example, the
development of temperate animal zone took place due to subtraction of animals during
their migration from the tropical zone.

(iii) The animals have radiated in all directions from the centres of their origin. In other words, the
animals have dispersed and migrated in all directions through various routes from the centres of their
origin. Consequently, the distributional patterns of the world fauna are found in concentric zones.

(iv) The diversity of animals of any region is the result of several phases of their dispersal and
colonization.

(v) The concentration of animals could be possible only in the mammals whereas the distribution of
other species of animals is more widespread and is not specific.

(vi) The distributional patterns of all the animal species are not uniform because the distribution of
same animal species is continuous while that of other species is discontinuous or disjunct. For
example, the distribution of moose (a type of deer) is found in continuous zonal pattern in the taiga
regions of North America and Eurasia whereas the distribution of Azure – winged maggie, weather
fish and bitterling is discontinuous as their two continuous distribution zones in middle and western
Europe and in south-east Asia are separated by an extensive zone devoid of these animals.

(vii) Oceanic islands are characterized by special types of animals because there has been minimum
migration and dispersal of plants and animals to the islands because of great oceanic barriers. Hawaii
island, which was never connected with any landmass in the geological history of the earth, lacks in
reptiles, amphibians, freshwater fishes and mammals (except one species of bats).

A.R. Wallace attempted the classification of world animals into faunal regions in
1876. Since then a number of attempts have been made to divide the world animals into faunal
regions by several scientists e.g., P.J. Darlington (1957), S.C. Kendleigh (1961), W. George (1962),
De Latin (1967), W.T. Neil and M.D.F. Udavardy (1969), De Laubenfels (1970), J. lilies (1974) etc.
but still the division of world animals into faunal regions as presented by A.R. Wallace is the most
convincing and acceptable among all the subsequent divisions. Normally, the world is divided into
the following 6 major faunal regions.

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

35
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

(1) Palaearctic Region:

Palaearctic region includes Europe and middle and north Asia which represent 28
chordate families. The important animals of this great faunal region are Russian desmans, dormice of
Eurasia, Mediterranean mole rats, saiga and chiru antelope (a type of deer), acentors, crocodiles,
lizards etc. Reptiles are found in lesser number.

This faunal region is further divided into 5 sub-regions on the basis of vegetation e.g.:

(i) Tundra region represents caribou, lemming, muskox, arctic hare, arctic fox, wolf,
polar bear etc.
(ii) Temperate coniferous forest region- moose, mule, deer, lynx etc. are the important
animals of this region,
(iii) Temperate grassland region represents saiga, wild ass, horse, camel, jerboa,
hamster, jackal etc.,
(iv) Deciduous forest region represents racoons, oppossum, red fox, black bear as
important animals, and
(v) Desert region – the important animals of this region are lizards, snakes, hamster,
hedgehog, rat, jerboa, cottontail etc.

The Palaearctic faunal region includes 136 families of vertebrate animals, 100 genera of
mammals and 174 genera of birds. Besides, 3 unique families of vertebrate animals, 35 and 57
unique genera of mammals and birds respectively are also found in the Palaearctic faunal region.

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

36
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

(2) Nearctic Region:

Nearctic region consists of the geographical territories of North America and

Greenland. It is significant to point out that there is much similarity between Palaearctic and Nearctic
faunal regions. Both the regions were connected through the Bering Land Bridge during Tertiary
Epoch and Pleistocene period. This land bridge enabled free exchange and migration of animals
between these two regions which resulted into much mixture of animal species and therefore increase
in species diversity.

For example, American and European bisons reproduce after having sexual
intercourses between them. Both the regions have salmons and trouts. On the basis of such biological
similarities between Palaearctic and Nearctic regions, some scientists have grouped these two
regions into one single region as Holarctic region. It may be pointed out that in the beginning, horses,
pigs, goats and sheep were not present in the Nearctic region but later on these animals migrated to
North America from N.E. Asia through the land-bridge of Bering Strait.

The Nearctic region is characterized by a few special and typical animals e.g. pocket
gophers, pocket mice, prong- horns, wild turkeys etc. Reptiles are found in large numbers. There are
122 families of all vertebrates, 74 genera of mammals, and 169 genera of birds. Besides, 12 unique
families of invertebrates, 24 unique genera of mammals and 52 unique genera of birds are also found
in this region.

Nearctic faunal region is also divided like Palaearctic region in 5 sub-faunal regions on
the basis of vegetation:

(i) Tundra region is characterized by the dominance of caribou, musk ox, lemming,
arctic wolf, arctic fox, polar bear etc. It may be pointed out that the genera of the
animals of Palaearctic and Nearctic faunal regions are the same but their species
vary.
(ii) Temperate coniferous forest region includes moose, mule, deer, wolverine, lynx etc.
(iii) Temperate grassland region is characterized by bison, pronghorn, jack rabbit, prairie
dog, gopher, fox, coynote etc.
(iv) Deciduous forest region includes racoons, oppossum, red fox, black bear etc. The
genera of animals of deciduous forest regions of the Palaearctic and Nearctic faunal
regions are almost the same but their species vary.
(v) Desert region is characterized by lizards, snakes, kangaroo, jerboa, hamster,
hedgehog, cottontail etc.

(3) Oriental Region:

Oriental region includes the geographical areas of mainly south and south-east Asia.
The Himalayas, Tibetan plateau and Chinese mountainous region form transitional zones between
Palaearctic and oriental faunal regions. Similarly, East Indies form transitional zone between
Oriental and Australian faunal regions. The whole of this faunal region falls under tropical regions
and hence this faunal region is associated with the Ethiopian faunal region.

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

37
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

This faunal region represents 164 families of all vertebrates, 118 genera of mammals
and 340 genera of birds out of which there are 12 unique families of vertebrates, 55 unique genera of
mammals and 165 unique genera of birds. This faunal region is characterized by the dominance of
Indian elephants, rhinos, several species of deers, antelopes, pheasants, tigers, lizards, snakes,
gibbons, monkeys, sun bear, porcupine etc. Tree shrews, gibbons, orangutans and tapirs are the
typical animals of the Oriental faunal region.

(4) Ethiopian Region:

Ethiopian region incorporates substantial areas of the whole of Africa south of Sahara
and far off south western Arabia which is separated from the African region by Red Sea. This faunal
region also falls under tropical climatic regions. Unlike other faunal regions, this region is
characterized by minimum diversity of animals though there is complete absence of moles, beavers,
bears and camels in this region. This region represents 174 families (22 are unique) of vertebrate
animals, 140 genera (90 are unique) of mammals and 294 genera (179 are unique) of birds.

This faunal region is further divided into 3 sub-regions:

(i) Desert region is characterized by the dominance of springbok, porcupine, jerboa,

rock hyrax etc.
(ii) Savanna region represents zebra, eland, gemsbok, hartebeest, gnu, giraffe,
elephant, ostrich, lion, cheetah etc.
(iii) Tropical forest region includes important animals like okapi, gorilla, chimpanzee,
monkey, forest elephant etc.

There is similarity in a few animals of the Oriental and Ethiopian faunal regions like
elephants, lions, cheetah etc. Hippopotamus, aardvark, ostrich and rodents and a few species of
insectivorous animals are exclusively found in the Ethiopian faunal region.

(5) Australian Region:

Australian region includes Australia, New Zealand and islands between S.E. Asia and
Australia (such as New Guinea, Soloman, Samoa etc.). Some scientists do not include New Zealand
in the Australian faunal region. There is difference of opinions among the scientists about the linkage
of this region with the oriental faunal region. This region is dominated by placental animals.
Marsupials (characterized by pouch attached to the outer part of their abdomen) are the typical
animals of the Australian faunal region.

These animals carry their off-springs in their pouch which has feeding mechanisms.
There are 141 families (22 are unique) of vertebrate animals, 72 genera (44 are unique) of animals
and 298 genera (1989 are unique) of birds.

This faunal region is further divided into 3 sub–regions:

(i) Desert region is characterized by marsupial, mole, jerboa, parakeet, lizard etc.
(ii) Savanna region is represented by emu, red kangaroo, bandicoot, wombat,
cockatoo, parrot etc.

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

38
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

(iii) Tropical forest region is dominated by tree and musk kangaroos, wallaby, koala,
oppossum, cassowary, etc.

(6) Neotropical Region:

Neotropical region includes the whole of South America which is characterized by

tropical environments. This region represents the largest number of exclusive mammals (which are
not found elsewhere). About 32 families of marsupials (which are quite different from the Australian
marsupials), and several typical and special families and genera of monkeys, birds and rodents are
exclusively found only in this faunal region. There are 168 families (44 are unique) of vertebrate
animals, 130 genera (103 are unique) of mammals and 683 genera (576 are unique) of birds in this
faunal region.

This faunal region is further divided into 3 sub-regions:

(i) Temperate grassland region is dominated by guanaco, rhea, viscacha, cavy, fox,
shunt etc.
(ii) Desert region is characterized by guanaco, rehea, armadilo, vulture etc.
(iii) Tropical forest region is represented by monkey, kinkajou, pygmy ant eater, sloth,
tree snakes, parrot, humming birds etc

Some scientists have assigned the status of minor faunal region to those islands which
have been connected with the mainland (though this concept of isolation of some islands from the
mainland throughout the geological history of the earth is still debatable). Such islands include
Hawaii Island, Greater Antilles, Madagascar and New Zealand. The solenodons and hutia family of
rodents in Greater Antilles; tenrecs, lemurs, aye-aye, Malagasy mongooses and fossa, Malagasy rats
and vanga shrikes in Madagascar and Kiwis, tustara, New Zealand frogs etc. in New Zealand are
some of the important animals of such so called isolated islands.

World Distribution of Plants

There is a wide range of variations in the distribution of vegetation on the globe.

There is a zonal pattern of vegetation from equator towards the poles and from seal level to
vegetation level on the high mountains.

The distribution of plants is affected and controlled by a variety of factors e.g.:

(a) Climatic factors (sunlight, temperature, moisture and humidity, precipitation, soil-moisture
etc.);
(b) Edaphic factors (soil nutrients, soil texture, soil structure, acidity and alkalinity, nature and
properties of soil profiles etc.);
(c) Biotic factors (effects of living organisms mainly animals and man of a particular habitat on
plants, interactions between different plant species and between plants and animals like
natural selection, competition, mutualism, parasitism etc.);
(d) Physical factors (reliefs and topography, slope angle, gradient and slope aspect, etc.);
(e) Tectonic factors (continental displacement and drift, plate movements, endogenetic forces
and movements, vulcanicity and seismic events etc.);

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

39
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

(f) Fire factor (forest fire-natural forest fire through lightning, man-induced forest fire-both
intentional and accidental;
(g) Dispersion of plants, and
(h) Human interferences.

Distribution of plants may be attempted in a variety of ways viz.:

(i) On the basis of habitats as the distribution of terrestrial and aquatic plants,
(ii) On the basis of floral divisions,
(iii)On the basis of latitudinal and altitudinal extents, and
(iv) On the basis of characteristic features of plant communities etc.

The land plant species of the world are grouped into 6 major floristic kingdoms on the basis of
their worldwide distribution as given below:

(1) Australian Kingdom:

This floristic kingdom includes the plants of whole Australia which is characterized
by typical plant species e.g., eucalyptus. The different species of this unique genus of eucalyptus are
so dominant in Australia that they represent 75 percent of all Australian plants. There are over 600
species of eucalyptus which greatly vary as regards their general characteristics as they range from
tall, giant and shady eucalyptus trees to dwarf and stunted desert eucalyptus trees. Eucalyptus is said
to be related to mimosa which is still found in South America (only a few species).

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

40
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

Eucalyptus has been dispersed and distributed by man (deliberately) from Australia to
almost every continent. One can see extensive plantation of eucalyptus in India particularly along the
rail and road sides and it is being expanded rapidly by deliberate actions of man in all parts of the
country irrespective of environmental requirements and suitability of this unique exotic plant. The
typical endemic floras of Australia having unique characteristics have developed due to its isolation
from other continents of the southern hemisphere because of continental drift.

(2) Cape Kingdom:

The floral kingdom has developed in the southern tip of Africa wherein the plants
having bulbs and tubers have developed and these represent the typical plant species of this floral
kingdom. The plants of this kingdom belong to the category of cryptophytes which bear buds in the
form of bulbs and tubers which are buried in the soils. These bulbs and tubers give birth to other
plants as new shoots come out from these bulbs and tubers and are developed as plants.

These plants represent most plants of the gradient such as garden flowering plants
(e.g., Loplia, Kniphogia, Erica Freesia etc.). The dispersal of these garden plants became possible
when South Africa was colonized by Europeans who distributed these garden flowering plants from
South Africa to the gardens of other parts of the world.

There is gradual decrease in the number and area of these garden flowering plants in
their own native areas (southern part of South Africa) because their areas are continuously being
replaced by agricultural lands. The untouched areas still have sclerophyllous shrubs which attain the
height of a few meters. There is undergrowth of herbaceous shrubs in the sclerophyllous shrubs. It
may be remembered that the native vegetation of this region before the European colonization
consisted of temperate evergreen forests which were extensively cleared off by the Europeans for
agricultural proposes and thus the sclerophyllous shrubs developed in this region at later date as
secondary succession of vegetation.

(3) Antarctic Kingdom:

This kingdom includes a narrow strip in the north of Antarctica which runs from
Patagonia and southern Chile of South America to New Zealand. The most important representative
plant of this zone is Nothofagus which is also known as Southern Beech. About 100 million years
ago temperate grasses developed as the native vegetation of this region (New Zealand).

The most outstanding and typical species of the grasses were Tussock Grasses though
a few species of Sedges (plants which grow in water) and dicotyledon shrubs were also developed
but these original native vegetation have undergone massive modification and transformation since
the colonization of New Zealand by the Europeans.

Thus, the present-day vegetation of New Zealand is of modified type which is still
characterized by two types of tussock grasses viz.:

(i) Short Tussock Grasslands have two main species e.g., festuca and poa. The average height of
these grasses is upto 0.5 m and the colour is yellow-grey,
(ii) Tall Tussock Grasslands have the main species of Chiomechloa.

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

41
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

Warm temperate areas of New Zealand are characterized by the dominance of the
forest of gymnosperms and angiosperms trees. The main species of the coniferous family of
gymnosperms are Podcarpaceae, Cupressaceae and Araucariaceae whereas flowering plants are
included in Angiosperms of which Nothofagus is the most important plant.

The sub-tropical forests of New Zealand are of evergreen type which is characterized
by dense cover of tall trees having different vertical strata of other plants. The original vegetation of
New Zealand has been greatly modified and destroyed by human activities and the mammals (mainly
grazing red deers and rabbits) brought by them from Europe. This has led to the destabilization of
vegetation community at large scale.

(4) Palaeotropical Kingdom:

This kingdom includes most of Africa, South West Asia, South Asia, South East Asia and southern
and middle portions of China. This floral kingdom is further divided into 3 sub-kingdoms e.g.:

(i) African sub-kingdom,

(ii) Indo-Malaysian sub-kingdom, and
(iii)Polynesian sub-kingdom.

This floral kingdom is also divided into several floral provinces or regions (fig.) e.g.,
West African rainforest region, Madagascar region, Iran-Turanian region, East Asian region, etc.
There is great variation in plant species from one region to another region but few plants are
common to all sub- kingdoms and regions.

(5) Neotropical Kingdom:

This region includes the whole of South America except southern Chile and
Patagonia. A few genera are common to this kingdom and palaeotropical kingdom mainly Africa
because the original flowering plants were developed in South America and Africa during
Cretaceous period when all members of Gondwanaland were united together. Later on the spreading
of Atlantic sea-floor, disruption of Gondwanaland and westward drift of South America from Africa
became responsible for the origin and development of new species at regional level and therefore
variations in the plant species of South America and Africa were introduced.

(6) Boreal Kingdom:

This floral kingdom includes the whole of North America except Middle America,
Greenland, entire Europe, northern Asia and Arctic region. This is the most extensive kingdom of all
the floral kingdoms. This is again divided into several sub-kingdoms and regions or provinces e.g.
Rocky Mountainous Region (RMR); Atlantic – North American Region (ANAR, fig.); Arctic and
Sub-Arctic Region (ASAR); Europe-Siberian Region (ESR); Mediterranean Region (MR) etc.

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

42
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

Wild Life
Wildlife traditionally refers to undomesticated animal species, but has come to
include all plants, fungi, and other organisms that grow or live wild in an area without
being introduced by humans. Wildlife can be found in all ecosystems. Deserts, forests, rain
forests, plains, grasslands and other areas including the most developed urban areas, all have distinct
forms of wildlife. While the term in popular culture usually refers to animals that are untouched by
human factors, most scientists agree that much wildlife is affected by human activities.

Biologists estimate there are between 5 and 15 million species of plants, animals, and
micro-organisms existing on Earth today, of which only about 1.5 million have been described and
named. The estimated total includes around 300,000 plant species, between 4 and 8 million insects,
and about 50,000 vertebrate species (of which about 10,000 are birds and 4,000 are mammals).

Problems of Wild Life

Today, about 23% (1,130 species) of mammals and 12% (1,194 species) of birds are
considered as threatened by IUCN.

According to various surveys and reports, our planet has lost more than 58% of its
wildlife since 1970 and is experiencing the sixth mass extinction. The 2016 Living Planet Report
reveals the troubling extent of this and other environmental crises around the world, but it also sheds
light on the ways we can still protect and rehabilitate what's left. An index compiled with data from
the Zoological Society of London to measure the abundance of biodiversity was down 58 per cent
from 1970 to 2012 and would fall 67 per cent by 2020 on current trends, the WWF said in a report.

In 1972, The Wildlife Conservation Act was passed by the Government of India. In
1980, The World Conservation Strategy was developed by the ―International Union for Conservation
of Nature and Natural Resources‖ (IUCN) with assistance from The United Nations Environment
Program and the World Wildlife Fund and in collaboration with the Food and Agriculture
Organization of UN and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO).

Global biodiversity is being lost much faster than natural extinction due to changes in
land use, unsustainable use of natural resources, invasive alien species, climate change and pollution
among others. Land conversion by humans, resulting in natural habitat loss, is most evident in
tropical forests and is less intensive in temperate, boreal and arctic regions. Pollution from
atmospheric nitrogen deposition is most severe in northern temperate areas close to urban centres;
and the introduction of damaging alien species is usually brought about through patterns of human
activity.

Species loss is also compounded by:

 the ongoing growth of human populations and unsustainable consumer lifestyles

 increasing production of waste and pollutants
 urban development
 International conflict.

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

43
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

Fewer natural wildlife habitat areas remain each year. Moreover, the habitat that
remains has often been degraded to bear little resemblance to the wild areas which existed in the
past. Habitat loss due to destruction, fragmentation and degradation of habitat is the primary threat to
the survival of wildlife.

 Climate Change: Global warming is making hot days hotter, rainfall and flooding
heavier, hurricanes stronger and droughts more severe. This intensification of weather
and climate extremes will be the most visible impact of global warming in our everyday lives.
It is also causing dangerous changes to the landscape of our world, adding stress to wildlife
species and their habitat. Since many types of plants and animals have specific habitat
requirements, climate change could cause disastrous loss of wildlife species. A slight drop or
rise in average rainfall will translate into large seasonal
changes. Hibernating mammals, reptiles, amphibians and insects are harmed and disturbed.
Plants and wildlife are sensitive to moisture change so, they will be harmed by any change in
moisture level. Natural phenomena like floods, earthquakes, volcanoes, lightning and forest
fires also affect wildlife.

 Unregulated Hunting and poaching: Unregulated hunting and poaching causes a major
threat to wildlife. Along with this, mismanagement of forest department and forest guards
triggers this problem.

 Pollution: Pollutants released into the environment are ingested by a wide variety of
organisms. Pesticides and toxic chemical being widely used, making the environment toxic to
certain plants, insects, and rodents.

 Over exploitation: Over exploitation is the over use of wildlife and plant species by people
for food, clothing, pets, medicine, sport and many other purposes. People have always
depended on wildlife and plants for food, clothing, medicine, shelter and many other needs.
More resources are being consumed than the natural world can supply. The danger is that if
too many individuals of a species are taken from their natural environment, the species may
no longer be able to survive. The loss of one species can affect many other species in an
ecosystem. The hunting, trapping, collecting and fishing of wildlife at unsustainable levels is
not something new. The passenger pigeon was hunted to extinction, early in the last century,
and over-hunting nearly caused the extinction of the American bison and several species of
whales.

 Deforestation: Humans are continually expanding and developing, leading to an invasion of

wildlife habitats. As humans continue to grow, they clear forested land to create more space.
This stresses wildlife populations as there are fewer homes and food sources for wildlife to
survive.

 Population: The increasing population of human beings is the major threat to wildlife. More
people on the globe means more consumption of food, water and fuel, therefore more waste
is generated. Major threats to wildlife are directly related to increasing population of human
beings. Low population of humans results in less disturbance to wildlife.

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

44
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

Wild Life Conservation

Wildlife conservation is the practice of protecting wild plant and animal species and
their habitat. Wildlife plays an important role in balancing the ecosystem and provides stability to
different natural processes of nature. The goal of wildlife conservation is to ensure that nature will be
around for future generations to enjoy and also to recognize the importance of wildlife
and wilderness for humans and other species alike. Many nations have government agencies and
NGO's dedicated to wildlife conservation, which help to implement policies designed to protect
wildlife. Numerous independent non-profit organizations also promote various wildlife conservation
causes.

Wildlife conservation has become an increasingly important practice due to the

negative effects of human activity on wildlife. An endangered species is defined as a population of a
living species that is in the danger of becoming extinct because the species has a very low or falling
population, or because they are threatened by the varying environmental or prepositional parameters.

In 1972, the Government of India enacted a law called the Wild Life (Protection) Act.
In America, the Endangered Species Act of 1973 protects some U.S. species that were in danger
from over exploitation, and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna
and Flora (CITES) works to prevent the global trade of wildlife, but there are many species that are
not protected from being illegally traded or being over-harvested.

The World Conservation Strategy was developed in 1980 by the International Union
for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) with advice, cooperation and financial
assistance of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Wildlife Fund and
in collaboration with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)" The strategy aims to
"provide an intellectual framework and practical guidance for conservation actions." This thorough
guidebook covers everything from the intended "users" of the strategy to its very priorities. It even
includes a map section containing areas that have large seafood consumption and are therefore
endangered by over fishing.

Why do we need to protect wildlife?

The theme of 2016 World Environment Day was zero tolerance to poaching of
wildlife. For many people, showing concern for wildlife is redundant in view of the large number of
people living below the poverty line in India.

In a deeper analysis, it will appear that protecting wildlife is vital for the present as
well as future generations. Life in the wild promotes biological diversity, which in turn, provides
materials for food, clothing, medicines, papers, beverages and spices for daily use.

From the days of the hunter-gatherer—when hunting animals and gathering fruits,
tubers and herbs sustained humans—till the present time, human society, without even being aware
of it, always depended on nature.

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

45
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

Science helped us to understand the extent of diversity in the wild, study life cycles, domesticate
wild species and breed, cultivate and trade them. Technology helped us add value and extract
maximum profit from the use of natural resources.

Recognising biodiversity

Biodiversity was finally recognised as the sovereign right of every country in June
1992 at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Earth Summit, in Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil. Till then it was an open-access free resource, largely taken from technologically-poor
south to the tech-savvy northern countries.

India had a gross domestic product of 25 even in the 16th century only through trading
products of living natural resources such as silk, cotton, spices, indigo and so on. The Convention on
Biological Diversity signed by more than 190 countries till date for the first time not only announced
the sovereign right of each country on biodiversity, but also made it clear that the provider country
must get for giving access to the resources from the receiver country.

In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife (Protection) Act, but it only provides
different levels of legal protection to scheduled species—at different levels from schedule 1 to 5.
While Schedule 6 enlisted very few plant species or group of plants like Orchidaceae, it failed
miserably to protect other endangered plant species. The Botanical Survey of India has published
four volumes of Red Data Book on Indian plants, but the Act failed to take advantage of that.

Trading in wildlife

Because of its value, wildlife is poached illegally and some the species have been
brought under the network of the Act. Ivory, tiger skin and bones, leopard skin, rhino, otter skin and
products made out of hair from wild animals (such as paint brush from mongoose hair) are the most
illegally traded wildlife.

TRAFFIC India, the wildlife trade monitoring network and the WWF are helping
track down illegal wildlife trade. The customs department is responsible for intercepting any
consignment containing illegal wildlife trade products.

India‘s porous border with Nepal, Myanmar and Bangladesh is often used to transport
such products. India has more than 600 Protected Areas (PA) to conserve wildlife. Most of the
poaching occurs within the PAs—at one point the Panna Tiger Reserve had no tiger, all being
poached.

The highest numbers of rhinos are poached within the sanctuaries. The major reason
is inadequate infrastructure, lack of noctavision binoculars, lack of sniffer dogs and lack of modern
firearms and vehicles to apprehend the poachers. Poachers are often better equipped and alert.

India has set up 47 tiger reserves. A study for six tiger reserves to provide qualitative
and quantitative estimates for as many as 25 ecosystem services were made by the Centre for
Ecological Services Management and the Indian Institute of Forest Management, Bhopal. The study

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

46
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

indicates monetary value of benefits from selected services range from Rs 8.3 to Rs 17.6 billion
rupees annually.

―In terms of unit area this translates into Rs 50,000 to Rs 1, 90,000 per hectare per
year. In addition, selected tiger reserves protect and conserve stock valued in the range of Rs 22 to
Rs 650 billion.‖ (Verma, 2015) The data from the Sundarbans Tiger Reserve in West Bengal is worth
quoting.

―Sundarbans forms the largest contiguous track of mangrove forest found anywhere in
the world and is the only mangrove forest inhabited by tigers. It is estimated that the Sundarbans
Tiger Reserve provides flow benefits worth Rs 12.8 billion (Rs 0.50 lakh/hectare) annually.
Important ecosystem services originating from STR include nursery function (Rs 5.17 billion year-
1), genepool protection (Rs 2.87 billion year-1), provisioning of fish (Rs 1.6 billion year-1) and
waste assimilation services (Rs 1.5 billion year-1). Other important services emanating from
Sundarbans include generation of employment for local communities (Rs 36 million year-1),
moderation of cyclonic storms (Rs 275 million year-1), provision of habitat and refugia for wildlife
(Rs 360 million year-1) and sequestration of carbon (Rs 462 million year-1).‖

So, from one unique conservation area more than Rs. 60,000 crore worth of benefit is
derived. Ultimately, it is the human society that benefits from wildlife.

Article source: https://www.downtoearth.org.in/blog/wildlife-biodiversity/why-there-is-a-need-to-protect-wildlife--54326

Major Gene Pool Centers

A large gene pool indicates extensive genetic diversity, which is associated with
robust populations that can survive bouts of intense selection. Meanwhile, low genetic diversity can
cause reduced biological fitness and an increased chance of extinction.

The centre of origin is a geographical area where a group of organisms, either

domesticated or wild, first developed its distinctive properties. Many authorities believe centre of
origin are also centres of diversity. But at the same time many scientists argue that it is almost
impossible to assemble meaningful information on the origin and evolution of certain crops as the
evidence dims and fades away with each passing year. The first person to pose the question of the
geographic origin of cultivated plants was Alphonse de Candolle. Based on the evolutionary
concepts of Darwin and taking the findings of Candolle as points of departure, the Russian scientist
Nicolay Ivanovich Vavilov developed his hypotheses on the centres of origin of cultivated plants in
the early 1920s.

Vavilov Gene Pool Centres

Vavilov assumed that most of the main agricultural species could be traced back to
one particular region, which would be its centre of origin. Furthermore, he assumed that these
centres would be common for a range of crops, and that such regions could be universal centres of
origin and of type formation, i.e. genetic diversification.

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

47
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

One of Vavilov‘s first findings was that it was possible to distinguish between
primary and secondary groups of cultivated plants. The primary crops were the basic ancient
cultivated plants that were known to humanity only in their cultivated state (e.g. wheat, barley, rice,
soybeans, flax and cotton). The secondary crops comprised all the plants that were derived from
weeds that infested the primary crop fields, and were found to be useful on their own (e.g. rye, oats,
and false flax).

The region of maximum variation, usually including endemic types and

characteristics, could also be the centre of origin. The centres of origin would, as a rule, be
characterised by many endemic variable traits and could comprise characteristics of entire genera.
Within the centres of origin, Vavilov determined so-called foci of type formation of the most
important cultivated plants i.e. hearts of the centres with regard to genetic diversification and type
formation.

Whereas Vavilov‘s principles were strengthened throughout the period of empirical

investigations, the numbers and borders of the centres of origin of cultivated plants changed
continuously. In the end, he suggested the following centres of origin of cultivated plants.

For crop plants, Nikolai Vavilov identified differing numbers of centers: three in
1924, five in 1926, six in 1929, seven in 1931, eight in 1935 and reduced to seven again in 1940.

Vavilov centers of origin: (1) Mexico-Guatemala, (2) Peru-Ecuador-Bolivia, (2A) Southern Chile,
(2B) Paraguay-Southern Brazil, (3) Mediterranean, (4) Middle East, (5) Ethiopia, (6) Central Asia,
(7) Indo-Burma, (7A) Siam-Malaya-Java, (8) China and Korea

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

48
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

World centers of origin of cultivated plants

Center Plants
1) South Includes southern sections of Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras and Costa Rica.
Mexican  Grains and Legumes: maize, common bean, lima bean, tepary bean, jack
and Central bean, grain amaranth
American  Melon Plants: malabar gourd, winter pumpkin, chayote
Center  Fiber Plants: upland cotton, bourbon cotton, henequen (sisal)
 Miscellaneous: sweetpotato, arrowroot, pepper, papaya, guava, cashew, wild
black cherry, chochenial, cherry tomato, cacao.
2) South 62 plants listed; three subcenters
American 2) Peruvian, Ecuadorean, Bolivian Center:
Center  Root Tubers: Andean potato, other endemic cultivated potato species.
Fourteen or more species with chromosome numbers varying from 24 to 60,
Edible nasturtium
 Grains and Legumes: starchy maize, lima bean, common bean
 Root Tubers: edible canna, potato
 Vegetable Crops: pepino, tomato, ground cherry, pumpkin, pepper
 Fiber Plants: Egyptian cotton
 Fruit and Miscellaneous: cocoa, passion flower, guava, heilborn, quinine
tree, tobacco, cherimoya, coca
2A) Chiloe Center (Island near the coast of southern Chile)
 Common potato (48 chromosomes), Chilean strawberry
2B) Brazilian-Paraguayan Center
 manioc, peanut, rubber tree, pineapple, Brazil nut, cashew, Ervamate, purple
granadilla.
3) Includes the borders of the Mediterranean Sea. 84 listed plants
Mediterran  Cereals and Legumes: durum wheat, emmer, Polish wheat, spelt,
ean Center Mediterranean oats, sand oats, canarygrass, grass pea, pea, lupine
 Forage Plants: Egyptian clover, white clover, crimson clover, serradella
 Oil and Fiber Plants: flax, rape, black mustard, olive
 Vegetables: gardenbeet, cabbage, turnip, lettuce, asparagus, celery, chicory, pa
rsnip, rhubarb,
 EtherealOil and Spice Plants: caraway, anise, thyme, peppermint, sage, hop.
4) Middle Includes interior of Asia Minor, all of Transcaucasia, Iran, and the highlands
East of Turkmenistan. 83 species
 Grains and Legumes: einkorn wheat, durum wheat, poulard wheat, common
wheat, oriental wheat, Persian wheat, two-row barley, rye, Mediterranean oats,
common oats, lentil, lupine
 Forage Plants: alfalfa, Persian clover, fenugreek, vetch, hairy vetch
 Fruits: fig, pomegranate, apple, pear, quince, cherry, hawthorn.
5) Ethiopia Includes Abyssinia, Eritrea, and part of Somaliland. 38 species listed; rich in wheat
and barley.
 Grains and Legumes: Abyssinian hard wheat, poulard wheat, emmer, Polish
wheat, barley, grain sorghum, pearl millet, African millet, cowpea, flax, teff
 Miscellaneous: sesame, castor bean, garden cress, coffee, okra, myrrh, indigo.
6) Central Includes Northwest India (Punjab, Northwest Frontier Provinces and
Asiatic Kashmir), Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, and western Tian-Shan. 43 plants
Center  Grains and Legumes: common wheat, club wheat, shot

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

49
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

wheat, peas, lentil, horse bean, chickpea, mung bean, mustard, flax, sesame
 Fiber Plants: hemp, cotton
 Vegetables: onion, garlic, spinach, carrot
 Fruits: pistacio, pear, almond, grape, apple.
7) Indian Two subcenters
Center 7) Indo-Burma: Main Center (India): Includes Assam, Bangladesh and Burma, but not
Northwest India, Punjab, nor Northwest Frontier Provinces, 117 plants
 Cereals and Legumes: chickpea, pigeon pea, urd bean, mung bean, rice
bean, cowpea,
 Vegetables and Tubers: eggplant, cucumber, radish, taro, yam
 Fruits: mango, orange, tangerine, citron, tamarind
 Sugar, Oil, and Fiber Plants: sugar cane, coconut palm, sesame, safflower, tree
cotton, oriental cotton, jute, crotalaria, kenaf
 Spices, Stimulants, Dyes, and Miscellaneous: hemp, black pepper, gum
arabic, sandalwood, indigo, cinnamon tree, croton, bamboo.
7A) Siam-Malaya-Java: Indo-Malayan Center: Includes Indo-China and the Malay
Archipelago, 55 plants
 Cereals and Legumes: Job's tears, velvet bean
 Fruits: pummelo, banana, breadfruit, mangosteen
 Oil, Sugar, Spice, and Fiber Plants: candlenut, coconut
palm, sugarcane, clove, nutmeg, black pepper, manila hemp.
8) Chinese A total of 136 endemic plants are listed in the largest independent center
[9]
Center  Cereals and Legumes: e.g. rice broomcorn millet, Italian millet, Japanese
barnyard millet, sorghum, buckwheat, hull-less barley, soybean, Adzuki
bean, velvet bean
 Roots, Tubers, and Vegetables: e.g. Chinese yam, radish, Chinese
cabbage, onion, cucumber
 Fruits and Nuts: e.g. pear, Chinese apple, peach, apricot, cherry, walnut, litchi
 Sugar, Drug, and Fiber Plants: e.g. Sugar, opium poppy, ginseng
camphor, hemp.

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

50
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

51