1.

ELECTRIC CURRENT (I) :

The rate of flow of electric charge across any cross-section is called electric current.
dq
(a) Instantaneous electric current I
dt
q
(b) Average electric current Iav
t
2. CURRENT DENSITY (J) :
Current flowing per unit area through any cross-section is called current density.

®
I A

I
J I J.A JAcos
A
3. DRIFT VELOCITY (Vd) :
Average velocity with which electrons drift from low potential end to high potential end of the
e
conductor (vd). Drift velocity is given by vd E (in terms of applied electric field)
m
I
vd (in terms of current through the conductor)
neA

I neAvd where A is the area of cross-section and “Avd” represents the rate of flow.

vd vd e
Mobility : The term is called mobility of charge carriers, represented by .
E E m
SI unit of mobility = m2/Vs
4. OHM’S LAW :
V 1
I where R
R A A
1
where (resistivity) =
(conductivity)

Hence according to Ohm’s law when R is constant I V I – V curve is a straight line

(at constant temperature).

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 Resistance of a conductor is given by
m
R
A ne2 A
where is resistivity. Its unit is -m.
m
Resistivity of a conductor, (where m is mass of electron, n is number density of free
ne 2
electrons, is average relaxation time).
5. TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF RESISTANCE AND RESISTIVITY :
(i) For conductor
For conductor, resistance and resistivity increases with increase in the temperature.
= 0(1+ t), where ‘ ’ is temperature coefficient of resistivity.

®
t

As R R = R0(1 + t)
(R0 is the resistance at reference temperature)
At temperature t1, R1 = R0 (1 + t1)
At temperature t2, R2 = R0 (1 + t2)
R 2 R1
R 0 (t 2 t 1 ) O For nichrome wire T

(for copper wire)

(ii) For Semiconductor

(for a typical semiconductor)

For Semiconductors resistance and resistivity decreases with increase in the temperature.
(iii) For Alloy
Alloys (like nicrome and manganin etc) exhibit a very weak dependence of resistivity with
temperature.

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6. ELECTRIC ENERGY & ELECTRIC POWER :
Electric Energy :
For a charge q, accelerated with potential V, the electric energy is expressed as qV or Vit.
When a current is passed through a resistor energy is consumed in over coming the resistance of
the wire. This energy is converted into heat (Heating effect of electric current).
V2
W = VIt = I2 Rt = t
R
SI unit = joule (J)
Commercial unit of electrical energy consumption :
1 unit of electrical energy
= kilowatt hour = 1 kWh = 3.6 × 106 joule or J

®
Electric power :
Power consumed by a resistor
V2
P = I2R = VI =
R
SI unit = watt (W)
7. CELL :
• EMF (E):The potential difference across the terminals of a cell when no current is drawn from it.
• Internal Resistance (r) : It is the opposition offered by the electrolyte to the flow of current
through it.
It depends on :
(i) Distance between electrodes. (ii) Surface area of electrodes in contact with electrolyte.
(iii) Temperature. (iv) Concentration of electrolytic solution.
Series grouping
E1 r1 E2 r2 E3 r3 n cells
+ – + – + –

R
(a) Eequivalent = E1 + E2 + E3 + ....... E n
(b) requivalent = r1 + r2 + r3 + ...... rn

Ei
(c) Current i
ri R
nE
(d) If all cells have equal emf E and equal internal resistance r then i
nr R

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Physics
Cases : E1 r1
E nE
(i) If nr >> R i (ii) If nr << R i E 2 r2
r R
Parallel Grouping E 3 r3

E1 E2 E3
......
r1 r2 r3
(a) E equivalent n cell
1 1 1 i
........
r1 r2 r3
1
(b) requivalent R
1 1 1
......
r1 r2 r3

®
(c) If all cells have equal emf. E and internal resistance r then Eequivalent = E

r E
requivalent current i
n r
n R

Mixed combination
Total number of identical cell in this circuit is nm. If n cells connected in a series and there are m
such branches in the circuit than the internal resistance of the cells connected in a row = nr
E r E r E r

E r E r E r

E r E r E r

1 1 1
Total internal resistance of the circuit ....upto m times
rnet nr nr
nr
( There are such m rows) rnet
m
Total e.m.f. of the circuit = total e.m.f. of the cells connected in a row Enet = nE

E net
nE
Current I nr
R rnet
R
m
Condition for maximum power transfer :

req Req

68 E
8. KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS :
(i) Junction Rule :
It is based on law of conservation of charge.

I I1

I2
I = I1+ I 2

(ii) Loop Rule :

For any closed loop, total rise in potential + total fall in potential = 0.

®
R
+V – iR = 0
i
V
It is based on law of conservation of energy.
9. WHEAT STONE'S BRIDGE :
P R
When current through the galvanometer is zero (balanced state) then .
Q S
C
P Q
A B
G
R S
D
E K

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