Brenda Milner

Brenda Milner (née Langford; born 15 July 1918) is

a British-Canadian neuropsychologist who has Brenda Milner
CC GOQ FRS FRSC
contributed extensively to the research literature on
various topics in the field of clinical
neuropsychology. [1][2] Milner is a professor in the
Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery at McGill
University and a professor of Psychology at the
Montreal Neurological Institute.[3] As of 2020, she
holds more than 25 honorary degrees and she
continued to work in her nineties.[2] Her current work
covers many aspects of neuropsychology including her
lifelong interest in the involvement of the temporal
lobes in episodic memory.[4] She is sometimes referred
to as the founder of neuropsychology[5][6] and has been
essential in its development. She received the Balzan
Prize for Cognitive Neuroscience in 2009, and the Milner at TEDxMcGill in 2011
Kavli Prize in Neuroscience, together with John Born Brenda Langford
O'Keefe, and Marcus E. Raichle, in 2014. She turned 15 July 1918
100 in July 2018[7] and at the time was still overseeing Manchester, England
the work of researchers.[8] Alma mater Newnham College, Cambridge
McGill University
Known for Study of memory and cognition;
Early life and education Work with patient H.M.
Spouse Peter Milner
Brenda Langford was born on 15 July 1918, in ​
​(m. 1944; died 2018)​
Manchester, England.[9][10] Her father Samuel
Langford was a musical critic, journalist, and teacher, Awards Companion of the Order of
and her mother (née Leslie Doig) was one of his Canada
students.[10] Though she was a daughter to two Karl Spencer Lashley Award
musically talented parents, she had no interest in (1979)
music.[10] She was tutored by her father in NAS Award in the
mathematics and the arts until the age of 8."[10] She Neurosciences (2004)
attended Withington Girls' School,[5] which led her to
Gairdner Award (2005)
attend Newnham College, Cambridge,[9] to study
Balzan Prize in Cognitive
mathematics, having received a scholarship in
Neuroscience (2009)
1936.[11] However, after realising she was not
"perceptive" enough for mathematics, Milner changed Kavli Prize in Neuroscience
her field of study to psychology.[9] In 1939, Milner (2014)

graduated with a B.A. degree in experimental Scientific career

psychology,[9] which at that time was considered a Fields Neuropsychology
moral science.[11]
One of her supervisors in the Department of Institutions McGill University, Montreal
Experimental Psychology, Cambridge was Oliver Neurological Institute
Zangwill and to him she owed her first interest in Thesis Intellectual effects of temporal-
human brain function,[9] and the value of studying lobe damage in man (http://www.
brain lesions.[12] worldcat.org/oclc/89139862
6) (1952)
After her graduation near the time of World War II
Newnham College awarded her a Sarah Smithson Doctoral Donald Olding Hebb

Research Studentship, which allowed her to attend advisor

Newnham for the following two years.[9] As a result of Doctoral Suzanne Corkin
World War II, the work of the Cambridge students Ingrid Johnsrude
Psychological Laboratory, under Bartlett's leadership, Doreen Kimura
was diverted almost overnight to applied research in
the selection of aircrew.[9] Milner's position was to
devise perceptual tasks for future use in selecting aircrew. More specifically, she was on a team interested
in distinguishing fighter pilots from bomber pilots using aptitude tests.[6][9][12] "Later in the war, from
1941 to 1944, she worked in Malvern as an Experimental Officer for the Ministry of Supply, investigating
different methods of display and control to be used by radar operators."[5][9]

In 1941 Brenda met her husband, Peter Milner.[13] Both Brenda and her husband were working on radar
research. He was an electrical engineer who had also been recruited for the war effort.[13] In 1944, they
married and left for Canada where Peter had been invited to work with physicists on atomic
research.[9][13] They travelled to Boston on the ship the Queen Elizabeth together with "war brides" who
were travelling to the United States to live with their husbands' families during the war. Upon arrival in
Canada, she began teaching psychology at the University of Montreal, where she stayed for 7 years.

In 1949, Brenda Milner graduated with a M.A. in experimental psychology in Cambridge.[14] In

Montreal, she became a Ph.D. candidate in physiological psychology at McGill University, under the
direction of Donald Olding Hebb.[13][15] While working on her Ph.D., Milner and Hebb presented
research on their patient P.B. who had undergone a medial temporal lobectomy and had subsequent
memory impairment. This garnered the attention of Wilder Penfield. In 1950, Hebb gave Milner an
opportunity to study with him at the Montreal Neurological Institute.[9][13] Under the supervision of
Penfield, she studied the behaviour of young adult epileptic patients treated with elective focal ablation of
brain tissue to treat uncontrolled seizures.[5][15] In 1952, Milner earned her Ph.D. in experimental
psychology[16] with a thesis on the cognitive effects of temporal lobe damage in man.[17] Milner has been
awarded a large number of honorary degrees including an honorary Sc.D from the University of
Cambridge in 2000.[18]

Professional career
In 1954, Milner published an article in the McGill University Psychological Bulletin entitled 'Intellectual
Function of the Temporal Lobes'.[19] In this publication, she presented data that showed that temporal
lobe damage can cause emotional and intellectual changes in humans and lower primates.[20] Her review
of neuroscience studies conducted in animals discouraged many neurosurgeons from completing
surgeries on humans that could negatively impact their lives.[5] "Milner's early work on the temporal
lobes was influenced by the results of ablation work with lower primates, and particularly by Mishkin and
Pribram's discovery of the role of the inferotemporal neocortex in visual discrimination learning."[15]

Milner was a pioneer in the field of neuropsychology and in the study of memory and other cognitive
functions in humankind. She was invited to Hartford to study Henry Molaison, formerly known as patient
H.M., who became the most famous patient in cognitive neuroscience. He "had undergone a bilateral
temporal lobectomy that included removal of major portions of the hippocampus."[21] She studied the
effects of this damage to the medial temporal lobe on memory and systematically described the cognitive
deficits exhibited by H.M.

In the early stages of her work with H.M., Milner wanted to completely understand his memory
impairments. Milner showed that the medial temporal lobe amnestic syndrome is characterised by an
inability to acquire new memories and an inability to recall established memories from a few years
immediately before damage, while memories from the more remote past and other cognitive abilities,
including language, perception and reasoning were intact.[22] For example, Milner spent three days with
H.M. as he learned a new perceptual-motor task in order to determine what type of learning and memory
were intact in him. This task involved reproducing the drawing of a star by looking at it in a mirror.[21]
His performance improved over those three days. However, he subsequently retained absolutely no
memory of any events that took place during those three days.[21] This led Milner to speculate that there
are different types of learning and memory, each dependent on a separate system of the brain .[23] She
was able to demonstrate two different memory systems - episodic memory and procedural memory.[24]

Milner discovered from H.M. and other case studies that "bilateral medial temporal-lobe resection in man
results in a persistent impairment of recent memory whenever the removal is carried far enough
posteriorly to damage portions of the anterior hippocampus and hippocampal gyrus."[25] She showed that
in patients with this syndrome the ability to learn certain motor skills remained normal.[25] This finding
introduced the concept of multiple memory systems within the brain and stimulated an enormous body of
research. Milner stated in an interview with the McGill Journal of Medicine, "To see that H.M. had
learned the task perfectly but with absolutely no awareness that he had done it before was an amazing
dissociation. If you want to know what was an exciting moment of my life, that was one."[23]

She has made major contributions to the understanding of the role of the frontal lobes in memory
processing, in the area of organizing information. "Dr. Milner's seminal research has provided many
landmark discoveries in the study of human memory and the brain's temporal lobes, which play a key role
in emotional responses, hearing, memory and speech."[25]

She demonstrated the critical role of the dorsolateral frontal cortex for the temporal organization of
memory and her work showed that there is partial separability of the neural circuits subserving
recognition memory from those mediating memory for temporal order. She described the inflexibility in
problem solving that is now widely recognized as a common consequence of frontal-lobe injury. These
refinements in the understanding of memory and exposition of the relevant brain regions revealed the
anatomically diffuse nature of complex cognitive functions in the brain.

Milner helped describe the lateralization of function in the human brain and has shown how the neural
substrate of language in the cerebral hemispheres can vary in left-handed, right-handed and ambidextrous
individuals (see handedness). She used the Wada test to show that for any handedness, the left
hemisphere is dominant for language in most people.[26] These studies of the relationship between hand
preference and speech lateralization led to an understanding of the effects of early unilateral brain lesions
on the pattern of cerebral organization at maturity. Her studies were among the first to demonstrate
convincingly that damage to the brain can lead to dramatic functional reorganization.

Using mostly prize money from her numerous awards, Milner donated 1 million dollars to the Montreal
Neurological Institute in 2007, after establishing a foundation in her name.[8]

Recent research
In more recent times, Milner has expanded her research to the
study of brain activity in normal subjects using functional
magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and positron emission
tomography (PET).[24] These studies focus on the identification of
brain regions associated with spatial memory and language,
including the neural substrates of monolingual and bilingual
speech processing.[24] In another series of PET studies, she has
sought to delineate further the role of the right hippocampal region
in memory for the spatial location of objects.[27]

Milner continued teaching and researching past her 100th

birthday.[28][29][30] She is the Dorothy J. Killam Professor at the
Montreal Neurological Institute, and a professor in the Department
of Neurology and Neurosurgery at McGill University.[24] One of
Milner's current collaborators is Denise Klein, an assistant Brenda Milner in 2014
professor in the Neurology/Cognitive Neuroscience unit at
McGill.[31] Their research on bilingualism entails investigating the
difference in neural pathways used to acquire new and native languages.[31]

In 2018, Milner celebrated her 100th birthday in Montreal with about 30 friends, including fellow
researcher Denise Klein.[28][32] Although she never expected to reach this age, Milner stated that she has
"every intention of continuing for many more birthdays."[28] The Montreal Neurological Institute held a
symposium in September 2018, celebrating her accomplishments.[33] That same year, Milner participated
in a video series, launched by the Montreal Neurological Institute, dedicated to promoting female
scientists and researchers.[34][33][35] During the interview, Milner spoke about her early life and gave an
overview of her career.[35]

Awards and honours

Milner has received numerous awards for her contributions to neuroscience and psychology including
memberships in the Royal Society of London, the Royal Society of Canada and the National Academy of
Sciences.[5][24] In total, she has been awarded honorary degrees from more than 20 different universities
across Canada, Europe, and the United States.[36]
Early on, Milner was awarded a Sarah Smithson Research Studentship by Newnham College, Cambridge
after her graduation, which allowed her to continue her work at Newnham College.[9] In 1984 Milner was
made an Officer of the Order of Canada and was promoted to Companion in 2004. In 1987, she was
awarded the Ralph W. Gerard Prize in Neuroscience. She was also awarded the National Academy of
Sciences Award in the Neurosciences in 2004 for her seminal investigations of the role of the temporal
lobes and other brain regions in learning, memory, and language.[37] In 1985, she was made an Officer of
the National Order of Quebec and was promoted to Grand Officer in 2009.[15] She was elected a Foreign
Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2007.[38] She was awarded the
Balzan Prize for her contributions to Cognitive Neurosciences in a ceremony held in the Swiss Parliament
in December 2009.[3]

Milner was awarded the Kavli Prize in Neuroscience in 2014.[5] Other awards and recognition include:
Election to the National Academy of Sciences (1976), the Metlife Foundation Award for Medical
Research in Alzheimer's Disease (1996), election to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (2005),
the Dan David Prize (2014), the Prix Hommage du 50e anniversaire from the Ordre des psychologues du
Québec (2014), induction into the Canadian Science and Engineering Hall of Fame (2012), recipient of a
medal of honour from the National Assembly of Quebec (2018),[28] Pearl Meister Greengard Prize
(2011), the Norman A. Anderson Lifetime Achievement Award (2010), the Goldman-Rakic Prize for
Outstanding Achievement in Cognitive Neuroscience by NARSAD (2009), the NSERC Medal of
Excellence (2009 and 2010), the Gairdner Foundation International Award (2005), the Prix Wilder-
Penfield (Prix du Québec) (1993), and election as a Fellow of the Royal Society of London, and Fellow
of the Royal Society of Canada.

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External links
Order of Canada citation (http://archive.gg.ca/honours/search-recherche/honours-desc.asp?
lang=e&TypeID=orc&id=1179)
Great Canadian Psychology Website – Brenda Milner Biography (http://www.psych.ualberta.
ca/~gcpws/Milner/Milner.html)
Interview on Futures in Biotech (2008) (http://www.twit.tv/fib33)
"Still Charting Memory's Depths – A Conversation with Brenda Milner" (https://www.nytimes.
com/2013/05/21/science/still-charting-memorys-depths.html), The New York Times (2013)

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