Introduction

The Wheatstone bridge is a fundamental electrical circuit invented by Samuel

Hunter Christie in 1833 and later popularized by Sir Charles Wheatstone in
1843. It is widely used to measure an unknown electrical resistance by
balancing two legs of a bridge circuit. This device is an essential tool in both
theoretical and practical aspects of electrical engineering and physics.

The bridge circuit consists of four resistors connected in the shape of a

diamond. Two of these resistors are known, one is a variable resistor, and the
fourth is the unknown resistor. A galvanometer is used to detect the current in
the bridge, and a source of electromotive force (EMF) is applied across the
circuit.

The working principle of the Wheatstone bridge is based on the concept of null
deflection, which means that when the bridge is balanced, the potential
difference between the two midpoints of the circuit becomes zero, and no
current flows through the galvanometer. Under this condition, the ratio of the
two known resistances is equal to the ratio of the unknown resistance and the
variable resistance.

Mathematically, for a balanced bridge:

R1 = Rx
R2 R3

Where:

 R1and R2 are the known resistances.

 R3 is the variable resistor.
 Rx is the unknown resistance.
The Wheatstone bridge is known for its high precision in resistance
measurement and forms the basis of many advanced measuring instruments. It
has applications in various fields, including electrical instrumentation, strain
gauge measurement, and sensor technology.

This experiment demonstrates the principles of electrical resistance, potential

difference, and the importance of precise instrumentation in science and
engineering. It also highlights the practical implementation of Ohm's Law and
the principles of electrical circuits.
 Components of a Wheatstone Bridge
The Wheatstone Bridge is a simple yet highly effective circuit used to measure
an unknown resistance. Its functionality depends on the interplay between the
following key components:

1. Four Resistors
The bridge circuit comprises four resistors arranged in a diamond shape:

 Known Resistors (R1 and R2):

These are resistors with accurately known values. They provide a
reference for calculating the unknown resistance.
 Variable Resistor (R3):
This resistor can be adjusted to balance the bridge. Its value is varied until
the current through the galvanometer becomes zero.
 Unknown Resistor (Rx):
This is the resistance that needs to be measured. The value of Rx is
determined when the bridge is balanced using the formula:

Rx = R1 . R3
R2

2. Galvanometer

 A galvanometer is a sensitive instrument used to detect small currents.

 It is connected between the midpoints of the two branches of the bridge
(between the junctions of R1, R2 and Rx, R3)
 When the bridge is balanced, the potential difference across the
galvanometer is zero, and no current flows through it. This null deflection
indicates that the ratios of the resistances are equal.

3. Power Source
 A DC power source, such as a battery or a cell, is connected across the
bridge between the other two corners.
 It provides the necessary potential difference to drive the current through the
circuit.

4. Connecting Wires
 High-conductivity wires are used to connect the resistors, power source,
and galvanometer.
 These wires ensure minimal resistance and accurate measurements.

5. Switch
 A switch is often included in the circuit to control the flow of current.
 The switch prevents the battery from draining when the bridge is not in
use.
Functionality of Each Component

 Resistors (R1, R2, R3, and Rx): The resistors form the two voltage
dividers of the bridge. Their values determine the voltage at the midpoints
of each branch.
 Galvanometer: The galvanometer plays a crucial role in detecting
whether the bridge is balanced. A deflection in the galvanometer
indicates an imbalance.
 Power Source: Provides the energy required to establish current flow in
the circuit.
 Connecting Wires and Switch: These ensure efficient operation and
safety during use.
 Circuit Construction for a Wheatstone
Bridge
The Wheatstone Bridge circuit is designed to measure an unknown resistance
by balancing two legs of a bridge circuit. Below is a step-by-step explanation of
how to construct the Wheatstone Bridge circuit:

1. Basic Layout
The Wheatstone Bridge consists of four resistors arranged in a diamond (or
rectangular) configuration. It has two diagonal elements:

 One diagonal is connected to the power source (voltage supply).

 The other diagonal is connected to the galvanometer, which measures
the current flow to detect balance.

2. Components Arrangement
The circuit is divided into two branches:

a) First Branch

 Known Resistor (R1):

A resistor of known value is placed on the upper-left corner of the bridge.
 Known Resistor (R2):
Another resistor of known value is placed on the lower-left corner.

b) Second Branch

 Unknown Resistor (Rx):

The resistance to be measured is connected on the lower-right corner of
the bridge.
 Variable Resistor (R3):
A resistor with an adjustable value is placed on the upper-right corner.
3. Galvanometer Connection
 The galvanometer is connected across the middle points of the two
branches (i.e., between the junction of R1 and R2, and the junction of Rx
and R3).
 The purpose of the galvanometer is to detect current flow when the bridge
is unbalanced. When the bridge is balanced, the potential difference
across its terminals becomes zero, and no current flows through it.

4. Power Supply Connection

 A DC power source, such as a battery or a regulated DC voltage source is
connected across the opposite corners of the bridge.
 One terminal is connected to the junction of R1 and Rx.
 The other terminal is connected to the junction of R2 and R3.
 This power source provides the potential difference required for the
circuit operation.

5. Circuit Diagram
Representation:

The circuit can be visualized as follows:

Here:

 [R1] and [R2]: Known

resistors.
 [Rx]: Unknown resistor.
 [R3]: Variable resistor.
 [Vs]: Voltage source.
 [G]: Galvanometer.
6. Working Principle and Connections
Balancing the Bridge:
The variable resistor (R3) is adjusted until the galvanometer shows no
deflection, indicating that the bridge is balanced. At this point:

R1 = Rx
R2 R3
The unknown resistance Rx can then be calculated using:

Rx = R1 . R3
R2

No Current Through the Galvanometer:

When the bridge is balanced, the potential difference across the galvanometer is
zero because the voltage drops across R1and R2 are proportional to those across
Rx and R3.

Key Points for Construction

1. Use high-quality resistors with minimal tolerance for accurate results.

2. Ensure the galvanometer is sensitive enough to detect small current
changes.
3. Use tight and secure connections to minimize errors due to contact
resistance.
4. Employ a stable DC power supply to avoid fluctuations.
5. If using a rheostat as the variable resistor (R3), ensure smooth adjustment
to balance the bridge precisely.

Practical Setup Tips

 Place all components on a breadboard or mount them on a panel for a

clean and organized setup.
 Use a multi-turn potentiometer or precision rheostat as the variable
resistor for fine control.
 Example Circuit

Let us consider the below circuit where the bridge is in an unbalanced condition
and we need to calculate the voltage difference between C and D i.e., Volt and
hence the value of R4 needed to make the bridge balanced.

R1 R2

100 Ω
50 Ω

100 V

40 Ω 50 Ω

R3
R4

Example of Wheatstone Bridge

As Per the Voltage Division Law
VC =(R3/(R3+R1))*Vs

Where Vs = 100 volts (voltage source)

Putting values of R3 = 40 ohms,

R1 = 50 ohms

Vs = 100 volts

We get VC = 44.4 volts

Similarly,VD = (R4/(R4+R2))Vs

Putting the values R4 = 50 ohms

R2 = 100 ohms

Vs = 100 volts

We get VD = 33.3 volts Thus, Volt can be found as,

Volt = VC – VD so,

Volt = 44.4 – 33.3 = 11.1 volts

Now to make the bridge balanced, we can find a suitable values for R4 as done
below:

R4 = R2 * (R3/R1)

Putting the values of R1, R2 and R3, we have

R4 = 100*(40/50)

= 80 volts

Therefore, R4 = 80 volts is the value of resistor which should be used to make

the bridge in the balanced condition.
 Applications of Wheatstone Bridge
Here are some applications of the Wheatstone Bridge:

1. Measurement of Unknown Resistance: The most common application of

the Wheatstone Bridge is to measure the value of an unknown resistance by
balancing the bridge with known resistances.
2. Calibration of Voltmeters and Ammeters: The Wheatstone Bridge is
used to calibrate other instruments like voltmeters and ammeters to ensure
their accuracy in readings.
3. Precision Measurement: It is used in precise measurements of resistances
in laboratory experiments, making it valuable in research settings.
4. Temperature Measurement (RTDs): Wheatstone Bridges are used in
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs), where the resistance of
materials changes with temperature, allowing precise temperature
measurement.
5. Strain Gauge Measurement: The Wheatstone Bridge is used in strain
gauges to measure the strain or deformation in materials by detecting small
changes in resistance.
6. Load Cells: In weighing scales and load cells, the Wheatstone Bridge
detects changes in resistance due to the deformation of a load cell when
force is applied.
7. Measurement of Specific Resistance: The Wheatstone Bridge can be used
to measure the specific resistance of a wire or a material by comparing it
with standard resistances.
8. Measurement of Resistivity: It helps determine the resistivity of materials
by measuring the resistance in the material and using the dimensions of the
sample.
9. Balance and Control Circuits in Electronics: It is used in various control
systems where a precise balancing circuit is needed, such as in operational
amplifiers.
10.Measuring Internal Resistance of Batteries: The Wheatstone Bridge is
used to measure the internal resistance of a battery, which is important for
understanding battery performance.
11.Force Measurement in Industrial Applications: It is used in industrial
applications for measuring force or pressure by detecting small changes in
the resistance of strain gauges.
12.Measurement of Resistance in Circuit Components: In electronic
circuits, the Wheatstone Bridge is used to check the resistance of
components like resistors, capacitors, and inductors.
13.Detection of Faults in Electrical Circuits: The Wheatstone Bridge is
employed in diagnostic tools for detecting faults or imbalances in
electrical circuits, ensuring proper functionality.

14.Detecting Small Changes in Material Properties: Used in material

science, the Wheatstone Bridge helps detect small changes in material
properties like stress, strain, or temperature.
15.Temperature Compensation in Sensors: In systems using sensors, the
Wheatstone Bridge is employed to compensate for temperature variations
that might affect the sensor's readings.

Limitations of Wheatstone Bridge

The Wheatstone Bridge is a widely used and highly effective tool for measuring
resistance, but it also has some limitations. Here are the key limitations:

1. Requires a Balanced Condition: The Wheatstone Bridge works

accurately only when the bridge is perfectly balanced. Achieving balance
in the bridge can be difficult, especially for very small resistances or
when the resistances are not precisely known.
2. Sensitivity to External Factors: The Wheatstone Bridge can be sensitive
to environmental factors like temperature changes, vibrations, and
electromagnetic interference, which can affect the accuracy of
measurements.
3. Limited Measurement Range: The Wheatstone Bridge is most accurate
for measuring resistances within a specific range. For very low or very
high resistances, the bridge may not be effective without special
modifications.
4. Power Supply Requirements: The Wheatstone Bridge requires a stable
and precise power supply to maintain accuracy. Fluctuations in the supply
voltage can lead to errors in measurements.
5. Not Suitable for Measuring High Voltages: Since the Wheatstone
Bridge typically works with low voltages to avoid heat generation and
damage to components, it is not suitable for measuring resistances in
circuits with high voltage.
6. Need for Accurate Standard Resistors: The accuracy of the Wheatstone
Bridge depends on the precision of the known resistors used for balancing
the bridge. If these standard resistors have errors, it affects the
measurement of the unknown resistance.
7. Complexity in Calibration: For accurate measurements, the Wheatstone
Bridge needs to be carefully calibrated, which can be time-consuming
and requires precision.
8. Limited Measurement of Non-Linear Resistors: The Wheatstone
Bridge works well with resistors that have linear resistance
characteristics. It is less effective when dealing with non-linear resistors,
such as semiconductors.
9. Not Suitable for AC Resistance Measurement: The Wheatstone Bridge
is primarily used for DC resistance measurements. To measure AC
resistance (impedance), modifications like adding capacitors or inductors
are needed, making the setup more complex.
10.Physical Setup Complexity: Setting up the Wheatstone Bridge with
accurate resistors, the galvanometer, and other components can
sometimes be challenging, especially in precise laboratory settings.
 SUMMARY

 Created in 1833, popularized in 1840s.

 Wheatstone bridge is one of the best methods of measuring resistance due
to the basic mathematical ratio involved.
 Accurate standard with sensitive enough voltmeter, measurements of
resistance within .05% can be reached.
 Many calibration laboratories still use this method today.
 The Wheatstone bridge is replaceable; however, for its simplicity and
versatility the circuit is an indispensible piece of technology.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

For successfully completing my project file I have taken help from following
website links:-

 www.google.com
 www.youtube.com
 www.wikipidea.com
 www.brainly.com
 Google image

BOOKS:-

 NCERT TEXTBOOK
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project titled "Wheatstone Bridge" has

been successfully completed by Ram Nivas Meena, a student of
Class 12 (PCM), at S.D.B. Public School. The project is undertaken
as part of the curriculum requirements for the subject Physics.

The project file contains detailed information about the Wheatstone

Bridge, its working principle, applications, and limitations, and has
been prepared under the guidance of the subject teacher.

The work presented in this project is original and has been carried out
with sincerity and dedication. The project aims to demonstrate the
practical application of the Wheatstone Bridge in various fields of
science and engineering.

Date: __________________
Signature of the Student: __________________
Signature of the Teacher: __________________
Signature of the Principal: __________________
 Working Principle of Wheatstone Bridge
The Wheatstone Bridge operates on the principle of null deflection, which
means that the current flowing through the galvanometer becomes zero when
the bridge is balanced. At this point, the ratio of resistances in one branch is
equal to the ratio of resistances in the other branch.

Explanation:

1. The Wheatstone Bridge consists of four resistors:

o Two known resistors (R1and R2),
o One variable resistor (R3), and
o One unknown resistor (Rx).

2. A galvanometer is connected between the midpoints of the two branches

to detect the current.
3. A battery or voltage source is connected to supply power to the bridge.
4. Condition for Balance: The bridge is said to be balanced when the
potential difference across the galvanometer is zero, resulting in no
current through it. This occurs when the ratio of the resistances in one
branch equals the ratio in the other branch:

R1 = Rx
R2 R3
5. Under this balanced condition, the unknown resistance Rx can be
calculated using the formula:

Rx = R1 . R3
R2

6. The null deflection condition makes the Wheatstone Bridge highly

accurate, as it eliminates errors due to the resistance of the galvanometer
or connections.