DATA STORAGE
L EC T U R E S L I D ES A R E A DA P T E D / M O D I F I E D F RO M S L I D ES
P ROV I D E D BY T H E T E X T B O O K , C O M P U T E R S C I E N C E : A N
OV E RV I E W BY J. G L E N N B RO O K S H EA R A N D D E N N I S B RY LOW
P U B L I S H E R P EA RS O N
Data Storage
Bits and Their Storage
Main Memory
Representing Information as Bit Patterns
The Binary System
Storing Integers
Storing Fractions
Data Compression
Communications Errors
Mass Storage
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Bits and Bit Patterns
Bit: Binary Digit (0 or 1)
Bit Patterns are used to represent information.
◦ Numbers
◦ Text characters
◦ Images
◦ Sound
◦ And others
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Boolean Operations
Boolean Operation: An operation that manipulates
one or more true/false values
Specific operations
◦ AND
◦ OR
◦ XOR (exclusive or)
◦ NOT
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Boolean Operations
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Gates
Gate: A device that computes a Boolean operation
◦ Often implemented as (small) electronic circuits
◦ Provide the building blocks from which computers are
constructed
◦ VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration)
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A pictorial representation of gates
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Quiz
What are the names of these gates?
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Quiz
What input bit patterns will cause the following
circuit to produce output of 1?
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Flip-flops
Flip-flop: A circuit built from gates that can store
one bit.
◦ One input line is used to set its stored value to 1
◦ One input line is used to set its stored value to 0
◦ While both input lines are 0, the most recently stored value
is preserved
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A simple flip-flop circuit
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Setting the output of a flip-flop to 1
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Setting the output of a flip-flop to 1
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Setting the output of a flip-flop to 1
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Quiz
Placing a 1 on the lower input of the flip-flop. What
will happen at the output?
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Another flip-flop
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Quiz
If upper input is 1 and lower input is 0, what is the
output?
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Quiz
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Activity
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Hexadecimal Notation
Hexadecimal notation: A shorthand notation for
long bit patterns
◦ Divides a pattern into groups of four bits each
◦ Represents each group by a single symbol
Example: 10100011 becomes A3
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The hexadecimal coding system
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Quiz
What bit patterns are represented by the following
hexadecimal patterns?
◦ 5FD97
◦ 610A
◦ ABCD
◦ 0100
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Main Memory
Main Memory Cells
Cell: A unit of main memory (typically 8 bits which
is one byte)
◦ Most significant bit: the bit at the left (high-order) end of
the conceptual row of bits in a memory cell
◦ Least significant bit: the bit at the right (low-order) end of
the conceptual row of bits in a memory cell
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The organization of a byte-size memory cell
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Main Memory Addresses
Address: A “name” that uniquely identifies one cell
in the computer’s main memory
◦ The names are actually numbers.
◦ These numbers are assigned consecutively starting at zero.
◦ Numbering the cells in this manner associates an order
with the memory cells.
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Memory cells arranged by address
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Memory Terminology
Random Access Memory (RAM): Memory in
which individual cells can be easily accessed in any
order
Dynamic Memory (DRAM): RAM composed of
volatile memory
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Measuring Memory Capacity
Kilobyte: 210 bytes = 1024 bytes
◦ Example: 3 KB = 3 times1024 bytes
Megabyte: 220 bytes = 1,048,576 bytes
◦ Example: 3 MB = 3 times 1,048,576 bytes
Gigabyte: 230 bytes = 1,073,741,824 bytes
◦ Example: 3 GB = 3 times 1,073,741,824 bytes
Terabyte
Petabyte
Exabyte
Kibi-, Mebi-, Gibi-,..
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Representing Information as
Bit Patterns
Representing Text
Each character (letter, punctuation, etc.) is assigned
a unique bit pattern.
◦ ASCII: Uses patterns of 7-bits to represent most symbols
used in written English text
◦ ISO developed a number of 8 bit extensions to ASCII,
each designed to accommodate a major language group
◦ Unicode: Uses patterns of 16-bits to represent the major
symbols used in languages world wide (UTF-8, UTF-16,…)
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The message “Hello.” in ASCII
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Representing Numeric Values
Binary notation: Uses bits to represent a number in
base two
Limitations of computer representations of numeric
values
◦ Overflow: occurs when a value is too big to be represented
◦ Truncation: occurs when a value cannot be represented
accurately
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Representing Images
Bit map techniques
◦ Pixel: short for “picture element”
◦ RGB
◦ Luminance and chrominance
Vector techniques
◦ Scalable
◦ TrueType and PostScript
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Representing Sound
Sampling techniques
◦ Used for high quality recordings
◦ Records actual audio
MIDI
◦ Used in music synthesizers
◦ Records “musical score”
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Representing Sound
The sound wave represented by the sequence 0, 1.5,
2.0, 1.5, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 3.0, 0
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Quiz
Suppose a stereo recording of one hour of music is
encoded using a sample rate of 44,100 samples per
second as discussed.
What is the size of the encoded version?
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The Binary System
The Binary System
The traditional decimal system is based on powers
of ten.
The Binary system is based on powers of two.
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The base ten and binary systems
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Decoding the binary representation 100101
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Algorithm for finding the binary
representation of a positive integer
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Applying the algorithm
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The binary addition facts
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Decoding the binary representation
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Quiz
Convert each of the following base 10 representations
to its equivalent binary form:
32
15
27
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Quiz
Convert each of the following binary representations
to its equivalent base 10 form:
11.01
101.111
10.1
110.011
0.101
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Quiz
Express the following values in binary notation:
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Storing Integers
Storing Integers
Two’s complement notation: The most popular
means of representing integer values
Excess notation: Another means of representing
integer values
Both can suffer from overflow errors.
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Two’s complement notation systems
leftmost bit: sign bit
Complement: changing all the 0s to 1s, all the 1s to
0s.
0110 and 1001 are complements.
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Two’s complement notation systems
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Coding the value -6 in two’s complement
notation using four bits
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Addition problems converted to two’s
complement notation
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Quiz
Convert each of the following two’s complement
representations to its equivalence base 10 form:
00011
01111
11100
11010
00000
10000
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Quiz
Convert to two’s complement form using patterns of
8 bits:
6
-6
-17
13
-1
0
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Quiz
What are the largest and smallest numbers that can
be stored if the machine uses bit patterns of the
following lengths?
A. four
B. six
C. eight
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Min and max of signed integers
n minimum maximum
8 -27 = -128 27 - 1 = +127
16 -215 = -32,768 215 - 1 = +32,767
32 -231 = -2,147,483,648 231 - 1 = +2,147,483,647
64 -263 = - 263-1 =
9,223,372,036,854,775,808 +9,223,372,036,854,775,807
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Min and max of unsigned integers
n Minimum Maximum
8 0 28 - 1 = 255
16 0 216 - 1 = 65,535
32 0 232 -1 = 4,294,967,295
64 0 264 - 1 = 18,446,744,073,709,551,615
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An excess eight conversion table
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An excess notation system
using bit patterns of length three
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Storing Fractions
Storing Fractions
Floating-point Notation: Consists of a sign bit, a
mantissa field, and an exponent field.
◦ Mantissa: also fraction/significand
Related topics include
◦ Normalized form
◦ Truncation errors
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Floating-point notation components
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Encoding the value 2 5⁄8
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IEEE-754 32-bit Single-Precision
Floating-Point Numbers
Exponent: excess-127 (bias-127)
Fraction: implicit leading bit (before radix point).
N = (-1)^S x 1.F x 2^(E-127)
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IEEE-754 32-bit Single-Precision
Floating-Point Numbers
Suppose that IEEE-754 32-bit floating-point
representation pattern is 0 10000000 110 0000
0000 0000 0000 0000.
Sign bit S = 0 ⇒ positive number
E = 1000 0000B = 128D
Fraction is 1.11B (with an implicit leading 1)
= 1 + 1×2^-1 + 1×2^-2 = 1.75D
The number is +1.75 × 2^(128-127) = +3.5D
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IEEE-754 32-bit Single-Precision Floating-
Point Numbers
Suppose that IEEE-754 32-bit floating-point
representation pattern is 1 01111110 100 0000 0000
0000 0000 0000.
Sign bit S = 1 ⇒ negative number
E = 0111 1110B = 126D
Fraction is 1.1B (with an implicit leading 1) =
1 + 2^-1 = 1.5D
The number is -1.5 × 2^(126-127)=-0.75D
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IEEE-754 64-bit Double-Precision
Floating-Point Numbers
Exponent: excess-1023
Fraction: implicit leading bit (before radix point).
N = (-1)^S x 1.F x 2^(E-1023)
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Min and Max of Floating-Point Numbers
Precision Min Max
Single 1.1754 x 10-38 3.40282 x 1038
Double 2.2250 x 10-308 1.7976 x 10308
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Data Compression
Data Compression
Lossy versus lossless
Run-length encoding
Frequency-dependent encoding
(Huffman codes)
Relative encoding
Dictionary encoding (Includes adaptive dictionary
encoding such as LZW encoding.)
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Compressing Images
GIF: Good for cartoons
JPEG: Good for photographs
TIFF: Good for image archiving
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Compressing Audio and Video
MPEG
◦ High definition television broadcast
◦ Video conferencing
MP3
◦ Temporal masking
◦ Frequency masking
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Communication Errors
Communication Errors
Parity bits (even versus odd)
Checkbytes
Error correcting codes
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The ASCII codes for the letters A and F
adjusted for odd parity
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An error-correcting code
Hamming distance (of two bit patterns):
◦ Number of bits in which the patterns differ.
Example:
◦ Hamming(000000, 001111) = 4
◦ Hamming(10101100, 01100100) = 3
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An error-correcting code
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Decoding the pattern 010100
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Quiz
The following bytes were originally encoded using
odd parity. In which of them do you know that an
error has occurred?
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Quiz
Using the error-correcting code presented before,
decode the following messages:
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Quiz
Construct a code for the characters A, B, C, D using
bit patterns of length five so that the Hamming
distance between any two patterns is at least three.
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Mass Storage
Mass Storage
On-line versus off-line
Typically larger than main memory
Typically less volatile than main memory
Typically slower than main memory
Typically lower cost than main memory
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Mass Storage Systems
Magnetic Systems
◦ Disk
◦ Tape
Optical Systems
◦ CD
◦ DVD
Flash Technology
◦ Flash Drives
◦ Secure Digital (SD) Memory Card
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Source: Wikipedia
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Source: Wikipedia
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Source: Wikipedia
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A magnetic disk storage system
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A magnetic disk storage system
Data stored on a spinning disk
Disk divided into concentric rings (sectors)
Read/write head moves from one ring to another
while disk spins
Access time depends on
◦ Time to move head to correct sector
◦ Time for sector to spin to data location
Fixed number of sectors are placed in a track.
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A magnetic disk storage system
Seek time
◦ Time needed to position the read/write head over the
correct track
Latency
◦ Time for the beginning of the desired sector to rotate
under the read/write head
Transfer time
◦ Time for the entire sector to pass under the read/write
head and have its contents read into or written from
memory
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A magnetic disk storage system
Given:
◦ Rotation speed = 7,200 rev/min=120 rev/sec = 8.33 msec/rev
◦ Arm movement time = 0.02 msec to move to an adjacent track
◦ On average, the read/write head must move about 300 tracks
◦ Number of tracks/surface = 1,000
◦ Number of sectors/track = 64
◦ Number of bytes/sector = 1,024
Seek time
◦ Best case = 0 msec;
◦ Worst case = 999*0.02=19.98 msec
◦ Average case = 300*0.02 = 6 msec
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A magnetic disk storage system
Given:
◦ Rotation speed = 7,200 rev/min=120 rev/sec = 8.33 msec/rev
◦ Arm movement time = 0.02 msec to move to an adjacent track
◦ On average, the read/write head must move about 300 tracks
◦ Number of tracks/surface = 1,000
◦ Number of sectors/track = 64
◦ Number of bytes/sector = 1,024
Latency
◦ Best case = 0 msec;
◦ Worst case = 8.33 msec
◦ Average case = 4.17 msec
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A magnetic disk storage system
Given:
◦ Rotation speed = 7,200 rev/min=120 rev/sec = 8.33
msec/rev
◦ Arm movement time = 0.02 msec to move to an adjacent
track
◦ On average, the read/write head must move about 300
tracks
◦ Number of tracks/surface = 1,000
◦ Number of sectors/track = 64
◦ Number of bytes/sector = 1,024
Transfer time
◦ 1/64 * 8.33 msec = 4.17 msec
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Magnetic tape storage
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CD storage
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Files
File: A unit of data stored in mass storage system
◦ Fields and keyfields
Physical record versus Logical record
Buffer: A memory area used for the temporary
storage of data (usually as a step in transferring the
data)
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Logical records versus physical records on
a disk
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