THE NEW TESTAMENT GOSPELS & BOOK OF ACTS

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Teaching Outline of the New Testament Gospels & Book of Acts

Prepared for

Graduate Degree Programs

Evangelical Theological College (Addis Ababa, Ethiopia)

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In Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for MA __________ Degree

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by

Nathan S. Kidder

[email protected]

© October 30, 2022

 THE NEW TESTAMENT GOSPELS & BOOK OF ACTS

Introduction
We begin with a chiasm of the biblical narrative and the corresponding bookends of
biblical theology, which reveal the narrative/thematic continuity of Scripture while affirming the
theological/conceptual centrality of Jesus Christ. © Nathan S. Kidder, 2014
A: God Creates a Garden as His Kingdom on Earth (Gen 2:8).
• A place in which God dwells among men, with unmediated presence (Gen 3:8).
• A place of delight and fulfillment, with no lack.
• A place where the tree of life is present.
• A place characterized by light, peace, righteousness, justice.
• A place where sin was absent.
B: God Creates a People of His Own in One Man (Gen 12:2).
• The physical seed of Abraham will be God’s people.
• They are created to be a blessing to the nations of the earth.
• They are created to be a people among whom God dwells.
C: God Establishes a Kingly Dynasty through His Son (2 Sam 7).
• David, Solomon (anticipate “seed”); Sons of God (2 Sam 7:14).
• His reign on earth is to be in service of God’s Kingdom.
• His throne is established by God forever (2 Sam 7:16).
D: God Designs a Permanent House to Live Among His People.
• The temporary tabernacle gives way to a “permanent” house.
• The glory of God is revealed in the temple (1 Kgs 8:11).
• The temple is destroyed and then resurrected (Hag 2:1-9).
E: Messiah is Born, Jesus of Nazareth = Chiastic Center
D’: God Becomes Flesh, Tabernacles among His People (John 1:14).
• The temple is redefined in Jesus (John 2:19-21; 4:1-42).
• The glory of God is witnessed in Jesus (John 1:14, 18).
• Jesus would die, be raised up 3 days later (John 2:22).
C’: God Establishes an Eternal Dynasty through His Son (Luke 1:31-33).
• Jesus is the divine Son of God; David’s eternal son and Lord.
• Jesus’ reign in service of God’s Kingdom (John 5:19-23, 36).
• Jesus eternally reigns at the right hand of the Father.
B’: God Creates a Spiritual People of His Own in One Man (Gal 3:1-29).
• The spiritual seed of Abraham are, in Christ, God’s people.
• They will be a blessing to the nations of the earth.
• They will be the people among whom God dwells eternally.
A’: God Creates a New Garden as His Kingdom on Earth (Rev 22:1-2).
• A place where God dwells among men; unmediated presence (Rev 21:3).
• A place of delight and fulfillment, with no lack.
• A place where the tree of life is present.
• A place characterized by light, peace, righteousness, and justice.
• A place where sin is absent.

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 -- INTERPRETIVE METHODS (Gospels & Acts) --

Introduction to Biblical Interpretation: Methods, Themes, & Biblical Signposts

A. Introduction to Interpretive Methodology: Scripture Interprets Scripture
1. The Three Horizons of Biblical Interpretation1
a. The Textual Horizon: the interpreter is searching Scripture for God’s
intent—believing the biblical text to be Spirit-inspired—and the
human author’s intent. Divine intent is discerned through evaluation
of authorial intent. Here, the interpreter places the text in its historical
setting, studies the linguistic traits of the text, analyzes the Hebrew or
Greek syntax, textual variants, word meanings, figures of speech, and
the literary structure, including the literary genre.
b. The Epochal/Covenantal Horizon (Intertextual and Typological
Relationship of the Biblical Text)
• The interpreter seeks to read texts according to their place in
the unfolding, redemptive-historical plan of God. Due to the
progressive-revelatory nature of Scripture, all biblical texts are
embedded in a larger covenantal context (before-and-after).
• The idea of “epochs” should be clarified to uphold a
fundamental narrative, theological, and covenantal unity within
God’s unfolding plan and purposes (i.e.: this is not
dispensationalism!).
• The interpreter evaluates the balance between continuity and
discontinuity in Scripture (where discontinuity is expressed as
“transcendent/transfigured continuity”).2
c. The Canonical Horizon: divine inspiration means unified revelation.
We seek to interpret the Bible according to its nature, and according to
how the church of the ages has interpreted it: as a unified narrative. As
texts are placed along the story line of Scripture and ultimately
interpreted in light of the culmination of God’s plan in Christ, we
begin to read Scripture in the way God intended. Students of Scripture

1
Peter J. Gentry & Stephen J. Wellum, Kingdom through Covenant (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2012),
100, write “Scripture is a word-act and progressive revelation, that we interpret biblical texts according to three
horizons: textual, epochal, and canonical.”
2
In the following exposition, we will observe the many facets of John’s Gospel in which the Old
Testament story of Israel is transfigured in Christ, how the symbolic world of the narrative is gloriously taken up
into—and transformed by—Jesus himself. Such facets will include the cyclical unfolding of Israel’s calendar, with
the various festivals celebrated throughout the year. We will also examine the centrality of the Jerusalem Temple,
the Messianic expectations of the Jewish people, and the formative wisdom of Torah. The signposts of Old
Testament theology that comprised the pillars of the Second Temple Jewish worldview (exodus, tabernacle/temple,
Torah, sacrificial system, priesthood, kings and kingdom, exile and return, and so forth) are transfigured in Christ
and by the Spirit. This transfigured or transcendent continuity is a hallmark of New Testament theology.

2
 watch for the “promise-to-fulfillment” motif in the larger story of
Israel, culminating in the Messiah. This interpretive key results in a
theological, Christocentric, and covenantal reading of the Bible.
2. The Worldview-Story Model of Biblical Interpretation3
a. Definition: “Using the category of narrative to broker a balance
between history and theology, the task of [this method] directs readers
to understand the individual episodes or passages of Scripture in light
of its overarching story line. Instead of progressing from the smallest
bits and pieces of the narrative to the larger whole, [the model] starts
with the larger narrative portions of text through which individual
units are read.”4
b. Emphasis on narrative unity, literary coherence, and story-shaped
reading of Scripture that evaluates the parts in light of the whole.5
c. In this model, God is the principle actor and the one whose perspective
(interpretation) of history ultimately matters. The narrative is
interpreted from the one, divine vantage point. As such, we might
consider this to be a transcendent model of biblical interpretation.
Hays writes, “The unity of the Bible is grounded in the ongoing action
of the one God who is both its central character and its ultimate
author.”6 Because God is one, Scripture is coherent.
d. The convergence of two histories (Irenaeus) may rightly be seen as the
transfigured story of Israel in the story of Jesus (the singular, remnant
of Israel).
e. John Calvin believed—and later Jonathan Edwards agreed—that the
Bible is an unfolding story, and interpreted Scripture following a
redemptive-historical approach.
f. This model prompts readers to be aware of the meta-narrative that
ought to be shaping their worldview. Story shapes our whole lives.7

3
This section summarizes Edward W. Klink and Darian R. Lockett, Understanding Biblical Theology:
A Comparison of Theory and Practice (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012), chaps. 4 and 5.
4
Klink and Lockett, Biblical Theology, 105. Interestingly, narrative becomes a philosophical category
in which “story” determines ethics. The question, “What should I do?” depends on a deeper question, “In what story
am I participating?” Thus, the “worldview-story” model uses narrative categories to shape perspectives and actions.
5
Jeannine K. Brown, “Is the Future of Biblical Theology Story-Shaped?” Horizons in Biblical Theology
37 (2015): 13-31, identifies “four kinds of narrative coherence: (1) temporal coherence (its principal property); (2)
causal coherence; (3) thematic coherence; and (4) coherence with a cultural concept of biography” (21).
6
Richard B. Hays, “Can Narrative Criticism Recover the Theological Unity of Scripture?” Journal of
Theological Interpretation 2 (2008): 202, in Klink and Lockett, Understanding Biblical Theology, 118.
7
Participatory interpretation leads to worldview transformation. For example, if we understand
ourselves to be part of a meta-narrative that defines us as the new wilderness generation of Israel (Heb 4:1-11),
following the typological principle of the apostle Paul (1 Cor 10:1-10), we will see/perceive the world in a different
light (1 John 2:15-17) and inhabit the world in a different manner: namely, we will hold lightly to transient
possessions, engaging in intentional self-limitation as sojourners on pilgrimage to the New Heavens and Earth.

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 g. Summary: this method studies Scripture to find the narrative unity that
defines the Old and New Testaments.
3. Two-Level Narrative: Story Level & Discourse Level8
a. Story Level: a two-level narrative involves the “story level” that
“consists of elements that most readers easily notice as they read a
narrative: the settings, events, and characters that make up the plot.
Since the Gospels center on Jesus, it is the course of his life and
interactions with his disciples, opponents, and the many who benefit
from his public ministry that capture our attention.”
b. Discourse Level: a two-level narrative involves the “discourse level”
that “requires more of the wide-angle lens already mentioned, since
the discourse is the author’s (or narrator’s) way of shaping the story
elements to communicate key messages with the Gospel’s audience.”9
4. Theological Interpretation of Scripture
a. Patristic Exegesis typically valued four senses of the text: one literal,
and three spiritual: (1) the Figural/Allegorical sense; (2) the
Tropological sense; and (3) the Anagogical sense.10
b. Saint Augustine—recovered in the Protestant Reformers—believed
that biblical interpretation should be theological. As such, “Christians
read the Bible as Scripture, authoritative as God’s Word for faith and
life; thus, to interpret Scripture was to encounter God.”11
c. Karl Barth (Pioneer of Theological Criticism) was committed to: (1)

8
This is not to be confused with a postmodern understanding of two-level narrative interpretation,
which emphasizes the discontinuity between what is said on the surface of the text and the allegorical or historical
connection to the deeper level of the text. See Jeffrey de Waal Dryden, A Hermeneutic of Wisdom: Recovering the
Formative Agency of Scripture (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2018), 40-42 for an example of a postmodern
reading that we are intentionally avoiding.
9
Quotations in points “a” and “b” are from Jeannine K. Brown, The Gospels as Stories: A Narrative
Approach to Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2020), 11-12. Brown illustrates the
two-level narrative, saying, “In John’s Gospel, irony is used to infuse various plot elements with symbolic meaning.
Jesus offers living water to a Samaritan woman (John 4:13–14) and to all who come to him (7:37–38). Yet at his
most vulnerable moment, Jesus cries out that he himself is thirsty (19:28). Another example involves John’s
repeated use of the language of Jesus being “lifted up” (Greek, hypsoō), a term that can indicate spatial elevation:
Jesus will be lifted up on a cross to die. But the term can also mean to be exalted to a place of honor. John plays on
both senses of the word to show how Jesus’ death will ironically be his exaltation (3:14; 8:28; 12:32, 34).” On this
last idea, see Isa 52:13, “See, my servant will act wisely; he will be raised and lifted up (LXX, hypsoō) and highly
exalted” (NIV). The apostle John develops Isaiah’s theology by showing that Jesus, the Isaianic servant, would be
exalted in the crucifixion, not merely afterwards in the resurrection and ascension. In the cross, God is most
poignantly revealed.
10
Daniel J. Treier, Introducing Theological Interpretation of Scripture: Recovering a Christian Practice
(Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2016), 9, elaborates with the following explanation: “Founded on the one literal
sense (e.g., the word “Jerusalem” as the actual city), one also sought the three spiritual senses: (1) the allegorical,
whereby the text somehow points us to Christ (e.g., Jerusalem as the church); (2) the tropological, or moral, import
of the words for our lives (e.g., Jerusalem as the faithful soul); (3) the anagogical, or future, reference of the text
(e.g., Jerusalem as the heavenly city, center of the new creation)..
11
Treier, Theological Interpretation of Scripture, 10. We, too, are trying to recover the interpretive
practices and principles of Patristic Era exegesis.

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 God’s hermeneutical control; (2) participatory story immersion, by
which readers would enter into the meaning of the text; and (3) a
theological (God-centered) starting point. In addition, Barth
constrained himself to the linguistic world of Scripture, interpreting
the Bible according to its final, canonical form while seeing Jesus
Christ as its unifying theme (if Christ is the ultimate object of
Scripture, allegory/figural symbolism is inevitable). Barth viewed
John Calvin as the model exegete.
d. As interpreters moved away from patristic exegesis to modernist
exegesis, the “forward march of time, or the linear flow of history,
became separate from the traditional, vertical practices of Scripture
interpretation as participation in God.”12 History was divorced from
theology; the Bible became a textbook in major universities. God
became spectator (deism) instead of principle actor (theism) on the
world stage.
e. In our evaluation of literary context/structure, we must remember that
“the words of the Bible have a life that transcends their original
setting” inasmuch as Christ is the Word and the Spirit inspires human
authors of Scripture.13
f. Theological Interpretation & Typology: figural, typological, allegorical
interpretation was most significant for early exegetes (they called this
“spiritual” or “pneumatic” interpretation). They believed Scripture
follows patterns, that time is liturgical (thus, non-linear).14
g. Theological Interpretation & History: we study historical interpretation
(reception history) in order to shape our own exegetical judgments.
h. Theological Interpretation & Glory: early Christian exegetes [argue]
that one or another way of interpreting a disputed passage is more
‘reverent’ or more ‘appropriate to God’ than another.15
5. The Recapitulative/Cyclical Concept of Time in Biblical Theology

12
Treier, Theological Interpretation of Scripture, 15. The Spirit illumines Scripture in order to
transform us by it, producing in us the fruit of Christ’s righteousness. As character transforms, we become well-
suited interpreters of Scripture and more conformed to the image of Christ. Christian virtue is, therefore, both the
aim and norm of theological interpretation.
13
Treier, Theological Interpretation of Scripture, 16. Correspondingly, the transcendent story of
Scripture interprets our own experiences and contemporary cultures. Where reader-response criticism says the
reader interprets Scripture and determines its meaning, theological interpretation says Scripture interprets the reader;
it defines, identifies, and shapes the reader, calling him/her into conformity to Christ. When applying Scripture, we
are not seeking to make it relevant to contemporary culture; instead, we are seeking to transform contemporary
culture in light of Scriptural truth, calling for collective conformity to the image of Christ.
14
Treier, Theological Interpretation of Scripture, 28 says that “typology was the chief interpretative
strategy for making the Bible contemporary, for absorbing one’s own world into the world of the text.” In other
words, biblical application meant recognition of—and submission to—theological patterns in Scripture instead of
drawing analogous comparisons between the biblical and modern worlds.
15
Treier, Theological Interpretation of Scripture, 23.

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 a. Recapitulation, Progressive Parallelism, Telescopic Progression:16 any
concept of recapitulation must conform to an escalating sense of
urgency as the vision unfolds. The picture of a spiral helps the
imagination (the old Slinky toy). The uncoiled spring reveals patterns
leading to an unavoidable ending point. The circular nature is both
progressive and repetitive. The telescope conjures a similar mental
image, but does not have a cylindrical component.
b. Typology & Recapitulation: the concept of typology—that prior
historical people, places, and/or institutions prefigure later people,
places, and/or institutions—requires a sense of recapitulated history.
Once again, we are not implying bare repetition. Instead, typology—
like recapitulation—involves transfigured continuity, revolving around
the principle of escalation or intensified correspondence between the
literary-theological “type” and “anti-type” (a lesser-to-greater
movement), which could be theological, prophetic, or literary.
c. Biblical Patterns & Recapitulation: New Covenant saints are involved
in a New Exodus, involving freedom from slavery (not in Egypt, but to
sin), crossing through salvific waters (not Red Sea, but baptism),
inaugurated deliverance into wilderness testing (not in Sinai Peninsula,
but in the World), and consummated deliverance into a country (not
Canaan, but Heavenly).17
d. Textual Recapitulation: for example, Genesis 1:26-31 and 2:4-25
recapitulate the creation of man—as the centerpiece of God’s creative
work—by giving general details that fit within the pattern of chapter 1
(“And there was evening, and there was morning, the Xth day”). Then,
in chapter 2, the author offers a closer look at the specific details and
creative intent behind man’s existence.
6. Covenant & Dispensational Hermeneutics: Continuity & Discontinuity18
a. The Main Issues
• The Covenant Community: the relationship of Israel & Church
is grounded on the Abrahamic Covenant (father of many
nations). The debate centers on mixed visible entities or pure
invisible entities. Many see discontinuity between OT Israel

16
The idea of telescopic progression comes from R. L. Thomas, “The Structure of the Apocalypse:
Recapitulation or Progression?” Master’s Seminary Journal 4 (1993): 45-66.
17
Paul speaks of a New Exodus in Rom 6:1-18, with baptism replacing the water-deliverance of the
Red Sea and slavery to sin replacing slavery in Egypt. The Book of Hebrews also speaks in typological terms about
perseverance in the wilderness (3:7-19), about entering the rest of God (as symbolic Promised Land; 4:8-11), and the
arrival at Mount Zion (as replacing Mount Sinai; 12:18-29). Likewise, the Gospel of John reshapes the Exodus
events around Jesus who, as the greater Moses, nourishes the people of God with manna from heaven (with himself).
Indeed, Jesus is the bread of life; he is the bread that came down from heaven (John 6:32-33; 35, 48-51).
18
The section summarizes main arguments from Stephen J. Wellum and Brent E. Parker, eds.
Progressive Covenantalism: Charting a Course between Dispensational and Covenant Theologies (Nashville: B&H
Academic, 2016).

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 (visible, mixed) and the NT Church (invisible, pure) because
they overlook the general structural unity and emphasize the
Mosaic Covenant over the Abrahamic Covenant (which is
prior, foundational, and unconditional). Israel was comprised
of a visible community, in which the invisible remnant (elect,
chosen) was situated. Likewise, the church is a visible
community, in which true believers (elect, chosen) are situated.
The question remains: Are all participants in the community
also members of the covenant? If we contrast the Mosaic and
Messianic Covenants, discontinuity prevails. However, if we
compare the Abrahamic & Messianic Covenants, we recognize
continuity. We must adhere to NT teaching on this issue.
• Israel, Christ, Church: connected to the issue of covenant
community is how Israel and the Church are related to Christ.
The NT teaches that Jesus is True Israel (because Israel is
defined as the spiritual seed of Abraham) and the singular
faithful remnant (because faithfulness entails perfect covenant
obedience, to Torah). Not all who are (ethnic) Israel are
(covenant/spiritual) Israel (Rom 9:6). Spirit-union with Christ
has always defined the true people of God; it is only discerned
retrospectively, however.
• Torah, Mosaic Covenant: the relevance of the Law of Moses
for the believer in Christ is central to the ongoing debate. Most
agree that Torah has ongoing ethical implications (as
summarized by Jesus in the NT; Matt 22:34-40). The Torah
presents moral, civil, and ceremonial directives to the people of
Israel. Being the provisional—though still transcendent—self-
revelation of God’s character, the moral aspects of Torah
remain binding for the covenant community (though not as a
covenant; not for covenant inclusion).
• Circumcision: physical to spiritual (baptism?). The principle
of transfigured continuity discerns a movement from OT-to-NT
defined by physical signposts-to-spiritual realities.
• Sabbath Command: the transfigured notion of “rest” is related
by typology, as we will see in Israel’s conquest of Canaan. The
invitation of Christ is to find rest for our souls (Matt 11:25-30).
For believers, Sabbath marks the passage of time (as with
Liturgical contexts, festivals, holidays), so that a day of rest
reminds ever-busier people that this world is not the ultimate
inheritance of the saints. Sabbath also marks the true nature of
covenant inclusion (by promise, so that we cease from our
striving; Heb 4:10).
• The Promise of Land: related to Sabbath typology is the issue
of Land. Finding rest in the land indicates a provisional,
anticipatory restoration of Eden; but such rest also looks
forward to the everlasting Sabbath (New Creation), inaugurated

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 in the resurrection of souls (new birth; John 3:3) and
consummated at the resurrection of bodies (Last Day; John
6:40, 44).
• The Inheritance of Israel: more generally, the issue concerns
the nature of promises issued to ethnic Israel. There are two
choices: (1) either Christ is the Messiah, and all God’s
promises are fulfilled in/toward him; or (2) there is still some
part of historical, national, ethnic fulfillment that does not find
Christ as its centerpiece.
b. Progressive Covenantalism & New Covenant Theology19
c. Biblical Theology demands some form of essential, foundational,
thematic, and structural continuity.
d. Old Dispensationalism: forms of dispensational theology that are no
longer credible, theologically viable, or exegetically sustainable
affirmed various doctrines:
• An earthly people of God (Israel) would inherit the earth
through the extension of a literal millennial Kingdom of God.
By contrast, a heavenly people of God (Gentiles) would remain
in God’s presence forever, though only in heaven (disembodied
soul existence?).
• As such, dispensationalism expects a literal fulfillment to the
land promise—given only to ethnic, national, territorial
Israel—in the distant eschatological future; Israel inherits the
land apart from Gentiles.
• Dispensationalism further expects that all ethnic, national,
territorial Israel will be saved at some future historical time
(Rom 11:26-27) and insists upon a literalistic interpretation of
the millennium (Rev 20:1-6).
B. Continuity in Scripture: various New Testament passages emphasize the continuity of
Scripture. Such passages demonstrate the biblical-theological methods of Spirit-
inspired, apostolic authors and their underlying presuppositions.20

19
Wellum and Parker, Progressive Covenantalism, 17 write, “We labeled our view progressive
covenantalism to distinguish it from various alternatives. Progressive seeks to underscore the unfolding nature of
God’s revelation over time, while covenantalism emphasizes that God’s plan unfolds through the covenants and that
all of the covenants find their fulfillment, telos, and terminus in Christ. We strongly argue for the unity of God’s
plan-promise culminating in the new covenant. Our focus on the new covenant is not to exclude the other covenants
since in God’s plan each covenant is significant. In order to discern that significance, each covenant must be placed
in its own covenantal location and then placed in terms of what covenant(s) preceded it and follow it before we can
rightly discern how God’s entire plan is fulfilled in Christ. By doing this, we interpret Scripture on its own terms and
discover God’s glorious plan unveiled before our eyes. We learn how in Christ all of God’s promises are yes and
amen (2 Cor 1:20).” This view adheres somewhat to New Covenant Theology, but differs because “some in NCT
deny a creation covenant and Christ’s active obedience and imputation of righteousness and hold little instructive
place for the Mosaic Law in the church’s life.” In these ways, Progressive Covenantalism is more directly related to
traditional Covenant Theology.
20
This section partly summarizes Chris Bruno, et al., Biblical Theology According to the Apostles
(NSBT. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2020).

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1. Messianic Fulfillment in Matthew’s Genealogy
a. Abraham, David, Christ
b. Sets of Fourteen Generations: biblical numerology is never accidental.
The selection and arrangement of redemptive history in Matthew’s
Gospel culminates in Christ.
c. Expansion, Reduction: the expansion and reduction of Israel reveals a
pattern. Matthew recognizes singular covenant representatives (or
figureheads) at pivotal moments in redemptive history.
2. Covenantal Continuity in Stephen’s Sermon
a. In Stephen’s sermon, Luke creates a touch-point with the ongoing
story of Israel (redemptive, covenantal history), in which the signposts
of Israel are confronted and reinterpreted. Stephen’s interpretation is
validated through a heavenly vision of Christ at the right hand of the
Father. Stephen interprets the Old Testament in such a solidly Christo-
centric manner that it becomes paradigmatic for all future NT
interpreters of Scripture.
b. The NT covenant community (the Church) carries a re-interpretive role
in understanding Israel’s purpose.
c. Abraham & Land Promise: in this re-interpretive role, Stephen
explains the life of Abraham. God’s presence with Abraham created
faith and initiated covenantal relationship before the inheritance of the
Land. In other words, the physical Land is not the substance (but only
a distant inheritance) of the Abrahamic Covenant. The blessing of
God was not contingent upon the inheritance of the land, but upon
faith; the land was not the substantive blessing, but only—at best—a
provisional (physical) indicator of covenantal blessing, already
received. God’s presence and blessing are not restricted to the
physical, geographical land of Israel.
d. Ruler & Redeemer: the role of Moses, as the prophet who defined the
covenantal relationship with God, is confronted. It was believed that
the Law, mediated by Moses, was the evidence of Israel’s chosen
status as God’s people. But the people of Israel rejected Moses, even
though he was God’s ruler and redeemer. They refused to obey Moses
even after the Law had been given and, in their hearts, returned to
Egypt. Rather than turning to God in faith and being liberated, they
turned to Egypt in rebellion and remained in spiritual exile. Thus,
Moses was a type of Christ, a prophet attested by signs and wonders.
Where Moses’s ministry was partial and provisional, Christ served as
the eschatological and final divine self-disclosure.
e. Land, Torah, Temple: Stephen turns his attention toward the true
meaning of the Temple (Acts 7:44). The mobile Tabernacle meant that
God’s presence among his people was not contained to one place.
Even after the completion of Solomon’s Temple, the Lord was
enthroned above the whole earth and not only above Jerusalem (2
Chron 6:18; cf. Isa 66:1-2). History and prophecy show in harmony
that God’s presence remains with those in whom his Spirit dwells and

9
 not in any specific geographical location. “His faithful people, those
who follow Christ and are filled with his Spirit, are his true temple.”21
f. Fulfillment of Israel’s History: Stephen highlights the inaugurated and
spiritual fulfillment of Israel’s history in the events of Jesus’s life,
death, resurrection, and the outpouring of the Spirit at Pentecost.
Temple, Torah, Land, Prophet… these are all fulfilled in Christ, to
whom they bore initial testimony. Christ takes up, glorifies, and
transcends the signposts of Israel’s history. By Spirit-union with
Christ, the covenant people become temples, obey Torah, inherit rest,
and receive prophetic leadership and counsel.
g. Law & Light: Israel had received the Law, but in failing to obey it,
they had failed to execute their OT commission as “light to the
Gentiles.” The inclusion of Gentiles—by which the Church is
established (believing Jews & Gentiles)—brings Israel’s story to its
conclusion. Stephen revealed the ongoing rejection of God in the self-
deceived notion of works-righteousness.
3. Israel’s Identity in Romans
a. Theological Identity: Israel is not (primarily/exclusively) an ethnic
identity: “Wrestling with the present state of unbelieving Israel in the
light of the climax of the story, the coming of the Messiah, Romans
9—11 contributes to biblical theology in its deep reflection upon the
very identity of ‘Israel.’ Paul argues that Israel have never had a
fundamentally ethnic identity but have always had (and always will
have) a theological identity—Israel are the people who have
mercifully been called by God.”22
b. Abraham’s Two Sons: in Galatians, Ishmael and Isaac are placed in the
redemptive-historical context of Torah, and the ongoing relevance of
circumcision in the lives of (Gentile) believers. Sons born by the
Spirit of God (Gal 4:29; cf. John 1:12-13) are the true covenant people.
However, in Romans 9—11, the two sons are contrasted according to
the “Jacob-and-Esau” paradigm in divine, sovereign election. Paul
answers the implicit question of God’s faithfulness, saying that God’s
word had not failed in the case of unbelieving Israel (Rom 9:6).
Indeed, God did not reject his people, whom he foreknew (Rom 11:2),
as was the case in Isaac (not Ishmael) and Jacob (not Esau).
c. The Priority of Israel: the apostle Paul does not reverse the privilege of
Israel in proclaiming an influx of Gentiles. Instead, “the salvation of
the remnant demonstrates that the Jews are still prior. And Paul further
reiterates the priority of the Jews in salvation when he warns Gentile
believers of pride in 11:17-24. One point of his famous olive tree

21
C. Marvin Pate, et al. The Story of Israel: A Biblical Theology (Downers Grove: IVP, 2004), 201.
22
Bruno, et al., Biblical Theology, 74.

10
 analogy is to show the Gentiles that their salvation is unnatural,
whereas the salvation of the Jews is natural.”23
d. Story of God’s Faithfulness: the story of Israel presents the faithfulness
of God to his Word and his covenant people, those God chose
according to the pattern of Isaac and Jacob (Jew & Greek; Rom 1:16).
e. Called into Existence: the identity of Israel in Romans, therefore, does
not depend on human factors, desires, efforts, or qualities, but solely
and exclusively on the electing mercy of God (Rom 9:16). Israel is
defined theologically; in NT theology, we might say that true Israel is
first-and-foremost the Messiah, and secondly, only those united to Him
by the Spirit… “In other words, ‘Israel’ is fundamentally defined as
those who have been called into existence by God (Rom 9:12).”24
4. New Creation as New Exodus in John’s Gospel
a. In the beginning (1:1)… an indication of inaugurated new creation.
b. The λόγος (Jesus, the Word of God incarnate) tabernacles among the
covenant people. John 1:14 reads, “And the Word became flesh and
dwelt (Greek: ἐσκήνωσεν) among us, and we have seen his glory, glory
as of the only Son from the Father, full of grace and truth.” The Greek
verb σκηνόω means “to have one’s tent” or “to have my tabernacle.”
c. The people of God would be liberated by the “Lamb of God” (John
1:29) who removes guilt and satisfies wrath. The Lamb would purify
(Greek: καθαρὸς) the covenant people (John 13:10; 15:3) through His
own blood, applied to the doorposts of human hearts.
d. The people of God would be sustained in the wilderness by the “true
Bread of Heaven” (John 6:32, 51).
e. The Light of the World (John 8:12) would illumine the path to the
Promised Land (paradise, the presence of God; John 14:6).
f. The Davidic Shepherd would seek and save the lost sheep, leading
them into the restored land (John 10:11, 14; cf. Ezek 34:11-16; 36:24-
36, and reference to Eden).
g. The Divine Son would give inaugurated life (new birth; John 3:7-8;
5:25-27) and eschatological resurrection life (bodily resurrection; John
11:24-26, 43-44; cf. 5:28-30). The Exodus began with the crucifixion
of the paschal lamb, and ends with Messiah’s resurrection, impartation
of life, and new creation.25

23
Bruno, et al., Biblical Theology, 76.
24
Bruno, et al., Biblical Theology, 77.
25
N.T. Wright, History & Eschatology: Jesus and the Promise of Natural Theology (London: SPCK,
2019), 268 says, “So Jesus’s death, in John’s Gospel at least, is seen as the direct clash of two different notions of
truth. By Friday evening it looks as though Pilate’s truth has won. If truth is a signpost telling us something
important from within the midst of the world, then Pilate the proto-postmodernist turns out to be right. Truth is what
the powerful make it to be. Truth, the first casualty in war, is perhaps the central irony of the crucifixion.”

11
 C. Biblical-Theological Themes in the Storyline (Plot-Structure) of Scripture
1. Covenant & Promises of God
2. Seed (of woman, of Abraham, of David)26
3. Creation to New Creation… with two-stage eschatology.
4. Deliverance through Judgment27
5. Divine Self-Revelation
6. Kingdom through Covenant
7. Glory of God in Redemptive History
D. Biblical Signposts in the Old and New Testament
1. Transfigured Continuity: OT signposts are transformed—infused with divine
glory, as they are taken up into Christ—by the unveiling of spiritual realities
to which they provisionally pointed.28 It is God’s story; thus, God employs
the story and signposts of Israel in the service of his own self-disclosure.
2. Torah: the self-revelation of God, the manifestation of his character. The Law
of Moses becomes the Command of Christ, who is the embodiment of Torah
(John 1:16-18).29
3. Temple/Tabernacle: Wright says, “When the Letter to the Hebrews speaks of
the earthly Tabernacle being a ‘copy or shadow of the heavenly one’, this is
not to say that the earthly one was bad, only that it was temporary, a signpost
to what was to come (Heb 8:5).”30
4. Land: the inheritance of the Promised Land was a first step in the restoration
of Eden and the anticipation of new creation.
5. Passover: Wright says, “The slaughtered lamb joins the One on the Throne,

26
See James M. Hamilton, “The Skull Crushing Seed of the Woman: Inner-Biblical Interpretation of
Genesis 3:15” SBJT 10/2 (Summer 2006): 30-54.
27
See James M. Hamilton, God’s Glory in Salvation through Judgment: A Biblical Theology (Wheaton,
IL: Crossway, 2010). Hamilton combines controlling themes (organizing concepts) here.
28
The term “transfigured continuity” is—as far as I know—an original term. The concept is partially
derived from the following quote in Wright, History & Eschatology, 203. Wright says, “To distinguish between a
signpost and the building to which it points is not to say anything derogatory about the signpost. The point of the life
of heaven being brought into conjunction with earth is not to abolish earth, or to snatch humans away from it, as has
routinely been assumed in the last two centuries, but to fill the earth with divine glory.”
29
Wright, History & Eschatology, 266 says, “So it is with the ‘broken signposts’ we have noted. By
themselves, they do not point upwards to God; or, if they seem to, they might simply be building a new Tower of
Babel. They can be deconstructed, interpreted otherwise. And yet. At the very moment of their failure, they point to
the ultimate broken signpost, which turns out to be the place in real life, in concrete history, where the living God is
truly revealed, known and loved. Each of the signposts leads to the same place.” In other words, each of the
signposts points to Christ and, ultimately, to new creation in Him.
30
Wright, History & Eschatology, 202. Richard Bauckham speaks about dualisms (opposing
forces/realities) and dualities (contrasted, but not opposing) according to John’s theology. See Richard Bauckham,
Gospel of Glory: Major Themes in Johannine Theology (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2015), 134-5. The most
helpful way to think of biblical signposts, and the eternal realities to which they point, is to label the duality
“provisional v. eschatological.” The signpost is provisional (not corrupted, rejected, or replaced); the reality is
eschatological (it fulfills, magnifies, transcends, glorifies).

12
 surrounded by a jewel-like rainbow, with seven burning lampstands and a sea
of glass like crystal, and angels playing trumpets. What seemed to be the very
denial of beauty, the quintessence of our cynical disappointment with its
promise and allure, turns out to be the generating source of a beauty through
which the whole creation is renewed and throbs with praise. That is how the
signpost of beauty is retrieved by the early Christians. But at the cross of Jesus
it had seemed a mere deceitful mirage. As Jesus died, there was no beautiful
twilight, just darkness. And in the morning, only horror. Jesus chose Passover,
the freedom-festival, to do what had to be done.”31
6. Sabbath: Wright argues effectively for Sabbath-eschatology, Temple-
cosmology, and Messianic-anthropology.32
7. Circumcision: the eternal sign of the Abrahamic Covenant (Gen 17:9-14)
becomes a Spirit-wrought reality within the human heart (Col 2:9-15; cf. Ezek
36:26-27).
8. Priesthood: Wright affirms, “The conjunction and the advance glory-filling are
to take place through the work of the image-bearers, specifically the priests
and the kings. This is the combination of roles ascribed to Israel itself in
Exodus 19 and reaffirmed in relation to Jesus’s followers in 1 Peter and the
book of Revelation.”33
E. The Characteristics of Various Biblical-Theological Models
1. Historical Reconstruction (Behind the Text) = BT1
a. Definition: “The task of BT1 is to affirm the exegetical or descriptive
nature of biblical theology and deny the theological or normative
nature of biblical theology.”34
b. Historical Criticism: in most cases, the goal of BT1 is to get behind the
ancient mythological worldview in order to find bare historical fact.
c. Extreme “Author-Centered” Hermeneutic: the human author
determines the extent of the biblical book’s context. No attention is
given to the canonical shape of Scripture because “canonicity” was
determined by later theologians, not original authors. The original
socio-historical context is shaped by non-canonical (even extra-
canonical) sources, which are given equal weight in discovering

31
Wright, History & Eschatology, 267.
32
Wright, History & Eschatology, 280 says, “The Temple stood for the coming together of heaven and
earth, the Sabbath stood for the long-promised future arriving already in the present, and humans were seen as
Image-bearers, as God-reflectors, standing at the threshold of heaven and earth, of past and future.” In line with the
Fourth Gospel, Wright finds the Temple fulfillment in Christ. In line with Hebrews, Wright finds the Sabbath
fulfillment in Christ. And in line with Colossians (1:15), Wright finds image-bearing humanity focused on, and
fulfilled in, the Messiah. We might add Torah to sociology or ethics to complete the circle. Regardless, whatever
we think of Temple, Torah, Sabbath, Image of God, and other OT concepts, we must find—as the NT so eloquently
presents—Christ at the center.
33
Wright, History & Eschatology, 203.
34
Klink and Lockett, Biblical Theology, 30.

13
 historical meaning.
d. Liberal University: BT1 sometimes implies that the Bible belongs to
the liberal university, and not—as is historically affirmed—to the
church. As such, the Bible is to be studied for its historical value apart
from its spiritual, transformative value. There is relatively little, or no
concern whatsoever for religion, faith, salvation, or ethics.
e. Description of History: the biblical text is not prescriptive in the
modern world (or any other sense).35
f. Past v. Present, Text v. Truth: BT1 emphasizes the past (what Scripture
meant in its original context) over-and-above the transcendent (what
Scripture means in all contexts). Biblical theology answers the first
concern; Systematic theology addresses the second one. Truth
(normative, prescriptive doctrine) may be found in the biblical text, but
not as the result of biblical-theological investigation. Rather, truth
claims surface within systematic theology belonging to contemporary
Christianity (religion).36
g. Unification of Various Traditions: biblical theology should unite
traditions instead of creating doctrinal factions.
h. Scientific Method: the model conforms to a “white lab coat” style of
exegesis, meeting the standards of objective observation apart from
prior faith commitments and/or traditional presuppositions. One must
observe historical detail and propose verifiable hypotheses. BT1 is the
spawn of post-Enlightenment (or Renaissance) humanism and
modernist rationalism, with their scientific worldview and (delusional)
pursuit of objective knowledge.
2. Chronological Unfolding of Redemptive History (Author-Text) = BT2
a. Definition: “The task of BT2 is to discern the historical progression of
God’s work of redemption through an inductive analysis of key themes
developing through both discrete corpora and the whole of Scripture.
Major themes such as covenant or kingdom constitute the theological
connecting fibers between the Old and New Testaments, and these
themes necessarily run along a historical trajectory, giving

35
Klink and Lockett, Biblical Theology, 35 further define BT1, “Biblical theology emphasizes the
intellectual aspects of the religious context—ideas, formulas, arguments, mental concepts, theological
developments—all as they can be derived from written texts. History of religions, by contrast, emphasizes cultural
aspects of the religious context—customs, rituals, architecture, relation to groups and classes, social, economic, and
political setting, and psychology.”
36
Klink and Lockett, Biblical Theology, 39 point to Karl Barth, who “finds an overtly theological
subject matter in the Bible. A concentration on an atemporal subject matter—God, Jesus (the Christ), grace, and so
on—bridges the gap between the centuries and necessitates their sameness. For Barth, the historical tension
between then and now is relieved in a theological category of ‘otherness.’” We understand this “otherness” in terms
of transcendence (resulting in a transfigured continuity of the biblical narrative). The Trinity, and all divine self-
revelation, eternally exists outside human history. But because Christ—who stands above history—also stands
within history, He alone, as the subject-matter of all Scripture, unites all time and space in himself. As Lord of the
Sabbath, Christ unites past, present, and future time. As eschatological Temple, he collapses the heaven-and-earth
divide and unites the cosmos.

14
 fundamental structure to the theology of the Bible.”37
b. Author-Text Hermeneutic: more balanced than BT1, this model
affirms the unity of Scripture, the priority of inspired canonical texts
(over-and-above non-canonical sources)
c. Chronological: “the Bible is a historically developing collection of
documents [necessarily involving] a whole-Bible biblical theology [in
which] the way to discern this development is through tracing the
major themes and overarching structural ideas through the whole of
Scripture. Crucially, however, these themes and structural ideas are
only discernable as they develop chronologically.”38
d. Biblical Theology as Divine Self-Disclosure: the timeless God has
revealed himself within time (in OT covenants, through Patriarchs and
Prophets… now, supremely in Christ). The unity in God demands a
unity in God’s self-revelation. Therefore, because biblical theology is
the progressive (historical) self-disclosure of God himself, this
revelation constitutes a unified message.39
e. Biblical Theology as Embedded in History: thus, BT2 is not concerned
about extracting timeless principles from the biblical text. Instead, it
prefers that truth be anchored within history. For example, the
biblical-theological method of Richard Gaffin helpfully argues for the
historicity of Adam (the progenitor of the human race) against a
“timeless” Adam that teaches God’s general creation of all humanity,
regardless of Adam’s priority.40 History is invested with meaning.
f. Unfolding Narrative: the historical reality matters, so that the Bible’s
story is told within actual, real events. For example, the city of Jericho

37
Klink and Lockett, Biblical Theology, 66. The weakness of BT2 appears to be its insistence on
chronological, linear development of biblical themes which are only discerned according to a forward trajectory.
The Fourth Gospel demonstrates that the ones closest to Jesus—the Twelve disciples—failed to discern spiritual
realities and figural correspondence in this fashion (John 2:17-22; 12:16; 20:8-9). They discerned truth
retrospectively, by interpreting the life of Christ—and the whole Old Testament—through the hermeneutical lenses
of resurrection. The student of Scripture applies retrospective discernment to the biblical canon and begins to read
the OT in light of the NT, developing a Christo-centric hermeneutic that prioritizes NT revelation, and presupposes
that OT texts can only be rightly (fully) understood in light of Christ.
38
Klink and Lockett, Biblical Theology, 64.
39
Klink and Lockett, Biblical Theology, 70 write, “A proper biblical theology ought not limit itself to
hearing the Old Testament as received in the new, but as the Old Testament in itself. Biblical theology, then, must be
more than just the sum of OT and NT theologies. Rather, it must be concerned with the entire canon, and always be
awake to the danger of both a canon within the canon and the tendency to shrink the OT merely to its reception in
the NT.” The BT2 model honors the priority of newer revelation, placing strong emphasis on the progressive
unfolding nature of divine revelation in redemptive history. The warning here is appropriate, given the flawed
tendency to shortcut or flatten out the distinctive nature/theology of a given canonical book.
40
See J. P. Versteeg, Adam in the New Testament: Mere Teaching Model, or First Historical Man (trans.
Richard B. Gaffin Jr., 2nd ed. Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R Publishing, 2012). Gaffin lectures on the same topic in the
following link: https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/blogs/justin-taylor/inerrancy-adam-and-the-gospel/ (accessed 22
August 2022 @ 7:35pm). In the lecture, Gaffin argues against John H. Walton, The Lost World of Adam & Eve:
Genesis 2—3 and the Human Origins Debate (Downers Grove: IVP, 2015).

15
 actually fell in the manner that the OT recounts it.41
g. Normative Theology: this method proposes reading the Bible on its
own terms, acknowledging its own Christocentric focus with
sensitivity to the historical and literary structures that contribute
toward understanding, developing, and articulating normative
theology. Note the shift: normative theology is expected in this model
(not in BT1).
h. The BT2 method is most common within conservative evangelicalism
(for example, see Carson’s NSBT series).
3. Worldview-Story Model of Redemptive History (Text-Centered) = BT342
a. Definition: “Using the category of narrative to broker a balance
between history and theology, the task of BT3 directs readers to
understand the individual episodes or passages of Scripture in light of
its overarching story line. Instead of progressing from the smallest bits
and pieces of the narrative to the larger whole, BT3 starts with the
larger narrative portions of text through which individual units are
read.”
b. Text-Centered Hermeneutic (Intertextuality): “Another way to
discover the overarching coherence of Scripture is to rely heavily on
how NT authors use the OT. This largely intertextual move
understands the interconnected narrative of Scripture as taking shape
specifically through either Paul’s or Jesus’s interpretation of the OT.”
c. Christ-Centered Hermeneutic: “For Hays, Paul has discovered a new
theological reality by noting how the reality of Jesus Christ casts its
shadow across the story line of the OT. The key tool for Hays to
discover Paul’s new reading of Israel’s Scripture through the reality of
Jesus is the phenomenon of literary intertextuality. His specific
concern is to gain access to the narrative unity between the Old and
New Testaments through the interpretive practices of Paul himself.
Often the unintended consequences of this approach are that (1) OT
texts not taken up in the NT are deemphasized, and (2) OT texts that
are mentioned in the NT are usually read only as the NT understands
them.”43
d. Transformative Effect: the unified drama shapes the hearts/minds
(worldview) of its readers by the power of the indwelling Spirit.44

41
For the debate surrounding Jericho, see Stephen M. Garrett and J. Merrick, eds. Five Views on
Biblical Inerrancy (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2013), 42-46 and individual contributions throughout.
42
See points under 1.A.2 above.
43
Points “b” and “c” are from Klink and Lockett, Biblical Theology, 111.
44
N. T. Wright, Jesus and the Victory of God (London: SPCK, 1996), 138 says, “World-views are the
lenses through which a society looks at the world, the grid upon which are plotted the multiple experiences of life.”
Klink and Lockett, Biblical Theology, 124-25 add, “For Wright, worldviews operate on a presuppositional or
precognitive level, ‘like the foundations of a house: vital, but invisible.’ These foundational presuppositions, in turn,

16
 e. Hermeneutics by Apprenticeship: “Hays’s strategy for reading
Scripture: he looks over Paul’s shoulder, he sees how Paul himself
reads and interprets Israel’s Scriptures. In composing his letter to the
Galatians, for example, Paul reflects back on the overarching shape
and direction of the OT, which becomes the framework (“narrative
substructure”) for Paul’s understanding of the significance of Jesus
Christ. For Hays, the “story” found in the OT becomes the framework
over which Paul stretches out the narrative fabric of his gospel.”45
f. Like BT2, the story of Scripture must be rooted in real historical
events, so that the new creation is brought to life in the midst of the old
creation. Historicity matters; this is not an ethereal mythology, as in
much Greek philosophy, but actual history. History, invested with
transcendence, determines normative value.
g. Worldview Drama: Elements of BT2 & BT3
Act 1 = God Establishes His Kingdom: Creation
Act 2 = Rebellion in the Kingdom: Fall
Act 3 = The King Chooses Israel: Redemption Initiated
Scene 1: A People for the King
Scene 2: A Land for His People
--Interlude Kingdom Story Waiting for an Ending: The Intertestamental Period--
Act 4 = The Coming of the King: Redemption Accomplished
Act 5 = Spreading the News of the King: The Mission of the Church
Scene 1: From Jerusalem to Rome
Scene 2: And into All the World
Act 6 = The Return of the King: Redemption Completed46
h. Finally, N. T. Wright says, “Doctrines of systematic theology are
actually ‘portable stories,’ something like suitcases that travel well, but
they are packed full of implied narrative.”47 For example, the doctrine

are expressed through stories (‘worldview-by-means-of-story’). He argues that ‘worldviews provide the stories
through which human beings view reality. Narrative is the most characteristic expression of worldview, going deeper
than the isolated observation or fragmented remark.’ Thus, he notes, through stories ‘one can in principle discover
how to answer the basic questions that determine human existence: who are we, where are we, what is wrong, and
what is the solution.’ For Wright, then, stories express a worldview and in turn generate theological beliefs.
Therefore, in Wright’s understanding, stories form a foundation supporting basic presuppositions (in the form of a
worldview) that then become fixed in theological convictions. Thus, a ‘story’ and the ‘worldview’ it produces is
central to Wright’s notion of biblical theology.”
45
Klink and Lockett, Biblical Theology, 113. This method is similar to that of Bruno, et al., Biblical
Theology as well as David I. Starling, Hermeneutics as Apprenticeship: How the Bible Shapes Our Interpretive
Habits and Practices (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2016). The warnings of 1.E (2.d; 3.c) are somewhat muted
by the model of hermeneutics by apprenticeship. If Spirit-inspired NT authors manifest a specific hermeneutic
method, accentuate certain OT texts as particularly significant, and prioritize the Christ-event as interpretive key,
then apprentices should follow suit in their own biblical interpretation.
46
Craig G. Bartholomew and Michael W. Goheen, The Drama of Scripture: Finding Our Place in the
Biblical Story (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2004), 27.
47
N.T. Wright, “Reading Paul, Thinking Scripture,” in Scripture’s Doctrine and Theology’s Bible: How
the New Testament Shapes Christian Dogmatics (ed. Markus Bockmuehl and Alan J. Torrance; Grand Rapids:
Baker, 2008), 62-64.

17
 of Substitutionary Atonement is packed with the implicit narratives of
Passover and Crucifixion. To say “substitutionary atonement” is to
evoke the narratives of Exod 12:1-20 and John 19:28-37.
4. Contemporary, Canon-Shaped Theology (Text-Reader) = BT4
a. Definition: “Canonical interpretation of Scripture inevitably assumes
some operational convictions regarding the identity, character, and
literary sources of revelation or truth to which the Christian faith lays
claim in the world. This becomes the foundation of the canonical
approach… what some have called ‘canonical criticism.’”48
b. Characteristics: “The task of BT4 is to affirm the exegetical form and
function of the canon for biblical theology, embracing both the
descriptive (historical) and prescriptive (theological) nature of
Scripture and its confessional community.”49
c. Hermeneutics: at the outset of BT4, we notice…
• BT1 represents a very strict “author-centered” and historical-
reconstructionist hermeneutic approach.
• BT5 (we anticipate) representing a very subjective “reader-
response criticism” and emotional-constructionist hermeneutic
approach.
• BT1 wants to access the author’s world and BT5 seeks to
access the reader’s mindset/reaction.
• BT3 focuses on the text-centered approach and seeks to
moderate the polar extremes of author and reader (history and
modernity, academy and church), as well as perceived
“objectivity” and radical “subjectivity.”
• BT2 & BT4 are combinations/variations of “author-text” and
“text-reader” hermeneutic approaches.
d. Text-Reader Hermeneutic
e. Organic/Ontological Relationship of OT & NT: the OT is not merely a
sequential “first act” or preparation for the NT, but is related to it more
organically. Thus, “The OT, as much as the NT, must remain
authoritative for the church. While the canonical form of the Bible
warrants a respect for the two distinct voices of the Testaments, the
Christian church simultaneously affirms that the Bible is a unified
witness bearing testimony to one Lord, Jesus Christ, who is, at the core
of both Testaments, the divine reality underlying the entire biblical
canon.”50
f. The Holy Spirit not only inspired the biblical text, but also

48
Klink and Lockett, Biblical Theology, 141.
49
Klink and Lockett, Biblical Theology, 143.
50
Klink and Lockett, Biblical Theology, 144.

18
 superintended the collection and arrangement of the canon.
g. Bible Belongs to the Church: BT4 embraces some aspects of historical
reconstruction, but “ultimately, as necessary as a historical reading is,
it cannot be the rule. A catholic/ecclesial reading is a Christian reading,
rooted in an appeal to the “Rule of Faith.” This rule—a “measuring
rod” used to interpret the Bible rooted in the overarching story of the
Bible and its primary subject matter: the gospel of Jesus Christ—
functioned in the early church as a hermeneutical key for the
interpretation of Scripture. For this reason the canonical approach can
never read the Bible in an academic setting alone, for it ultimately
requires the confessing church.”51 Faith is required for right
interpretation.
5. Theological Construction (Front of Text; Reader-Response Criticism) = BT5
a. Definition: “Affirms the integrated nature of biblical theology as a
theological, hermeneutical, and exegetical discipline with overriding
theological concerns, incorporating biblical scholarship into the larger
enterprise of Christian theology.”52
b. Characteristics: BT5 is influenced by…
• The substantial collapse of modernity’s dream of “objectivity,”
with its allied dichotomy of discoverable “facts” from merely
subjective “beliefs/values” (i.e., “theology”).
• The recognition that the subject matter and implied readership
of the Bible are overtly theological and religious, inviting
nuanced theological reflection.
• The understanding that from the outset the biblical writings
were read “canonically,” and thus that the unity of the
Testaments was and remains a substantial and significant issue.
• The renewed emphasis on the role of the reader (in history and
today), which has blurred the distinction between exegesis and
interpretation and has opened up the (postmodern) way to a
plethora of ideological and theological readings.53
c. Extreme Reader-Response Criticism: Christians are called not merely
to generate scriptural interpretations but to embody those
interpretations as well.54 The main concern is how the Bible is
relevant for today. Implied and embedded within this method is
anthropocentrism and self-centeredness that asks, “What does the
Bible say/mean to me?” Objective meaning may be a modernist

51
Klink and Lockett, Biblical Theology, 148.
52
Klink and Lockett, Biblical Theology, 181.
53
The list is from Klink and Lockett, Biblical Theology, 183.
54
Klink and Lockett, Biblical Theology, 180.

19
 illusion, but subjective meaning yields nonsensical plurality. Each
person possesses his/her own “truth,” defining it as one pleases.
d. Canon to Confession: the canon of Scripture leads to confessional
Christianity and the Bible becomes a book of the present. “The Bible
must be defined as a living text and must be interpreted within the live
worship of the contemporary church.”55
e. Mediated Presence: the presence of Christ is mediated by the
Scriptures, so that he may be encountered in the living, active Word of
God.
Summary: Jesus said, “If you believed Moses, you would believe me; for he wrote of me”
(John 5:46). Therefore, we have been intentionally moving in the direction that Biblical
Theology prescribes: (1) we must emphasize biblical, covenantal, and narrative
continuity in Scripture; (2) we must embrace and employ a Christo-centric interpretive
methodology; and (3) we must interpret the OT by means of apostolic apprenticeship,
accentuating OT passages according to their redemptive-historical significance, while
evaluating them in light of newer revelation in the NT. Thus, we seek to interpret the OT
in its own provisional light, but we also seek to shine the eschatological light of divine
glory (in Christ) upon it, as was intended, and always dependent upon the Spirit.56
The historical setting is important (BT1), but not determinative. The
chronological, linear unfolding of redemptive history is instructive (BT2), but insufficient
for seeing Christ retrospectively. Likewise, authorial intent is an honorable hermeneutic
goal (BT1-BT2), but is only discernible in the text of Scripture itself. The reader’s
response to the text is necessary, and his/her transformation is inevitable (BT5), but the
construction of meaning is beyond his/her metaphysical station.57 A canonical reading of

55
Klink and Lockett, Biblical Theology, 182. Consider also, BT5 asserts “the text’s divine origin is less
significant than its present interaction with a contemporary reader” (197). What the Bible does in the present—as
transformative divine speech, acting upon the reader of Scripture—is the most important factor for BT5.
56
Kelly M. Kapic, A Little Book for New Theologians: Why and How to Study Theology (Downers
Grove: IVP Academic, 2012), 81 writes, “Christian theology is an active response to the revelation of God in Jesus
Christ, whereby the believer, in the power of the Holy Spirit, subordinate to the testimonies of the prophets and
apostles as recorded in the Scriptures and in communion with the saints, wrestles with and rests in the mysteries of
God, his work and his world. This is the way of our pilgrimage. This is the path of living to God.”
57
See Paul J. Griffiths, Intellectual Appetite: A Theological Grammar (Washington, DC: Catholic
University of America Press, 2009), 31–32. Griffiths writes, “Human existence, yours and mine and all of ours, is
lived first datively, as people addressed, called, and gifted; and only secondarily nominatively, as subjects looking
out over a world displayed for our delectation and consumption. The truth of this priority of the dative over the
nominative ought to be obvious enough to anyone who thinks about it for long. To live nominatively is to live as a
grammatical and psychological subject, an ‘I’ looking out at and manipulating the world. In this mode, the world is
the field of your gaze: it assumes the status of something looked at, something spread passively before you for your
delectation and manipulation. You, the looker, the gazing subject, are the active one, the one who initiates,
undertakes, performs, and controls.”

Griffiths continues, “By contrast, to live datively is to live confronted and addressed by a world that
questions, forms, and challenges you, the one addressed. It is to live in a world prior to and independent of yourself,
a given world, presented unasked, whose overwhelming presence presses you into a responsive mold whether you
like it or not. Agency, on this model, belongs as much to the given world as to the perceiving subject responding to
it. And this is a more adequate and accurate way of describing the relation between world and person than an

20
 Scripture highlights biblical unity (BT4), but neglects the priority of newer eschatological
revelation. Thus, reader-response criticism is an unavoidable reality in the interpretive
sphere (BT4-BT5), but must take its cues in passive receptivity from the divine activity
through inspired texts.58

-- THE NEW TESTAMENT (Gospels & Acts) --

Session 1: Historical & Cultural Background of the New Testament World

A. Three Worlds of New Testament Interpretation
1. Context is Key: consider the statement, “It is going to rain today.”
a. Beach Holiday: in light of making outdoor plans, the prospect of rain
turns anticipated fun into disappointment.
b. Farmer in East Africa: faced with drought and failed crop, the news of
forthcoming rain turns dejection into hope.
c. Meteorology: charged with forecasting the weather, anticipating storm
clouds and rain on the horizon vindicates my ability to do the job
correctly.
d. Mount Carmel: standing with the prophet Elijah (1 Kgs 18:41—19:8),
the coming rain means that Israel’s God is the true God.
e. Conclusion: context is key.59
2. Cultural World of the New Testament: interpretation depends on our
understanding of the historical and cultural world into which the NT was born.
The three worlds of the New Testament include:
a. Jewish World: here we come to understand the theological worldview
of New Testament writers and narrative figures.
b. Greek World: here we discover the philosophical context informing
much of New Testament thought and/or reaction.60

exclusive emphasis on the nominative life. You are constantly confronted and addressed by a world not of your
making and largely beyond your comprehension and control. The sensory arrays that appear before you, the fabric of
time that enmeshes you, the manifold of language in which you have your habitus, the social order in which your
roles are given to you, the sea of faces of human others, constantly addressing you, calling you into being—all these
make of you an indirect object and give you a dative, which is to say a called and donated, life.” This is certainly
how the biblical text speaks of metaphysical anthropological contingency. The Spirit wins our consent and, through
purification in love, presses us into the Christological mold not against our wills, but in harmony with them.
58
In other words, the divine Spirit inspired the text while contingent creatures receive the text, the
Spirit, and the transformative effects of both with an appropriate creaturely disposition: receptive passivity. The
active work of the biblical exegete is to discern/uncover meaning by challenging personal presuppositions,
worldview commitments, thought patterns, and/or sinful postures, tendencies, and biases that corrupt character and
distort the text. This exegete must conform to the textual world of transcendent-historical reality.
59
This example is adapted from Wright, Jesus and the Victory of God, 177. Wright says, “The single
statement demands to be ‘heard’ in the context of a full implicit plot, a complete implicit narrative… the meaning of
a sentence is the job it performs within a story.”
60
The Greek philosophy surrounding the New Testament world is usually flavored with Gnosticism, a
belief involving eternal dualism that pits forces of “good” and “evil” against one another; in this power struggle,

21
 c. Roman World: here we encounter the political environment of the New
Testament. The chart below provides time frame boundaries that have
come to define each period.
Period Time Frame
1. Babylonian Period 606-539 BC
2. Persian Period 539-331BC
3. Greek Period 331-167 BC
Alexander the Great 331-320 BC
Ptolemaic Period 320-198 BC
Seleucid / Syrian Period 198-167 BC
4. Jewish Self-Rule 167-63 BC
Maccabean Period 167-142 BC
Hasmonean Period 142-63 BC
5. Roman Period 63 BC-70 AD

B. The World of the Old Testament: the Second Temple Period

1. Babylonian Period: Historical & Theological Background
a. Northern Kingdom of Israel: the fall of Samaria to the Assyrians in
722 BC marked the end of Israel’s northern kingdom. Israel had been
judged for emphasizing the ceremonial aspects of the covenant with
God above the practical and ethical elements of their covenant
relationship. In short, they had taken on the appearance of corporate
holiness; their lips drew near to God. But they had neglected, and
even actively denied, the ethical demands of the Law; their hearts
remained far from God. Idolatry, too, had become a poison in the
veins of the covenant community. And so, for 8th Century BC Israel,
Assyria became the rod of the Lord’s discipline. But Assyria’s
political preeminence was relatively short-lived and their influence in
Judah was limited.61
b. Babylonian Conquest: the Babylonian period began in 606 BC, as
Nebuchadnezzar marched his military forces into the Southern

neither force is able to finally overcome the other. Another Greek philosophy behind the NT world is known as
Cynicism, a philosophy of life that rejected worldly wealth and sought spiritual advancement (thus, some Cynics
would walk barefoot, carrying a sack and walking stick while begging for food or money). A third philosophical
system that interacts somewhat with the NT world is Stoicism, which sought to subject the emotions to intellect and
will. Their goal was the pursuit of virtue through well-defined ethical systems. And finally, we note the features of
Epicureanism, a philosophy that later developed more generally into deism. This group believed in a sharp division
between the spiritual and physical, claiming that the creator god was distant and unapproachable, unconcerned and
ultimately inactive within the time-space universe. As a result of their philosophical systems, many Greeks believed
“salvation” meant escaping the trappings of an evil, material world and ascending to the pure, spiritual realm.
61
Here we are careful to note that Assyrian control in Judah was extensive even though they failed to
capture Jerusalem. Isaiah’s prophecy says that Assyria would “sweep on into Judah, swirling over it, passing
through it and reaching up to the neck” (Isa 8:8). For the historical fulfillment, see Isa 36—37.

22
 Kingdom of Judah and conquered her lands. Later, in 586 BC, the
Babylonians would conquer Jerusalem and destroy Solomon’s Temple.
c. Babylonian Worldview: highly spiritual in nature, this pagan
worldview interpreted the fall of Jerusalem as the defeat of Israel’s
god. However, the righteous remnant within Israel believed that God
would act decisively, within history, to deliver his people and show his
unrivalled sovereignty.
d. King Nebuchadnezzar: the custom of Babylon’s ruler was to deport the
higher classes of conquered people to Babylon. In Judah, this meant
the deportation of Daniel, Ezekiel, and others, while a new king was
installed to rule under Babylonian authority.62 It was under this king’s
rule that Solomon’s Temple was destroyed after an attempted
insurrection.
2. Babylonian Deportation & Theological Crisis: the dissolution of the Davidic
monarchy, the loss of the ceremonial sanctuary, and the proximity to Gentiles
all created moral and ceremonial problems for those living outside of Judea.63
a. Torah Observance: the result was an emphasis on law-keeping. For
the deported in Babylon, many of the ceremonial and ritual
observances of the law could no longer take place. For those left
behind in Judah, the destruction of the temple also ensured that such
practices were discontinued.
b. Synagogue Worship: the people of Palestine would witness the rise of
the synagogue, a place where believers could meet to discuss the
ramifications of the law. The discussion undoubtedly centered on the
purity of the spiritual community as well. The Jews recognized that
their idolatry had been punished; they were confronted with the truth
that Yahweh would not tolerate the worship of other gods.
c. Torah as Temple: during the exile, idolatry was denounced among the
Jewish people and law-keeping rose to a position of prominence.
Observing Torah restored the obedient Jew to the presence of God
(Law as movable Tabernacle), marking those who were truly spiritual
and, thus, the true Israel.
3. The Persian Period
a. Cyrus the Great: history shows that on 29 October 539 BC, Cyrus the
Great rode into Babylon and announced that a new dynasty had arrived
on the scene in the ancient world. A new “King of Babylon” had come
to fulfill a specific divine purpose.
b. The Bible tells us that Cyrus’ military success was due to the hand of
God. It was Israel’s God who would liberate his people through a

62
This is the reign of King Zedekiah – formerly known by his Jewish name Mattaniah – as chronicled
in 2 Kgs 24.

Andreas Köstenberger, The Cradle, The Cross, and The Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament
63

(Nashville, TN: B&H Publishing Group, 2009), 63.

23
 counter-intuitive plan; he would strengthen a pagan monarch, calling
him to be the Lord’s “Messiah.”64
c. Foreign Policy of Cyrus: the Persians moved in a completely different
direction than Nebuchadnezzar. Whereas the latter had gathered the
socially elite in trying to create uniformity in the Babylonian Empire,
the former chose instead to allow captive people to continue in their
separate faiths and various spiritual practices. This was likely due to
the fact that Cyrus wanted to gain the favor of the gods, whichever
they were and wherever they were worshipped. The result was a
favorable disposition toward the Jews and the restoration of Jerusalem.
Thus, when Ezra asked for permission to return to Palestine, his
request was honored. Slowly but surely, the remnant returned with
provisions for the monumental task of rebuilding Jerusalem’s walls
and temple. In the years that followed, Persia became a large empire,
ruling over vast territories that stretched from Ethiopia to India.
d. Persian Influence: the Persians were influential in the Holy Land for
more than 200 years. Then, as a result of several conflicts with the
Greeks, the Persian Empire weakened. Attempts to subdue the Greeks
were fruitless, and after the Athenians defeated the Persians at
Marathon, all-out war was declared by Xerxes (the husband of Queen
Esther). The Greek navy was a superior force and powerfully paved
the way for control of much of the Persian Empire. Though the
Persians and Greeks continued in smaller scale conflicts for some
time, Judea was generally unaffected. Eventually, as predicted in
Daniel’s prophecy, the Greek Empire grew in significance and
international preeminence.65
C. The World of the New Testament: Transition to the Roman Period
1. Greek Period: divided into three parts… all of which usher in the historical
Roman Period.
a. Alexander the Great (331-320 BC)
b. Ptolemaic Period (320-198 BC)
c. Seleucid or Syrian Period (198-167 BC).
d. Further Influence: it should be noted that the influence of Greek
thought, philosophy, and culture extended far beyond the dates
indicated. Hellenism, the popular term for Greek culture, exerted

64
Isa 44:28 speaks of Cyrus as the Lord’s “shepherd” and Isa 45:1 refers to Cyrus as the Lord’s
“anointed” (or Messiah). Cyrus rose to power as a political—not spiritual—deliverer of God’s people.
65
Köstenberger, Cradle, Cross, Crown, 65 says, “See Dan 8:5-8… [and] the vision is of a male goat
that viciously destroys a ram with two asymmetrical horns. The ram is identified in Dan 8:20 as the Medo-Persian
Empire, which advances northwest and south. The male goat with one conspicuous horn is Alexander the Great,
king of Greece (see Dan 8:21). He pushes west with great intensity and speed. The end of Alexander’s kingdom is
presented as well. The kingdom is split into four horns, and a little horn (most likely Antiochus IV Epiphanes)
persecutes Judea.”

24
 significant influence in Palestine and the larger Roman Empire until
the early Medieval Period.
2. Greek Period: Alexander the Great (331-320 BC)
a. Education: the famous Greek philosopher Aristotle had been called to
educate a young boy of 13 years named Alexander. This boy would
become the ruler of Greece shortly after his father, Philip of Macedon,
was killed in 336 BC.
b. Military Prowess: Alexander quickly subdued internal division in the
Greek city-states and unified the empire, thereafter fixing his attention
on Persia. His education supplied him with philosophical ideals and
military capability, both of which were evident in his conquests. He
moved with speed and aggression, with courage and skill, and with the
conviction that Hellenism should be the foundation of global society.
3. Egypt & Persia: the two empires had been engaged in war until the early part
of 334 BC, when Darius III re-established his rule and declared himself the
“King of Egypt.” The Egyptians despised Persian rule. Because the Persian
military had exhausted its resources dealing with the Egyptians, they were
vulnerable in Asia Minor.
a. Alexander took full advantage, moving his forces with speed and
relative ease through modern Turkey before turning south to meet
Darius. Near Tarsus in 333 BC, Darius was defeated and fled to the
east. Before pursuing him, the Greeks took Palestine and Egypt
without a fight. Like Cyrus before him, Alexander was part of biblical
prophecy and was welcomed by the Jews.66
b. Egypt also surrendered peacefully. Within two years’ time (around
331 BC), Alexander’s forces overwhelmed the Persian military and
witnessed the execution of Darius by his own commanders. Alexander
was left standing without any rival on the international scene. His rise
to power in only 13 years had been swift indeed. But his death would
come even faster. Alexander died from a fever at the age of 33.
4. Hellenism & Cultural Crisis: the collapse of the Persian Empire—and the
favor shown to the Jewish people (modified self-governance, religious
freedom, and preserved ethnic identity)—meant a second great crisis in
Jewish history.
a. World Culture: Greek rulers held the belief that Hellenism was the
superior philosophy and way of life; thus, the Jews were confronted
with the ideology of Alexander, who wanted to plant the seeds of
Greek culture in all conquered lands. The relatively passive Persians
were replaced by highly motivated Greeks. Hellenism, with its
philosophical worldview, became the new world culture.

66
Josephus tells us that the Jews even showed Alexander the book of Daniel, pointing to divine
providence as the force behind his conquests (Josephus, Jewish Antiquities 11.337 in Köstenberger, Cradle, Cross,
Crown, 66).

25
 b. Divided Empire: after the death of Alexander, the empire was divided.
Again, the book of Daniel foretold these events. The four horns that
grew in four directions were Alexander’s military generals, successors
(Greek: διάδοχος) to the empire.
• The general who inherited Egypt was the only one who formed
a successful kingdom. His name was Ptolemy I Soter, the one
after whom all the succeeding rulers of Egypt were called.
• Indeed, every ruler in Egypt until AD 30 was called “Ptolemy”
until Ptolemy XI, the last in the bloodline of Ptolemy I.
5. The Ptolemaic Period: Alexandria, Egypt became the greatest city in the
Mediterranean world. By 200 BC, her famous library and museum made her
“the intellectual and spiritual center of the Greek world.”67
a. Septuagint (LXX): during this time, the Septuagint translation of the
Old Testament was completed. Seventy scholars, appointed by
Ptolemy II Philadelphus, were recognized by the Roman numeral LXX
(Seventy) and translated the Hebrew Old Testament into Greek.
b. Alexander’s Legacy: the Septuagint stood as a testimony of
Alexander’s enduring legacy, for he had wanted Hellenism to spread
into all aspects of social and religious life. Prepared in Egypt, the
LXX was quickly adopted by Greek speaking Jews spread throughout
the world in the Diaspora.
c. In regard to the Judean region, the Ptolemaic Empire was mainly
concerned with peaceful and prosperous trade routes that led to heavy
taxation. But on the ground, the people were seemingly governed by
the High Priest. Ptolemy I Soter had exiled 120,000 Jews to
Alexandria, but his son, Ptolemy II liberated them and returned them
to the Holy Land in some cases.
d. Seleucids in Babylon: Seleucus I Nicator was the first of the rulers to
govern Syria. Originally, the Seleucid Empire extended from Asia
Minor to Babylonia, but later was reduced to the territory of Syria.
The Seleucids and Ptolemies engaged in constant battles over control
of Palestine. In the eighth century BC, it had been a vital land bridge
and highly coveted trade route situated between the political powers of
its day. And once again, Judea saw its unique position in the Ancient
Near East as a blessing and a curse.
6. The Seleucid Period: the temple in Jerusalem was the spiritual and economic
center of Palestine. Large amounts of money were kept within its walls in
hope that the deity would protect the wealth. So when the Seleucids were
defeated by the Romans, and Antiochus IV was installed as ruler in order to
pay an exorbitant tribute to Rome, the wealth of the temple was in jeopardy.
a. Antiochus IV accepted bribes in appointing the High Priests and other
temple officials.

67
Köstenberger, Cradle, Cross, Crown, 67.

26
 b. He lorded his rule over the people, calling himself “Epiphanes,” which
was a claim to be Zeus incarnate.
c. He promoted Hellenism with such ferocity that the Jews were
incensed.
d. He sold the priesthood first to a rightful descendant, but then for a
higher price to an outsider (a non-Zadokite).68
e. He was a Gentile who blatantly entered the temple and thus defiled it.
He had a vindictive disregard for Jewish customs and a cruel
disposition toward Jews themselves.
f. He attempted to rid the world of Judaism.
7. Antiochus IV & Religious Crisis: the attempt to ban Judaism presented the
Jewish people with a third great crisis of this historical period.
a. Prohibition: Antiochus prohibited the possession of Torah, the practice
of circumcision, festivals, and offerings to Yahweh.
b. Abomination of Desolation: the most devastating of all was the
dedication of the Jerusalem temple to Zeus, the head of the Greek
pantheon. Antiochus erected a statue of Zeus in the temple and
sacrificed a pig on the altar.69
c. Great Tribulation: at the same time, horrible persecution was enacted
against the Jews, with crucifixion and hangings the typical punishment
for those who continued in Jewish observances.
d. Maccabean Revolt: it is little wonder, then, that pious Jews mounted a
resistance against the Seleucids and, in the Maccabean Revolt, gained
a measure of political and religious autonomy.
8. Jewish Autonomy: two major movements.
a. Maccabean Revolt (167-135 BC): the first is a military movement
named after the third son of Mattathias, a man called Judas
“Maccabeus” (Judas “the Hammer”) because of his military prowess.
• Mattathias had been a farmer and priest in a small village
called Modein who killed an envoy of Antiochus IV.
• The envoy had offered gold and silver if Mattathias was willing
to offer a sacrifice to the gods. The event was the spark that
ignited the resistance movement.
• Judas Maccabeus succeeded partly because of his skills in
diplomacy and warfare, but largely benefitted from the disarray
in Syria’s political leadership.
b. In 165 BC, the ban on Judaism was lifted, and the temple was cleansed
a year later,70 but the Jewish people by this time had tasted enough

68
Or, one not descending from the Levitical Priesthood established by Aaron, brother of Moses.
69
Köstenberger, Cradle, Cross, Crown, 69.

The commemoration of this event is held every year in the Feast of Lights, an eight-day celebration
70

called Hanukkah.

27
 success that their ambitions grew into full-blown national autonomy.
The struggle for power that followed the death of Antiochus IV
afforded them an opportunity.
• Judas’ death in battle in 160 BC was a temporary setback that
stalled efforts, but Judas’ brother, Jonathan, quickly positioned
Israel for increased freedom from the Syrians by 157 BC.
• Jonathan spurned Scripture in accepting the position of High
Priest in 153/52 BC, which may have led to the development of
the Qumran community near the Dead Sea. This community
was, above all, interested in the purity of Jewish worship and
possibly saw Jonathan’s movement away from Scriptural
authority as a warning. The Dead Sea Scrolls speak of a
“Wicked King,” which is likely a reference to Jonathan.71
• Regardless, the success of Judas and Jonathan was advanced by
the youngest brother, Simon, who led the movement to the
intended end of political freedom. The group of Jewish
nationalists became known as the Hasmoneans (after Hasmon,
the great-grandfather of Mattathias)72 and they finally gained
freedom from Syria in 142 BC. Founded on basically good
intentions, the Hasmonean Dynasty was quickly beset by
leaders defined by greed, a lust for power, and worldliness.
c. Hasmonean Dynasty (135-63 BC): the second major movement was
under John Hyrcanus. Hyrcanus was something of a Pharisee in
religious conviction, a theological conservative who led Judean
expansion into Moab and Idumea.
• His son, Aristobulus, called himself King and expanded the
dynasty to the northern Galilean areas. After his sudden death,
Aristobulus’ older brother Alexander Janneus ruled as a “Greek
Lover”73 because he was Hellenistic in his persuasions.
• During Alexander’s reign, from 130-76 BC, Israel experienced
something of a return to her golden era under Solomon in terms
of political influence and geographical expanse, but her
spiritual condition worsened. His wife, Salome Alexandra
ruled after his death, from 76-67 BC in relative peace.
d. Hasmonean Period: the Pharisees appeared alongside the Sadducees.
• Sadducees supported the Hasmonean Dynasty by some sort of
involvement in the political sphere.
• Pharisees stood opposed to the Sadducees during the reign of

71
Schurer, Jewish History in the Age of Jesus Christ, in Köstenberger, Cradle, Cross, Crown, 71.
72
Köstenberger, Cradle, Cross, Crown, 71.
73
Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, in Köstenberger, Cradle, Cross, Crown, 71.

28
 Hyrcanus and were lay leaders of the Sanhedrin during the time
of Salome.
• Hasidim (Pharisees + Essenes): the group split during this time
period, and the Essenes moved to Qumran while the Pharisees
remained in Jerusalem. For the Pharisees, true devotion to the
Lord was evident in law-keeping, for a greater emphasis had
fallen on the Law above the ceremonial practices and
sacrificial system closely associated with Solomon’s Temple.
• Perhaps the Pharisees were influential in helping exiled
Hebrews maintain spiritual discipline during the Babylonian
captivity. Or perhaps they were established during the rule of
Jonathan Maccabeus. History speaks of their existence without
clarifying their inception. Nevertheless, they would continue
to play a prominent role in the Roman Period that followed.
D. The World of the New Testament: the Roman Period: under General Pompey, the
Romans would crush the Seleucids and subdue the Palestinian rebels. This marked
the “fourth great crisis in [Jewish] national identity: life under Roman rule.”74
1. Crisis of Roman Rule: the major crises of this period are twofold.
a. Paganism, emperor worship, and religious plurality. Perhaps only in
captivity—either in Assyria, or later in Babylon—had the people of
God been so immersed in spiritual darkness.
b. Second Temple Destroyed (70 AD): the destruction of the temple
challenged the very core the Hebrew worldview. Without temple
worship, and all the necessary elements of the Old Covenant that went
alongside it, the people would need to reconsider how they might
relate to Yahweh, their covenant God.
2. General Pompey (63 BC) & the Beginning of Roman Rule: the independent
Jewish state had come to an end. At first, Roman rule was much like the
Syrian rule before it; there were several parties vying for power in Israel.
a. Sons of Hyrcanus II Antipater, the Idumean, named Phasael and
Herod. Before Herod’s rule, there was the last of the Hasmoneans, a
man named Antigonus (the heir of Aristobulus II) who had killed
Phasael and deposed Hyrcanus II.
b. Herod the Great: during this time, Herod had fled to Rome and was
there named “King of Judea” by the Roman Senate in 40 BC. But it
was not until 37 BC that Herod would subdue his kingdom and begin
his official rule.
3. Herod the Great: the rule of Herod was an extension of Roman rule, as he was
a client king whose authority was granted from Rome. His administration was
to be in the service of Roman interests in the area. So he was “a friend and
ally of the Roman people.”75

74
Köstenberger, Cradle, Cross, Crown, 73.
75
Köstenberger, Cradle, Cross, Crown, 74.

29
 a. Herod’s Governance: under Herod, Palestine enjoyed a wealthy and
prosperous economy, with an expansion of the Temple foremost
among its many sources of pride. But Herod’s rule was also defined
by cruelty, suspicion, and a deep paranoia. He married five wives, and
one of them had been a Hasmonean princess, Mariamne, the
granddaughter of Hyrcanus. She and Herod had several sons and
daughters, but as the sons grew up and emerged in Herod’s mind as
competitors to the throne, he had them killed. He even suspected his
beloved wife of being involved and had her killed as well.
b. Caesar Augustus thought of Herod that it was better to be his pig than
his son.76
c. Herod descended into madness and eventually died a painful death. In
anticipation of his death, he had many prominent citizens arrested, to
be killed after his death to ensure a continuing state of mourning
throughout the land.
d. The historical sources outside the Bible corroborate the biblical
witness of Herod as troubled, suspicious, and violent. It is no wonder
that the wise men from the East were warned in a dream not to report
to the King concerning the whereabouts of the baby Jesus.
e. Herod’s sons were given ruling authority over various regions in about
4 BC: Judea, Samaria, and Idumea (which included Jerusalem).
Between the Testaments: Roman Period (63 BC—70AD)
Year Event
63 BC General Pompey enters Jerusalem and establishes Roman rule.
44 BC Julius Caesar assassinated in Senate by Brutus; “Caesar” becomes title.
40 BC Herod named King of Judea by the Roman Senate.
37 BC Herod repels the Parthians and seizes control of the kingdom.
Octavian (Caesar Augustus) prevails in Civil War against Mark Antony
31 BC and Cleopatra; “Golden Age” of Rome; Roman law and order, Pax
Romana, emperor worship.
c. 5 BC Jesus is born in Bethlehem (Matt 1:18—2:12; Luke 2:1-20).
4 BC Herod dies, leaves kingdom to Archelaus.
AD 6 Archelaus replaced by Roman prefects.
AD 26 Pontius Pilate becomes the governor of Judea.
AD 33 Jesus is crucified.
AD 34 Conversion of the Apostle Paul

4. Roman Rule: in 6 AD, the Romans began to rule Jerusalem directly.

a. Herod’s Sons: Philip was named ruler of the areas to the Northeast of

76
Macrobius, Saturnalia 2.4 in Köstenberger, Cradle, Cross, Crown, 74. The Greek words for pig (ὗς)
and son (υἱός) are remarkably similar.

30
 the Sea of Galilee. Herod Antipas was given the lands of Galilee and
Perea in 4 BC. In adulthood, Antipas divorced his first wife in order to
marry the daughter of his half-brother, for which he was condemned
by John the Baptist (leading to the martyrdom of John).77
b. After AD 6, Judea was made a Roman province and was ruled directly
by Roman governors who lived mainly in Caesarea and only travelled
to Jerusalem for festival days. But there was a strong military
presence in Judea, with security focused on the Temple area in
particular.
c. The Jews were given rights that other provinces were denied. They
were allowed to sacrifice to Yahweh on behalf of the Caesar instead of
sacrificing to the gods. Additionally, they were allowed to have their
own coins, provided that they were minted without offensive images
on them. And finally, the Sanhedrin continued to rule under the
authority of the High Priest with limited autonomy.
5. Roman Rule in Palestine
a. Roman Republic (5th Century BC): the Roman Empire only emerged
as a global power in the first and second centuries BC. The Roman
Senate governed the affairs of the nation. And, after Julius Caesar, all
emperors in Rome were given the title of Caesar.
b. Caesar Augustus: Octavian defeated Antony and Ptolemaic Queen
Cleopatra in 31 BC and became known as Caesar Augustus. Under his
rule, Rome experienced her “Golden Age” from 31 BC until AD 14.
• Pax Romana (Roman Peace), political stability.
• Construction, development, and the unification of the Empire.
• Roman Roads linked all territories to the capital city. As well,
commerce blossomed and economic prosperity and wealth
came into bloom.
• Golden Age extended into the reign of Tiberius Caesar (AD 14-
37), who ruled during the time of John the Baptist and Jesus
Christ.78
c. Pontius Pilate: the biblical record identifies the Roman governor at the
time of Jesus’s life and ministry as Pontius Pilate.
• Archeological evidence supports the biblical witness, testifying
in the famous “Pilate Inscription” of the governor’s existence.
The inscription reads, “Tiberieum (to Tiberius), Pontius Pilatus
(from Pontius Pilate), Praefectus Iudaeae (Governor / Prefect
of Judea).”
• Pilate had been supported by a powerful patron who held a
genuine dislike for the Jewish people. Thus, the early portions

77
See Mark 6:14-29 for details.
78
See Luke 3:1 for details.

31
 of his rule were defined by an equal measure of cruelty and
distaste.
• However, after the removal of his patron in AD 31, Pilate
became softened toward the Jews, a stance that is evident in the
crucifixion narratives in the Gospels. Pilate is rumored to have
committed suicide after arriving in Rome after the death of
Tiberius.79
d. Emperor Nero: the lineage of Caesars after Tiberius was immoral and
cruel. Perhaps foremost among them in terms of historical notoriety
and cruelty was Nero (AD 54-68). He was especially violent toward
the new Christian movement and was responsible for the martyrdoms
of Saint Peter and Saint Paul (AD 66 or 65). But the more closely
related governance of Palestine was through the Roman procurators
who followed Pontius Pilate. Felix (AD 52-59) and Festus (AD 59-61)
are noteworthy in the biblical account.
6. Destruction of Second Temple: under Emperor Florus (AD 66), the Jews
revolted, leading to the destruction of the temple in AD 70 and “precipitating
the fifth major crisis for the Jewish people.”80
a. End of Sacrificial System & Temple Worship: the Jews would revolt
again under Emperor Hadrian (AD 117-138) in the “Bar Kokhba”
revolt (AD 132-135). In 135 AD, the cessation of the Jewish state
became reality and lasted until 1948.
b. Self-Rule: from the time of the Babylonian captivity to the destruction
of Jerusalem and the Second Temple, the nation of Israel enjoyed only
a brief period of self-rule under the Maccabees and the Hasmonean
Dynasty.
c. Foreign Domination: with that exception, however, the Jewish state
was ruled by much larger and more powerful nations and empires.
Foreign domination fueled messianic expectations during Jesus’s life
and ministry. Hopes of political and nationalistic liberation were high;
the desire for renewal and restoration to its own “Golden Era,”
experienced in the reigns of David and Solomon, remained strong in
the hearts and minds of many Jews.

Session 2: Introduction to the Synoptic Gospels & Kingdom Instruction

A. The Relationship of the Synoptic Gospels
1. Synoptic: the word “synoptic” comes from a combination of the prefix syn-
and the noun optic. Taken together, the word means something like “a similar

79
Köstenberger, Cradle, Cross, Crown, 77 refers to church historian Eusebius (AD 260-340) as a
possible source.
80
Köstenberger, Cradle, Cross, Crown, 78.

32
 perspective,” or “to see together, to have the same view or outlook.”81 The
Synoptic Gospels have much of the same information—but are not uniform or
univocal—in presenting the life and ministry of Jesus Christ because they
were all viewing the same events.
2. Textual Difficulties: with the early church fathers, we want to view the
variations in the gospel accounts not as the fault of the divinely inspired
authors, but as our more likely issue of spiritual ignorance. We want to mimic
Saint Augustine who said, “I have learned to yield this total respect and honor
only to the canonical books of Scripture. Of these alone do I most firmly
believe that their authors were completely free from error. And if in these
writings I am perplexed by anything which appears to me opposed to the truth,
I do not hesitate to suppose that… I myself have failed to understand it.”82
3. Gospel Synopsis: examine synoptic texts to discern authorial intent.
Matthew 16:21-23 Mark 8:31-33 Luke 9:21-22
From that time Jesus began to And he began to teach them that And he strictly charged and
show his disciples that he must the Son of Man must suffer many commanded them to tell this to
go to Jerusalem and suffer things and be rejected by the no one, 22 saying, “The Son of
many things from the elders elders and the chief priests and Man must suffer many things and
and chief priests and scribes, the scribes and be killed, and be rejected by the elders and
and be killed, and on the third after three days rise again. 32 chief priests and scribes, and be
day be raised. And Peter took And he said this plainly. And killed, and on the third day be
him aside and began to rebuke Peter took him aside and began raised.”
him, saying, “Far be it from to rebuke him. 33 But turning
you, Lord! This shall never and seeing his disciples, he
happen to you.” But he turned rebuked Peter and said,
and said to Peter,
“Get behind me, Satan! You are “Get behind me, Satan! For
a hindrance to me. For you are you are not setting your mind
not setting your mind on the on the things of God, but on the
things of God, but on the things things of man.”
of man.”

4. Structure of Gospels: the Synoptic Gospels may be analyzed according to

structure. Each writer chose a specific order in which he arranged the events
of Jesus’s life and ministry to advance the overarching theological purpose of
his gospel. These events are called pericopes83 and serve as examples of
narrative units based on the specific actualities in Jesus’s life.

81
Köstenberger, Cradle, Cross, Crown, 158.
82
Augustine, Letter 82 (1.3) to Jerome in Gregg Allison, Historical Theology (Grand Rapids,
Zondervan, 2011).
83
The dictionary defines “pericopes” as “an extract from a text, especially a passage from the Bible.”

33
 Pericopes Matthew Mark Luke
1. Jesus’s teaching in Capernaum synagogue ----- 1:21-22 4:31-32
2. Healing of Demon Possessed Man in
----- 1:23-28 4:33-37
Capernaum
3. Jesus’s healing of Peter’s mother-in-law 8:14-15 1:29-31 4:38-39
4. Jesus’s healing in the evening 8:16-17 1:32-34 4:40-41
5. Jesus leaves Capernaum ----- 1:35-38 4:42-43
6. Jesus’s preaching in Galilee 4:23 1:39 4:44
7. Miraculous catch of fish ----- ----- 5:1-11
8. Jesus’s healing of the leper 8:1-4 1:40-45 5:12-16
9. Jesus’s healing of the paralytic 9:1-8 2:1-12 5:17-26
10. Calling of Levi 9:9-13 2:13-17 5:27-32
11. Controversy over fasting 9:14-17 2:18-22 5:33-39
12. Controversy over plucking grain 12:1-8 2:23-28 6:1-5
13. Controversy over Sabbath healing 12:9-14 3:1-6 6:6-11
4:24-25 3:7-12 6:17-19
14. Healing by the sea
12:15-16
15. Choosing of the Twelve 10:1-4 3:13-19 6:12-16

5. Intertextual Similarities: the NT authors frequently used OT quotations and

echoes to show the connection between the story of Israel and the story of
Jesus Christ. Where such quotations are similar, having been drawn from
similar sources, there can be a suggestion of literary dependence that follows.
One such example is shown in the chart below, where Matthew, Mark, and
Luke use a blend of Exodus and Malachi in the exact same way.
Old Testament Matthew 11:10 Mark 1:284 Luke 7:27
Exodus: 23:20 (LXX)
Look, I [myself] am Look, I [myself] am Look, I am sending my Look, I am sending my
sending my messenger sending my messenger messenger ahead of messenger ahead of
before you ahead of you; you, you;
Malachi 3:1 (LXX)
and he will examine the he will prepare your who will prepare your he will prepare your
way before me way before you way way before you
Malachi 3:1 (MT)
and he will clear the
way before me

6. Explaining Similarities in the Synoptic Gospels:

a. Divine Inspiration: the gospels—indeed, the entire biblical

84
See Wright, Jesus and the Victory of God, 524. Wright explains that, in Mark’s Gospel, the use of
Malachi (in Mark 1:2) together with Isaiah (in Mark 1:3) signals the reader that “Israel’s god [sic] is at last returning
to his people, to his Temple. But the hope set forth in Isaiah 40–55 must be tempered with the warning of Malachi
3.” Yahweh’s long-awaited return to Zion—in the person of Jesus Christ—would be a return in judgment for many,
and vindication for a relative minority.

34
 narrative—share one divine author. There should be little surprise,
then, that one would find similarities in the text.
b. Authorial Intent: different from the Apostle John, who writes his
gospel from “heaven to earth,” the synoptic authors write their gospels
from “earth to heaven.” Where the Gospel of John makes the deity of
the Messiah very clear from the poetic outset of his work, the synoptic
authors veil the Messiah in their presentation; they let us walk side-
by-side with the disciples as they ask, “Who is this man?”85 With
them, we subsequently discover, “You are the Christ!”86
c. Historical Events: the synoptic writers were theologians, interpreting
the life and ministry of Jesus through the lenses of OT theology.
d. Literary Interdependence: beginning with Saint Augustine in the fifth
century AD, a theory related to how the synoptic authors used a
common early source emerged. Augustine believed that Matthew, as a
personal eyewitness to the events of Jesus’ earthly journey, had
written the first account that was later used in Mark and Luke. He
believed the canonical order reflected the order in which the four
gospels were written (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and then John).
Theory Definition
Augustinian View Canonical Gospels are listed in the order they were written
Two-Gospel Hypothesis View Gospels were written in this order: Matthew, Luke, Mark
Mark wrote first; Matthew & Luke used Mark as a source, but
Markan Priority View*
wrote independently of each other
Matthew & Luke used Mark as a source, also used “Q” as a
Two-Document Hypothesis View
source of their common material that is not found in Mark
Farrer-Goulder Hypothesis View Luke used Mark and Matthew as sources

B. The Kingdom Message of Jesus in the Synoptic Gospels

1. Five Teaching Discourses in Gospel of Matthew: Matthew will highlight five
major discourses in his gospel.87 They will focus thematically on…
a. Message of the Messiah (Sermon on the Mount)
b. Mission of the Messiah
c. Mysteries of the Messianic Kingdom (Parables)
d. Community of the Messiah
e. Olivet Discourse: the Delay, Return, and Judgment of the Messiah
2. The Sermon on the Mount: the distinction is made between the “crowds” of
people who remain interested—but uncommitted—and the “disciples” who

85
Mark 4:41, after Jesus had calmed the storm on the Sea of Galilee.
86
Mark 8:29, to indicate Peter’s confession of Jesus’s deity.
87
In the Gospel of Matthew, see chaps 5—7 (Sermon on the Mount), 10; 13; 18—20; 24—25. Five
discourses almost assuredly relate to the five Books of Moses (the Law, or Pentateuch).

35
 have chosen to reorder their lives around Christ. It is this second group of
“disciples” to whom the Sermon on the Mount is addressed and for whom it is
intended.
a. The Beatitudes (Latin: beatus, meaning happy or blessed). The word
“blessed” (Greek: μακάριος) introduces the seven blessings of the Spirit
bestowed upon Messiah (cf. Isa 11:2-3). The Spirit conforms believers
to the image of Christ. Thus, the “tree” and its “fruit” presents a
bookend framework whereby the one joined to Christ by the Spirit
(good tree) has the obedience of Christ produced in him by the Spirit
(good fruit). A good tree bears good fruit (Matt 7:17-18; cf. Ps 1:1-3).
• Poor in Spirit = Kingdom of Heaven
• Mourn = Comforted
• Meek = Inherit the Earth
• Hunger/Thirst for Righteousness = Satisfied
• Merciful = Shown Mercy
• Pure in Heart = See God
• Peacemakers = Sons of God
• Persecuted (for Righteousness) = Kingdom of Heaven
b. Observations: note the repetition in the promises to the “poor in spirit”
and the “persecuted.” Seven blessings are announced, then a final
blessing recapitulates the first blessing (inaugurated eschatology
becomes consummated eschatology), so that poverty of spirit mirrors
the initial movement of Christ’s character (cf. Phil 2:5-11) and receives
the internal, spiritual, and inaugurated coming of the kingdom. Those
who are “sons” of God—further conformed to the image of the Son of
God—will be persecuted (cf. John 15:18-25) and will receive the
consummated kingdom of God (cf. Rom 8:14-17).
c. Spiritual People: the followers of Jesus must be defined spiritually.
Their disposition is characterized as “poor in spirit” and their
inheritance is the “kingdom of heaven,” which is spiritual in nature.
d. Christ-like People: the followers of Jesus must be defined by
meekness, sober judgment, purity, mercy, peace, and a continued
desire for righteousness… their lives would be defined by a
righteousness that exceeded that of the Pharisees (5:17-20), and they
would be “blessed” despite inevitable persecution.
e. Salt & Light: the citizens of the Kingdom were to be “salt,” whose
presence is invisible to the eye, but powerfully recognized by taste.
Further, they were to be “light” in their ministry to the surrounding
world. This, of course, connects us to the original mission of the
Messianic Servant, who was a “light to the nations” (cf. Isa 49:5-6).88

88
See Matt 5:16 and the visible “light” of good deeds in the believer’s conformity to Christ. But notice
the source of “light” and every good deed… the Father is praised for what is visible in believers because he is the
source and fulfillment of their obedience (cf. Heb 12:2).

36
 f. New Israel: the disciples, gathered to Christ—the singular Remnant of
Israel—bore a similarity to Israel but also a very poignant difference.
What Israel was unable to accomplish through outward and visible
signs of the covenant (circumcision of the flesh, keeping of the Law of
Moses, and so forth), the new Israel would accomplish in the spiritual
nature of the kingdom (circumcision of the heart, the Law of God
written on their hearts by His Spirit, and so forth).
g. Law & Prophets: Jesus is sure to uphold the purpose and dignity of the
Law and Prophets (Matt 5:17) by saying that its institutions and
prophecies all point to Him. The Christ would be the fulfillment of the
sacrificial system, the complete and perfect Wisdom foretold in the
Old Testament, the referent of Messianic passages, and the one who
perfectly kept and obeyed the Law of Moses.
h. New Covenant Law: the ethical instruction of the kingdom is
characterized by motivation and not simply by external observance.
The Law of the New Covenant is internalized and intensified (there is
transfigured continuity), as the prophets foretold (Jer 31:33; cf. Ezek
36:27). External observance devoid of internal transformation is
worthless. Note the pattern: “You have heard… but I say.”
• Murder and anger both arise from the same corrupt heart and,
in this sense, they are equally sinful.
• Sexual immorality: the external act is produced from a heart
that holds lustful intent. Both are condemned as equally
immoral.
• Ethics of the Kingdom: sin surfaces from the heart and mind;
external sinfulness done by the hand as well as internal
sinfulness committed by the eye should both be purged for the
salvation of the righteous. Jesus is not adding to the OT law,
but properly interpreting it. God required purity of heart.89
Thus, Jesus taught by way of proper interpretation of the OT.
i. Matthew 6: Jesus begins to teach about the three pillars of Judaism:
prayer, fasting, and almsgiving. He specifically cautions his disciples
against ritual observance that gains the approval of human audiences.
Instead, he urges them to please God in the manner of their giving,
praying, and fasting; then they would gain a reward. True devotion to
God is demonstrated in the quiet acts of genuine piety. Jesus teaches
how the disciples should value eternal treasures and spiritual
observances above earthly and physical ones. Their lives will be
characterized by peace as they allow God to define their priorities and
reward their obedience.
j. Summary of the Sermon: in Matt 7, Jesus forbids the judgment
performed by spiritually superior people. To be sure, maturity is

89
See Exod 20:17 and reference 1 Sam 16:7; Ps 19:14; 24:4.

37
 defined by greater degrees of holiness, but such maturity does not give
license to judge; rather, it is an opportunity for helping weaker
brothers and sisters. The followers of Christ, as defined by the
teaching of Christ, would inherit the kingdom; they would ask, seek,
and knock successfully. They would be known by good fruit, and they
would stand in the eschatological judgment of Christ because they
knew him, obeyed him, and grew increasingly to look like him. Thus,
they would be like houses built upon the bedrock of Truth, stable in the
midst of present storms and eternally blessed throughout eternity
3. The Messianic Mission (Matt 10): Jesus speaks about the Messianic mission
and the role of his disciples within it.
a. God-Given Message: the instruction of Jesus is meant to involve the
disciples in the same preaching and teaching of the Kingdom. They
were to announce, just as Jesus announced, “The kingdom of heaven is
at hand.”
b. God-Given Authority: Jesus gives the disciples authority to perform
the same miraculous signs that validate their message. In Matt 8, Jesus
heals a leper and a sick servant. The disciples will “heal the sick.” In
chapter 9, Jesus raises a girl from the dead. Likewise, the disciples
will “raise the dead.” Just as Jesus in Matthew 8 & 9 has cast out
demons, so also the disciples would “cast out demons.”
c. God-Ordained Opposition: the disciples should expect the same
opposition that Jesus would face (cf. Matt 5:11-12). The Jewish crowd
in Nazareth desired to kill Jesus; the crowds among whom the
disciples would preach and teach ultimately rejected the same message
and the same miracles. They remained unconvinced, unconverted, and
outside the community of God.
d. Mission of Messiah, advanced by followers of the Messiah. Their
priority would be the same as that of their leader—ministry first to the
Jew and then to the Gentile. Jesus would send them only to the Jews
of the Galilean region and, though it was surrounded by Gentiles to the
North, East, and West (the Samaritans were to the South), the disciples
were only to minister to the “lost sheep of Israel.” The mission of God
in using Israel as a “light to the Gentiles” is consistent with the
mission of the Messiah. This is no surprise to the informed reader of
the Bible, because Isaiah had foretold it. But it serves Matthew’s
Gospel through an ongoing connection with the Old Testament and the
continuation of the Kingdom theme he develops.
e. Imitation of the Master: the ultimate goal of the disciple is to be like
his master. This concept was very common throughout the Greco-
Roman world of the first century AD. See Matt 10:24-42 and the
characteristics to be imitated.
• First, they were to rely on the power of God for the
proclamation of the message. God would care for them as they
journeyed throughout the towns of Israel. He would give them
boldness to proclaim a message that had been intentionally

38
 hidden, but would be spoken universally in due course.
• Second, they were to follow Christ with unqualified allegiance,
rejecting relationships – even with family – where they
demanded an alternative allegiance. Disciples of the King
would need to die to self-will, in the taking up of their cross, by
the denial of his own will and the embracing of God’s will.
• Third, the Twelve would be the new spiritual Israel; and as
such, they would shepherd the lost sheep of the house of Israel.
In this kind of ministry, they were to care for the least of the
society.
• Thus finally, true disciples of Christ were not to overlook the
marginalized in society, the “little ones,” in taking the gospel
only to the socially elite. They were to focus their attention on
the needy in proclamation of the good news
4. The Mysteries of the Kingdom (Parables): we will encounter the parables
again, but an introduction is appropriate here. The parables served two
functions in the Gospels.
a. First, they were Jesus’ means of communicating valuable truth through
a “narrative analogy in order to teach a moral or spiritual lesson.”90
The moral or spiritual lessons learned are revealed in stories that
present analogous comparisons to the Kingdom of God.
b. Second, they were intended to communicate only to those whom God
had chosen in Christ to receive the Kingdom. Thus, in the gospels, we
see the different responses to Jesus’ parables as an indication of those
to whom the Messianic secret is revealed and those to whom it remains
hidden. Parables veil the truth from the “crowds” and uncover the
truth for the disciples, who follow from genuinely committed hearts.
5. The Messianic Community: no sign was to be given to the unbelieving Jewish
leaders, but signs given to the disciples by way of ethical instruction,
miraculous validation of the kingdom, and parables to demonstrate the nature
of the kingdom, were to have the intended effect. Peter confesses that Jesus is
the Christ! The confession is vitally important but tragically misinformed.
No sooner does Peter recognize Jesus’s identity than he is called “Satan” for
his ignorance concerning the necessity of Jesus’s suffering and death.
a. Death of Self: Jesus then repeats the nature of discipleship; his
followers must die to self-will, they must change their human-centered
ideas and embrace the mission of the Messiah as defined by the
messianic instruction. This is primarily intended for Peter, but serves
to refresh the other disciples’ minds as Jesus approaches Jerusalem and
his inevitable rejection. So the focus of the immediate context is
centered on the kingdom. Peter recognizes Jesus as the Messianic
King. The Twelve are then told that Jesus would be enthroned as the

90
ESV Study Bible (text note on Matthew 13:3), 2008, page 1847.

39
 Judge of all men. This is validated on the Mount of Transfiguration,
where Jesus is revealed in his eternal glory. It is further validated by
an exorcism.
b. The Kingdom Community: Jesus then spends considerable time
teaching his disciples about the nature of the kingdom community.
The greatest in the kingdom will demonstrate a child-like faith and
humility, for the kingdom is not founded upon human structures of
society, in which the self-seeking and increasingly independent
succeed. No, the kingdom is founded upon divine structures of
humility, self-giving, and sacrificial love.
• Life in the kingdom is not without its struggles, at least as it is
lived out in the present. Brothers who sin against one another
must be treated first with grace and then according to the
authority vested in Peter and the other disciples.
• Believers must exercise the authority of church discipline in
distinguishing true repentance (which is to be met with true
forgiveness) from lip service, which is to be condemned as a
sign of unbelief. Life in the Kingdom is to be characterized by
repeated forgiveness in light of the immense debt from which
her members have been forgiven. This forgiveness, as we are
about to witness, is to be radically demonstrated within the
covenantal bonds of marriage.
c. Clarification on Divorce: beginning in Matthew 19, Jesus is questioned
about a previous principle he had taught in the Sermon on the Mount.
Matthew tells us that a group belonging to the Pharisees intended to
test Jesus concerning his authority to properly interpret the Law; they
came to Jesus seeking clarification concerning a point he made about
divorce.
• In Matt 5:31-32, Jesus had spoken about the issue of divorce in
the same manner as he had spoken about many other facets of
the Mosaic Law: namely, he intensified the Law, revealing its
true and originally intended meaning in order to make it
impossible to follow.
• The Law was meant to be a revelation of the glorious character
of God and a mirror reflecting the total moral inability of the
human heart. God’s righteousness was unattainable by human
efforts.
• And yet, the Pharisees in particular had believed themselves
capable of following the Law and attaining this righteousness.
Thus, the confrontation contained within the Sermon on the
Mount is significant. It follows the pattern in the Book of
Isaiah, in which God through the prophet, properly evaluates
the empty ritualism of eighth-century BC Judah and unveils the
truth that mere external conformity to the Law (with its
prescribed festivals and ceremonies) is empty, worthless, and
blameworthy.

40
 • At the close of the Galilean ministry, which has dominated the
narrative thus far, Jesus begins his journey to Jerusalem by
responding to the challenge of the Pharisees and their question
about divorce. From all indications, this section fits within the
larger theme of Jesus as New Covenant Law-giver, and his
authority to rightly interpret the Mosaic Law.
• In the beginning, before the inception of human sin, the Lord
had commanded that the covenant of marriage should be an
eternal bond. It was intended to unify the man and woman
such that they would become “one flesh.” The man would
leave his ancestral ties and be united to his wife. Likewise, the
woman would leave her ancestral ties and be united to her
husband.
• The original marriage ceremony was superintended by God
Himself. He would unite them; He would make them one.
Therefore, the text says, “What God has joined together, let
man not separate” (Matt 19:6). But there was a provision in
the Law of Moses that seemingly allowed divorce.
• The first part of Jesus’ answer has already been given: before
sin entered the world, the will of God was for an eternal union
of husband and wife.
• The second part of Jesus’ answer follows: Moses provided a
concession for divorce in the Law because of “hardness of
heart” (19:8, ESV). This kind of language harkens the astute
reader back to Pharaoh and the recalcitrant nature of his heart
revealed in multiple episodes with Moses and Aaron (Exodus
8:32; 9:12). Hardness of heart, therefore, while it may be true
of Pharaoh and of the Old Covenant Jews, is not a distinctly
appropriate description of New Covenant believers.91
• In terms of Jesus’ teaching, then, the concession in the Law of
Moses is one not for believers, but for unbelievers. Believers –
those whose hearts had been transformed (circumcised) by the
Holy Spirit – are to be defined by love, reconciliation, and
forgiveness (as evidenced above). Therefore, as far as pastoral
counselling is involved, we must not provide this concession in
our interaction with believers.92

91
The language of the New Covenant is very clear on this point. See Jer 31:31-34; Ezek 36:25-32; and
also the NT reflections in Rom 2:28-29; an allusion in Col 2:9-15; and the OT background texts in Deut 10:16; 30:6;
Jer 4:4; 9:26; Ezek 44:7-9.
92
R. T. France, The Gospel of Matthew (NICNT. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2007), 692 says that Jesus
introduces a priority in how the Law is observed. The positive will of God must be sought, not the concessions
made in light of sin’s presence. Thus, France says that all manner of divorce, as Jesus teaches it, is an “infringement
of the primary purpose of God for marriage.”

41
 • The marriage covenant between husband and wife was to be a
mirror of God’s covenant relationship with His people before a
broken and fallen world. Spouses can demonstrate the infinite
value of the Kingdom of Heaven by valuing God’s institution
of marriage.
• Jesus has already provided a foundation for making this literary
connection. In Matt 10:37-39, the Lord commands that anyone
failing to leave behind father and mother in the establishing of
a new covenant family—thus demonstrating greater love
toward the biological family—is not worthy of Him.
• In Matt 19:4-6, the same concept is recounted from the story of
Adam and Eve. The bonds of covenantal relationship are to be
embraced as one leaves behind the bonds of biological kinship.
Thus, in marriage there is a permanent binding of the husband
and wife. Also, in salvation there is a permanent binding of
Christ and his Bride, the Church (cf. Eph 5:22-33).
• Two further principles advance the comparison. First, what
“God has joined together” was to be permanent from the
beginning. Frivolous separation through random and
unjustified divorce showed a lack of valuing the institution of
marriage on the part of the offender. Likewise, frivolous
departure from following Christ showed a lack of valuing the
kingdom on the part of the spiritual offender. And second,
from the beginning God intended marriage to be a mystical and
relational union, portrayed in the sexual union of the husband
and wife, such that no higher allegiance between humans could
exist. Jesus teaches that no higher loyalty is to be held by the
husband above his wife and vice versa. In terms of the
kingdom, there was to be no greater degree of loyalty than that
expressed in devotion to Christ. In these ways, then, the
marriage relationship relates to the kingdom.
d. Coming to Christ as Covenant Family: the previous concepts over
marriage are now demonstrated in the children who come to Christ and
the rich young ruler who cannot. Jesus teaches that humility is an
essential quality in those who value the kingdom. The children come;
theirs is the kingdom of heaven; and they approach unhindered into the
presence of Christ. The rich young ruler is hindered by the god of
wealth. He suggests that his law-keeping has been flawless
(undoubtedly a lack of humility), but Jesus does not confront that
issue. There is something more than law-keeping that is necessary for
eternal life; the young man senses it and Jesus confirms it. The Lord
says he must give everything away; he must exchange the god of
wealth for the treasures of heaven. But he cannot do it. His singular
devotion is toward earthly wealth; he does not value the kingdom and
he goes away from Christ full of sorrow. His approach, unlike that of
the children, is hindered. Wealth meant self-sufficiency, the opposite

42
 of the self-denial enacted in the taking up on one’s cross. It was not
always an indication of God’s blessing. The young man cannot come
to Christ. This is not to say that rich people never enter the kingdom,
for Zacchaeus was converted, but simply to teach that God must first
make it possible. This is the way in which everyone is saved: God
draws the human heart by his Spirit to his Son. Only then do they
begin to value the kingdom. Only then do they become loyal to that to
which God has joined them.
e. Kingdom Community is Countercultural: Jesus continues by saying
that earthly definitions of “first” and “last” will be upended in the
Kingdom. His parable that follows demonstrates that each worker gets
more than he deserves. So, none of Jesus’ followers will be deprived
of God’s generosity. Disciples who value the kingdom serve the king
from a heart of gratitude in response to God’s grace. They are thankful
for the wage they receive because they have denied self-interest in
seeking reward. The final part of this discourse is held among the
disciples who react to the inquiry of James and John’s mother. Again,
the kingdom is described in the reversal of earthly values. Instead of
striving for great authority (sitting at the right and left sides of Jesus in
the kingdom), disciples of the Lord should seek servanthood.
Greatness is found in humility, in poverty of spirit (cf. Matt 5:3).
6. Olivet Discourse: Jesus speaks a prophecy concerning the destruction of the
Jerusalem Temple in 70 AD by announcing events that would take place
beforehand. He describes the general condition of the last days (or the “end of
the age”) in saying that many will claim to be the Messiah. There will be
imposters, but the sheep will only follow the voice of the Good Shepherd.
There will also be wars, battles, and international struggle. This is to indicate
that a general lack of peace dominates the political sphere in the time between
Christ’s comings. Disciples would be persecuted and martyred, as the
symbolic “beast” of Revelation was revealed in the brutal violence the church
would endure. False prophets would come in the line of the “false prophet” of
Revelation, who was revealed in the deceptive heresies the church would
endure. But Jesus says that the saint who perseveres will be saved despite
these challenges to his/her faith.
a. With the “abomination that causes desolation,” the period of the Great
Tribulation would begin. Jesus teaches here that Daniel prophesied
primarily about the destruction of the Temple in AD 70, but that
prophetic prefiguring of this event was seen in the actions of
Antiochus IV Epiphanes during the Seleucid portion of the Second
Temple Period.
b. There would be many in the story of Israel who would prefigure the
Antichrist in his ungodly actions. To be sure, this satanic influence
was evident in the King of Babylon and the King of Tyre, and all
throughout history that embraced the principles of self-deification and
God-defiance that they promoted. Indeed, the Roman practice of
emperor worship involved the same principles. The fulfillment of

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 Daniel’s prophecy would not come until the Romans destroyed the
Temple and the final and eschatological day of the Antichrist was
revealed.
c. The description that follows seems to magnify the intensity of the
Roman invasion, so while that historical event foreshadowed a final
and more horrifying reality, it was not the ultimate end to which Jesus
was pointing. Satanic powers will be unleashed as false messiahs and
prophets perform great and miraculous signs. These will be
counterfeit signs and will be ineffective against the elect of God.
Regardless of one’s interpretation, the falling stars and the shaking of
the heavens point to the fulfillment of Old Testament eschatology; the
sum total of which suggests nothing short of cataclysmic global
destruction in the end of days. As the Messiah arrives on the clouds of
heaven, global and universal transformation follows.
d. The point of Jesus’ prophecy here is his own immediate coming.
Followers of the Christ should be prepared for an immediate end,
whether an end to their lives or the end of the age. The generation of
believers will not pass away before the Second Coming, but will
endure on the earth until the final appearance of Christ. But because
the day and the hour are unknown, there is a very real call for disciples
to prepare in advance. Diligence in work and faithfulness in
endurance will characterize those who are ultimately rewarded.
Laziness and wickedness will characterize the hypocrites who receive
wrath.
7. Olivet Discourse: four parables illumine Jesus’s concern in the last days.
a. Stay Awake: the Messiah’s people are to be ready for his coming; they
should “stay awake” in completing the mission of the Messiah. First,
the home owner did not anticipate the thief and his unpreparedness left
him vulnerable to intrusion. Similarly, the disciples who are
unprepared remain susceptible to the deception that would seek to lead
them astray.
b. Wise Servants: the wise servant who is distributing the food (of eternal
life?) among the master’s household is prepared in his ongoing
obedience to Christ in fulfilling His mission.
c. Ten Virgins: these ten virgins symbolize individuals who are either
ready (as believers who are “known” by the bridegroom, or Christ) or
unprepared (unbelievers who are foolish, and thus, are not known by
the Lord). The message is clear enough: the ones who prepare for the
bridegroom’s appearance are wise, and conversely, the wise are the
ones who prepare. The husband-wife metaphor from the Old
Testament is advanced here to identify Jesus as the husband and the
“pure” virgins who are “known” by him represent the wife. Going
back to our discussion on the marriage relationship, we recognized that
unqualified loyalty and supreme fidelity are values of the kingdom;
they are demonstrated in the vigilant watch of the ten virgins.
d. Servants & Talents: the parable of the talents in included. It shows

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 that faithfulness in guarding the deposit of God in the present age leads
to great reward in the eternal age. The eternal age is then described.
• The king that would endure rejection in Nazareth and the
humiliation of an ultimate rejection in the crucifixion would be
enthroned. The Son of Man is the King over Yahweh’s
kingdom; or, according to Daniel 7:13-14, the Ancient of Days
has given the kingdom to “one like a son of man.”
• The nations, the multi-ethnic focus of the “last days” and the
object of the Great Commission, would be gathered before the
throne. It should be noted that thrones, both in the ancient
world and in Hebrew literature, were places of judgment. And
that is what takes place in Matt 25:31-46. It is a judgment unto
eternal blessedness or a judgment unto eternal punishment.
The difference is righteousness. Those who are transformed by
the righteousness of God begin to, and endure in, the enactment
of that righteousness, which carries an ethical demand within
it, outward to the nations.
• Practical righteousness is described here, but not as that which
earns the rewards that follow. For they are first “sheep,” a term
which designates them as uniquely belonging to God through
the redemption secured by Christ. They are first and foremost
“sheep.” From that restored relationship, they perform acts of
practical righteousness in caring for the marginalized members
of society. Acts of service provide evidence of the blessed
transformation that has already defined the sheep.
• Some have noted that this enthronement of the Son of Man
takes place in the millennial kingdom described in Revelation
20. But the fact that some are sent to the eternal fires of eternal
punishment while others inherit the kingdom of God suggests
that this judgment takes place immediately before the inception
of the eternal state. Nevertheless, the point of the Olivet
Discourse appears to be revelation, for the purpose of
preparedness, so that faithfulness would endure in the hearts of
the saints who stand in the judgment and inherit the kingdom.

Session 3: Biblical Theology in the New Testament Gospels & Acts

A. The Fulfillment of Old Testament Promises: Son of God & Son of Man
1. The Remnant Embraces Messiah: the Old Covenant embraces the New
Covenant as the Christ-child is cradled in the arms of Simeon, who awaits the
“consolation of Israel” (Luke 2:21-35).93

93
The “Meeting of the Lord in the Temple” (also called the Presentation) is one of the great feasts of
Eastern Orthodoxy, celebrated annually on Feb 2. This feast is also known as Candlemas, particularly in Western
nations, due to the custom of blessing candles on this day. In Eastern tradition, it is often called the “Meeting of Our

45
 a. The Messiah is the Remnant: see Isa 7:14 (cf. Isa 66:7-9) in Matt 1:22-
23. Israel as “firstborn” from Egyptian Exodus, Messiah as “firstborn”
and only Son from a recapitulative Egyptian Exodus (Hos 11:1 in Matt
2:15). The restored remnant will now attach themselves to Him. See
“New Israel in Matthew’s Gospel” below.
b. Early in Luke (2:21-35) = theological basis for biblical continuity.
c. End of Luke (24:27-35) = textual, scriptural, and hermeneutical
warrant for biblical theology (cf. John 5:46).
2. Figural Interpretation of the New Testament: here we recall our hermeneutic
methodology (highlighted above). Hays writes, “Figural interpretation
establishes a connection between two events or persons in such a way that the
first signifies not only itself but also the second, while the second involves or
fulfills the first. The two poles of a figure are separated in time, but both,
being real events or persons, are within temporality. They are both contained
in the flowing stream which is historical life, and only the comprehension, the
intellectus spiritualis, of their interdependence is a spiritual act.”94
a. Prediction v. Prefiguration: figural reading does not assume that OT
authors predicted or anticipated Christ consciously. Of course, this
does not mean that Christ is absent from the OT. The Spirit, as
ultimate author of Scripture, intends for Christ to be visible
throughout, even if figural correspondence is retrospective.
b. Retrospective Discernment: this leads to the intellectus spiritualis
(Latin: spiritual understanding, or spiritual sense) to which Hays
refers. The spiritual sense of Scripture is discerned in light of the
Jesus event, but necessarily involves the illumination of the Spirit.
c. Backwards & Forwards: the figural correspondence in Scripture, once
identified, is applied both backwards (from Christ to signpost) and
forwards (from signpost to Christ).
d. Intertextuality & Continuity: interpreting Scripture in this figural
manner highlights the theological continuity and coherence within it.
Meaning is discerned by examination of the canonical whole, so that

Lord and God and Savior, Jesus Christ” because the hymns of the feast emphasize the incarnate Lord Jesus Christ
meeting with the Remnant of Israel (in the persons of the Prophet Simeon and the Prophetess Anna).

In Martin Luther’s German translation of the OT, he includes a preface that instructs his readers to value
the OT. Luther says, “There are some who have little regard for the Old Testament. They think of it as a book that
was given to the Jewish people only and is now out of date, containing only stories of past times. But Christ says in
John 5, ‘Search the Scriptures, for it is they that bear witness to me.’ The Scriptures of the Old Testament are not to
be despised but diligently read. Therefore dismiss your own opinions and feelings and think of the Scriptures as the
loftiest and noblest of holy things, as the richest of mines which can never be sufficiently explored, in order that you
may find that divine wisdom which God here lays before you in such simple guise as to quench all pride. Here you
will find the swaddling cloths and the manger in which Christ lies. Simple and lowly are these swaddling cloths, but
dear is the treasure, Christ, who lies in them.” Richard B. Hays, Echoes of Scripture in the Gospels (Waco, TX:
Baylor University Press, 2016), 18 cites Martin Luther, “Preface to the Old Testament,” in Luther’s Works, vol. 35
(ed. E. Theodore Bachmann; Philadelphia: Muhlenberg, 1960), 235-36.
94
Hays, Echoes in Gospels, 19.

46
 patterns may be seen as cumulative biblical theology is considered.
3. Biblical Theology in Matthew’s Genealogy
a. Broad Scope of Covenant People (Abraham, David, Christ): a singular
remnant from humanity (Abraham), a singular remnant within Israel
(David), and a singular remnant after Babylon who fulfills the OT as
the final, climactic, and representative remnant of Israel (Christ).
b. Non-Literal, Figural Genealogy: the fourteen generations are not
historically accurate, but are arranged with a theological purpose in
mind. Hebrew Gematria: the name “David” in Hebrew = 14.
c. Centrality of David: the Abrahamic seed develops into the Davidic
seed, which finds fulfillment in Christ. David is central to the OT, and
Messiah will take center stage in the NT.
d. Representative Figures: each covenant emphasized in Matthew’s
genealogy has a singular representative, so that the oceanic tides of
redemptive history draw significant figures to the shoreline. The
Abrahamic, Davidic, and Messianic Covenants are all unilateral,
unconditional covenants wherein God promises to bless the covenant
people apart from any condition placed upon them (note: any
conditions would be fulfilled by God himself, any curse would be
borne by God himself; Gen 15:17-18).
e. Noteworthy Omission: there is no reference to Moses (or Sinai) in the
genealogy. This covenant was corporate, essentially conditional, and
ultimately significant in that it enshrines the righteousness of God (but
does not remain in effect after its tutorial ministry is completed).
There is no mention of Adam either, where the covenant was
individual but also essentially conditional.95 Adam is representative,
as we will see in Pauline Theology, but the curse upon him is solved in
the unilateral covenant with Abraham (Gen 15:17-18). Matthew’s
interest appears to be focused on unilateral covenant promises.
4. New Israel in Matthew’s Gospel
a. Virgin Birth: the use of Isa 7:14 in Matt 1:23 relates to the symbolic
birth of the Remnant during Babylonian exile. The remnant would be
preserved by the presence of God (Immanuel = “God with us”). As
Matthew looks back upon the magisterial prophet Isaiah, he discerns a
singular remnant (Babylon to Christ; Matt 1:17).
b. Ruler from Bethlehem: the use of Mic 5:2 in Matt 2:6 implicitly
advances the “remnant” theme (recall metalepsis, reading the whole
text of any partial OT citation), as the “brothers” (Mic 5:3; cf. Matt
12:48-50) of the Davidic Ruler would join him (born in great distress).
c. Out of Egypt: the use of Hos 11:1 in Matt 2:15 speaks of a New
Exodus embodied in the Messiah. Matthew’s understanding of “Son
of God” is related to covenant, the remnant, and singular Israel.

95
See R.C. Sproul, “The Covenant of Works” (https://www.ligonier.org/learn/articles/covenant-works).

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 d. Textual Observation: note the concentration of intertextual links
surrounding the birth of Christ. There is a singular, representative
figure who embodies the OT covenant promises, the faithful remnant,
and true Israel (Messiah/Christ). In the Messiah, a group of “brothers”
would be assembled out of exilic conditions and would extend the
Messianic Covenant as lights to Gentile nations.
e. Rachel Weeping: the use of Jer 31:15 in Matt 2:18 resonates with the
mournful wailing of Babylonian exile that immediately precedes the
prophetic announcement of the New (Messianic) Covenant. Rachel, as
the beloved covenant wife of Jacob—represents the Southern
Kingdom of Judah—mourns as Bethlehem weeps over the exilic death
of her sons.
• Jesus was exiled to Egypt; Jesus was preserved in the midst of
exile; Jesus was returned from exile according to the
faithfulness of God.
• As a representative figure, Jesus’s exilic experience mirrors the
remnant preserved in Him.
f. Called a Nazarene: difficult passage, probably a reference to “Branch”
passages of the OT (Isa 4:2-6; 11:1; 53:2; cf. Jer. 23:5; 33:15; Zech
3:8; 6:9-15). See Hebrew (‫ נֵ ֶצר‬netser) and Greek (Ναζαρέτ).
5. Baptism of Jesus: John the Baptist is the obvious fulfillment of Isa 40:3 (cf.
Mal 3:1 in Mark 1:1-3).
a. Gospel of Matthew: Jesus, the anointed Son (and Servant; cf. Isa 42:1)
is the New Israel. Note the Baptism, then Temptation… as Israel’s
wilderness wandering, in which Jesus’s faithfulness (cf. Matt 3:15,
“fulfill all righteousness”) reflects the end of Israel’s journey, just
before entering the Promised Land (Deut 8:3; 6:16; 6:13 in Matt 4:4, 7,
10 respectively). The passages from Deuteronomy are instructive, for
the second giving of the Law (and obedience to it) will mark Israel’s
return from exile and life in the land.
b. Gospel of Mark: the promise of eschatological restoration and
judgment, as the conflation of Isa 40:3 and Mal 3:1 (cf. Exod 23:20)
indicates (remember metaleptic intertextuality). In Mark 1:12, Jesus is
“driven out” (Greek: ἐκβάλλω) into the wilderness (cf. Gen 3:24,
LXX). Echoes of Adam resurface in Jesus’s temptation.
c. Gospel of Luke: Luke 3:21ff = baptism, genealogy, temptation.
• Baptism: Son of God (Luke 3:22)
• Genealogy: Son of Adam, Son of God (Luke 3:37)
• Temptation: wilderness as Eden, Jesus as New Adam/Humanity
(Luke 4:1-13), victorious because he was “full of the Spirit.”
6. Son of Man: reference to Dan 7:13, veiled the identity of Jesus for those who
failed to “hear” the OT reference.
7. Sabbath Fulfillment: In Matt 11:28; 12:8, the Sabbath is fulfilled in Jesus.
The Sabbath is to time what Temple is to space (microcosmic, historical
signposts pointing to eternal realities). Return to this point in Hebrews 4.
8. New Adam & Davidic Son in Luke’s Gospel

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 a. Birth of Jesus: the angelic announcement in Luke 1:30-37 refers to
Jesus in the following ways:
• He will be great (cf. Gen 12:2; 2 Sam 7:22-24).
• Son of the Most High God (cf. Dan 3:26; also, Melchizedek in
Gen 14:18-20; Balaam in Num 24:15-16).
• Throne of His Father David: calls for nuanced messianic
understanding of 2 Sam 7:12-16. In Acts 13:32-37, the
resurrection of Jesus links him to the Davidic promises in Ps
2:7; 16:10; Isa 55:3, now brought to fulfillment.
b. Son of David as Liberator of Israel: see how the Davidic King and
Warrior fulfills a mission of liberation (of captives, by restoring
“sight” to the blind) and of New Jubilee (Luke 4:17-21).
c. Note “Son of David” in Luke 18:35-43 (cf. Mark 10:46-52).
B. The King & Kingdom in the New Testament Gospels
1. Truth & Power: in the Fourth Gospel, the interchange between Jesus and
Pontius Pilate offers a fascinating take on the nature of God’s Kingdom. It is
about truth (John 18:37-38). It is about bringing order to the chaos of the
present world order. Truth, for the Roman authorities, is about the use of
power to subjugate weaker nations. At the crucifixion, the power of Rome
appears to have won.
a. N. T. Wright says, “If truth is a signpost telling us something important
from within the midst of the world, then Pilate the proto-postmodernist
turns out to be right. Truth is what the powerful make it to be. Truth,
the first casualty in war, is perhaps the central irony of the
crucifixion.”96
b. Truth Revealed: Pilate only has authority because it is given to him
“from above” (John 19:11). Power cannot be grasped, it must only be
given from God.
c. Crucifixion: the misuse of power in earthly kingdoms, the arrival of
the divine kingdom, in which power has been given to the Son of
God… power that is used in self-sacrifice for the salvation of the
covenant people.
d. Truth & Power Received: just as power is received from God, so also
truth must be revealed and received.
2. Key Transition in Matthew’s Gospel: I praise you father that you have hidden
your Kingdom from the wise… (Matt 11:25-30). The kingdom is not a matter
of human discernment, but of divine self-disclosure.
a. Revelatory Epistemology = God as the source of all knowing…
humans possess limited cognitive capacity, limited ability to observe
and interpret the world around them—and are completely ignorant of

96
N. T. Wright, History & Eschatology: Jesus and the Promise of Natural Theology (London: SPCK,
2019), 268.

49
 spiritual realities—thus, are dependent upon God, who is otherwise
unknowable, to reveal himself.97
b. Inaugurated Judgment: God has hidden himself (in Christ, in parabolic
self-revelation), as the use of Isa 6:9-10 in Matt 13:13-15 confirms.
3. Parables & Kingdom Expectations (Matt 13:1-52): the Kingdom of God in the
OT is either brought by a gentle Servant (Isa 42:1-4) or a smashing Stone
(Dan 2:44-45).
a. As New Covenant believers with fuller divine revelation, we realize
this is not an “either-or” issue, but a “both-and” matter. Two-stage
eschatology is difficult (impossible?) to discern in the OT, unless one
is reading retrospectively.
b. Stage One: the inaugurated Kingdom would be a matter of the heart
(Matt 13:11-16, “Blessed…”), as the OT announces (Deut 10:12-17;
30:6, “Heart circumcision…”). Note: heart circumcision creates
obedient people (Deut 30:6; Ezek 36:26-29; cf. Matt 22:36-40).
c. Stage Two: the consummated Kingdom would be a matter of conquest,
victory, and triumph over the enemies of God (Rev 19:11-21). The
apocalyptic vision of the prophet Daniel conceptually links to that of
the apostle John.
4. Discipleship in Mark: in the Gospel of Mark, discipleship defines the people
of God’s Kingdom. Note three passion predictions in the journey toward
Jerusalem (during the process of discipleship).
a. No traditions, no writings, no categories for the Suffering Messiah.
b. Note in Mark 9:30ff that Isaiah’s theme of “Servant-servants” is
repeated. There is a pattern of the Servant’s life mirrored in the lives
of his servants. In other words, Jesus’s destiny is the destiny of the
disciples. See the “Passion Prediction-to-Discipleship” pattern.
5. Kingdom of God in Lukan Theology
a. N. T. Wright says, “Acts 1:6-8 offers one of the classic statements of
the New Testament’s now-and-not-yet. The disciples ask Jesus if this
is the time when he will restore the kingdom to Israel. Jesus’s
answer—exactly as with the Gospel parables—is, ‘Yes, but not in the
way you imagine.’ That is why the disciples, faced with persecution,
invoke Psalm 2, which speaks of their belief that Jesus is already
enthroned as the true king, having drawn on to himself the wrath of
Herod and Pilate, representing the evil powers of the world, and
having overcome them (Acts 4:23-31). For Luke, Jesus is already
reigning. He has already fulfilled the promises of establishing his
kingdom.”98

97
The term “revelatory epistemology” is borrowed from R. Albert Mohler Jr., “When the Bible Speaks,
God Speaks: The Classic Doctrine of Biblical Inerrancy” in Stephen M. Garrett and J. Merrick, eds. Five Views on
Biblical Inerrancy (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2013), 27. Matt 11:25-27 affirms a revelatory epistemology.
98
N. T. Wright, History & Eschatology, 175.

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 b. Uncleanness: Peter in Luke 5:8 = Isaiah 6:5 (conceptual, theological
linkage). Humans who encounter the King in His Beauty, come to see
themselves in a true light.
c. Self-Justification (Luke 18:9-14): Jesus speaks a parable confirming
the paradigmatic Jewish problem (as indicative of the general, human
problem) of grasping for self-righteousness. Some were trusting
themselves for righteousness (18:9; Greek: δίκαιος). But the penitent
man went home justified (18:14; Greek: δεδικαιωμένος), passive voice.
C. Intertextuality in the Fourfold Gospel Testimony
1. Psalm 22 in Matthew 27: the repeated echoes of Ps 22 in Matt 27 show that
Jesus is the “Righteous Sufferer” the psalm envisages.
a. Matthew’s use of the OT is to illumine the character of Jesus, showing
him to be the true Messiah. How can the Jews embrace a crucified
Messiah? Texts such as Ps 22 and Isa 53 light the way.
b. Metalepsis: the quotation of Ps 22:1 in Matt 27:46 calls for us to read
the whole passage in order to understand Matthew’s use of it. The
Righteous Sufferer cries out for vindication and deliverance. He
knows that God “has not despised or distained the suffering of the
afflicted one; he has not hidden his face from him, but has listened to
his cry for help” (Ps 22:24; cf. John 8:16, 29; 16:32).
c. Not Abandoned at Calvary: the church often teaches that Jesus was
abandoned by the Father while suffering on the cross. Ps 22:24
explicitly teaches the exact opposite. If Matthew employs the psalm to
identify Messiah as the “Righteous Sufferer,” then we must follow the
unavoidable metaleptic-intertextual conclusion: Jesus was not
abandoned by the Father, for he knows the Father is always with him.
d. Matt 27:46 in no way contradicts John 16:32, “But a time is coming,
and has come, when you will be scattered each to his own home. You
will leave me all alone. Yet I am not alone, for my Father is with me.”
2. Marriage & Mosaic Law in Matthew’s Gospel: in Matt 19:1-12, Jesus is asked
about marriage and Moses’s concession regarding divorce.
a. Part 1: the answer begins with Gen 1:27; 2:24. Before sin, the
marriage covenant and commitment (Hebrew: ‫ ָּד ַבק‬dābaq) were
irreversible (the two become “one flesh”).
b. Part 2: the answer continues… Jesus indicates (as we said above) that
God’s eternal design for covenant relationships is one of everlasting
commitment, undergirded by faithfulness and forgiveness. Thus, Jesus
says that divorce is only permissible where the Law of Moses governs
hard hearts (Matt 19:8).
c. Part 3: the answer crescendos… if divorce remains an option, it is
because of hard hearts. But divorce is not an option. This was true of
original creation (Gen 2:24); it is all-the-more valid within the new
creation (Matt 19:8b-12).
d. Pastoral Counseling: consider that covenants require faithfulness, but
also introduce forgiveness in matters of covenant violation. Where
divorce is sought, forgiveness has not been extended (cf. Eph 4:32).

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 3. The Jerusalem Parables in Matthew’s Gospel (chap 21 onward)
a. Parable of the Fig Tree (Mark 11:12-26; cf. Matt 21:18-22).
• Inaugurated judgment upon the Temple (symbolizes Second
Temple Judaism), prefigured in the cursing of the fig tree,
follows Christ seeking fruit but finding only barrenness.
• Consummated judgment involves the Temple Mount thrown
into the sea (chaos waters of Roman destruction, 70 AD), for
now believers may pray to God directly, through Christ who
replaces the Temple.
b. Parable of Tenants (Matt 21:33-46) as Parable of Vineyard (Isa 5:1-7)
c. Parable of Wedding Banquet (Matt 22:1-14): see the Messianic
banquet in Isa 25:6-10 (as inauguration) and Rev 19:6-10 (as
consummation).
4. The Transfiguration in the Synoptic Gospels (Matt 17:1-13): Moses (the Law),
and Elijah (the Prophets) are representatives. At the transfiguration, Deut
18:15-18 and Mal 4:5-6 intermingle within eschatological expectations.
a. Kingdom Expectation: Peter’s desire to arrange shelters reveals his
eschatological expectations, according to the Rabbinic tradition.
b. Judaism expected the (literal?) appearance of Elijah (Mal 4:5-6), but
Jesus confirms that John the Baptist fulfilled this appearance (Matt
17:10-13). Note: some scholars claim that Matt 3:11 presents “Spirit
and fire” as a hendiadys.99
• Based on Mal 4:1-3, the future appearance of Elijah results in
the Day of the Lord. It is a day of healing for the righteous, but
a day of fiery judgment upon evildoers.
• After Elijah (John) comes Messiah (Jesus), who baptizes with
the Spirit (bringing healing to the righteous) and with fire
(bringing judgment upon the wicked).
• Contextual Consideration: see Matt 3:10 (fire = judgment),
Matt 3:11 (fire = judgment), and Matt 3:12 (fire = judgment).
c. Regarding John’s negative affirmation (John 1:21-23), it remains
likely that Jesus knew more of the Baptist’s role in redemptive history
than John himself knew.
d. Transfiguration & Exodus (Luke 9:30-31): at the Transfiguration,
Jesus discusses his forthcoming “departure” (Greek: ἔξοδον) with
Moses and Elijah. Jesus would accomplish an “exodus” in Jerusalem.
5. Walking on Water: the echo of Job 9:11 in Mark 6:48 (cf. Moses in Exod
33:17-23; 34:6; also, Elijah in 1 Kgs 19:11-12) shows the manifestation of
divine glory throughout Scripture is indicated with the language of “passing

99
The dictionary defines hendiadys as “the expression of an idea by the use of usually two independent
words connected by and (such as nice and warm) instead of the usual combination of independent word and its
modifier (such as nicely warm).” Website: https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/hendiadys

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 by.”100 Failing to perceive Christ’s deity rightly, the disciples “saw him, and
were terrified” (Mark 6:50).
6. Inaugurated Jubilee: the use of Isaiah 61 in Luke 4 highlights a New, Spiritual
Jubilee (liberation under the great Davidic Warrior-King) inaugurated in the
ministry of Jesus (cf. Lev 25:8-55). Themes of inauguration and
consummation, with similar Jubilee undertones, intersect in Isa 35:1-10.
a. The Jubilee (Hebrew: ‫יֹובל‬ ֵ yōḇel) arrives with a trumpet blast on the
Day of Atonement to mark the end of seven “weeks” of years (seven
Sabbatical years = 49 years total).
b. In the fiftieth year, Hebrew slaves and prisoners would be freed, debts
would be forgiven, land ownership would revert to original ancestral
allotment, and the mercies of God would be particularly manifest.
7. Inaugurated Judgment: the Use of Isaiah 6:9-10 in John 12; Matt 13; Mark 4;
Luke 8 (cf. Acts 28).
a. The messianic “signs” of the Fourth Gospel function similarly to the
parables in the Synoptic Gospels. In both cases, the Messiah
intentionally hides himself (cf. Matt 11:25-30) through parabolic
riddles and veiled glory.
b. In both cases, the divine judgment of Isa 6:9-10 is evoked to explain
the spiritual blindness of the Jews (the hard-heartedness, inability to
perceive, hear, understand). Otherwise incomprehensible, the Jewish
rejection of Messiah actually fulfills OT prophecy.
8. Mary’s Song & Hannah’s Song (Luke 1:46-55; 1 Sam 2:1-10; cf. Ps 113): in
both songs, find covenant history, God’s sovereignty and faithfulness, and the
reversal of fortunes (exaltation) for lowly, humble servants.
9. Sign of Jonah in Luke 11:29-32 (cf. Matt 12:39-42): the Son of Man would be
buried in the earth, as Jonah had been “buried” in the belly of the fish, for
three days and three nights. This sign was sufficient, alongside the
proclamation of the gospel, for the people of Nineveh to repent… but
apparently, the Messianic counterpart would remain insufficient for the people
of Israel (the Pharisees, in particular).
a. Queen of Sheba: those of distant Gentile nations streamed into
Jerusalem to benefit from King Solomon’s wisdom (1 Kgs 10:1-10).
b. People of Nineveh: those of rebellious Gentile nations repented and
received God’s mercy.
c. Messiah as Greater: the one greater than Solomon and Jonah has
arrived (Jesus implicitly claims messianic identity here), but the Jews
fail to receive him. They fail to respond positively to his wisdom and

100
The intertextual observation comes from Hays, Echoes in Gospels, 88-89. Job 9:5-11 reads, “He
who removes mountains, and they know it not, when he overturns them in his anger, 6 who shakes the earth out of its
place, and its pillars tremble; 7 who commands the sun, and it does not rise; who seals up the stars; 8 who alone
stretched out the heavens and trampled the waves of the sea; 9 who made the Bear and Orion, the Pleiades and the
chambers of the south; 10 who does great things beyond searching out, and marvelous things beyond number.
11
Behold, he passes by me, and I see him not; he moves on, but I do not perceive him” (emphasis added).

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 to his gospel proclamation.
D. The Law of Moses in the Synoptic Gospels
1. The Sermon on the Mount (Matt 5—7)
a. Seven Beatitudes as Spirit’s Blessings on Messiah.101
b. Seven Woes in Matt 23:1-39, related to Pharisaic Judaism. The
Pharisees are a “brood of vipers” (23:33), which is literally “children
of serpents” (cf. Gen 3:15). In Matt 23:33, the Greek is γέννημα, which
is different than “seed” (Greek: σπέρμα) in Gal 3:16.
c. Fulfill the Law: in the Sermon on the Mount, Jesus affirms his mission
to “fulfill” the Law and the Prophets (Matt 5:17-20).
• The Greek word (πληρόω) could indicate the Jesus is the
completion (end) of the Law as God’s covenant with the
redeemed.
• It could also indicate that Jesus is the ultimate meaning of the
Old Testament.
• Or, further, it could signify Jesus’s active obedience as
fulfillment of the Law’s requirements.
• The final decision may rest on the relationship between πληρόω
in Matt 3:15 (Jesus’s baptism) and Matt 5:17.
d. Principle of Transfigured Continuity: the Law is intensified,
internalized, and invested with greater glory, so that its original
application is interpreted according to New Covenant promises: heart
circumcision, indwelling Spirit, moral/ethical transformation as
inward-to-outward reality. Note the pattern, “You have heard… but I
say” as Jesus’s authoritative transfiguration of Torah.
e. Surpassing Righteousness: the believer must have righteousness that
exceeds that of the Pharisees (Matt 5:20). It must be internal at its
origin, and must work its way out as its ethical expression. This
relates to the metaphoric “Tree and Fruit” (Matt 7:15-23), where the
inward quality determines the production of “good fruit.”
f. Christian Perfection: some believe Matt 5:48 teaches sinless perfection
(some Wesleyan denominations). However, the demand for perfection
is actually a call for integration. You must be “complete” (Greek:

101
Rebekah Eklund, The Beatitudes through the Ages (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2021), 75 says,
“Initially, [Augustine] followed his predecessors by interpreting the Beatitudes as a series of steps undertaken by the
soul. His innovation springs from the number seven. Recall from the last chapter that he considered seven to be the
true number of the beatitudes, since the eighth is a recapitulation of the first. From there, he proceeded to match the
seven beatitudes to two other lists of sevens: the seven petitions of the Lord’s Prayer, and the seven gifts of the Spirit
as named in the Old Latin text of Isa 11:2: wisdom, understanding, counsel, fortitude, knowledge, godliness, and
fear of the Lord. Augustine made one key change; he inverted the order of the spiritual gifts, so that his list begins
with fear of the Lord and ends with wisdom. (To justify this move, he appealed to Eccl 1:16: ‘the fear of the Lord is
the beginning of wisdom.’)The notion that Isa 11:2 named the seven gifts of the Spirit was relatively well-
established in the Christian tradition by the time of Augustine. But nobody prior to Augustine had paired the
Beatitudes with these seven gifts (or, as explicitly as he does, with the petitions of the Lord’s Prayer). It’s a natural
enough connection, given his conviction that the Christian life is made possible by the gifts of the Holy Spirit.”

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 τέλειος) means you must have “wholeness” within the inner and outer
man (purity of heart/intent/motivation matches purity of ethical
action… inside matches outside).102
2. Tassels on Messiah’s Garments: see Matt 9:20 (cf. Mark 5:27; 6:56) as
fulfillment of Num 15:37-39. Messiah adheres to Torah, even down to the
smallest details.
3. Lord of the Sabbath: Jesus has authority to determine how the Sabbath should
be observed.
a. In Mark 2:23-28, Jesus tells the Pharisees that he is Lord of the
Sabbath. In Exod 34:21, the Sabbath followed Israel’s rescue from
Egypt. The Sabbath showed that God would not become a taskmaster
like Pharaoh (as if God enslaved people to do his bidding). Instead,
God would labor on behalf of his people.103 Sabbath rest serves as a
visual reminder of God’s sufficiency and the people’s freedom. So
Jesus correctly interprets the Sabbath; it was made for man, such that it
should not enslave man in strict ritual observance.
b. The logic follows: since the Sabbath is for the good of the people, and
since Jesus is the Lord of all mankind, then the Son of Man is Lord of
the Sabbath as well.
c. Jesus defends his disciples (see Deut 23:25; cf. 1 Sam 21:1-6). Hunger
was sufficient reason for people to set aside the regulations of the
Sabbath, which had originally been given as a gift for spiritual and
physical refreshment. So, man was not to be enslaved to God and,
further, was not to be enslaved by any of the gifts of God.
4. Ritual Purity (Mark 2:15-17): Eating with tax collectors and sinners did not
contaminate the Lord Jesus. His superlative holiness actually transforms the
uncleanness surrounding him. See Mark 5:21-43; Jesus is touched by a
bleeding woman (cf. Lev 15:19-20) and comes into contact with a dead body
(cf. Lev 21:1-17). But Jesus’s transcendent holiness transforms uncleanness;
he is not defiled by it, but restores people from it.
5. The Lord’s Supper as Passover Meal: the Synoptic Gospels portray a
fundamental continuity between the Passover meal and the institution of Holy
Communion (John’s Gospel records Passion Week details a little differently).
a. Because of John’s Gospel, some scholars suggest the Lord’s Supper is
connected not to the Old Testament Passover (as the Synoptic Gospel
writers show), but to the covenant meal eaten by Moses, Aaron,
Nadab, Abihu, and the seventy elders of Israel on Mount Sinai (Exod
24:1-11). In this view, Moses’s sprinkling of the blood of the burnt
offerings on the altar and on the people is what Jesus has in mind,

The concept of “wholeness” is drawn from Jonathan T. Pennington, The Sermon on the Mount and
102

Human Flourishing: A Theological Commentary (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2017), 35-53.

See Isa 46:3-4 as a powerful example. Note the contrast between idols—which are a “burden” to the
103

people—and God, who will continue to “carry,” “sustain,” and “rescue” his people.

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 when he says, “This is my blood of the new covenant.”
b. Lord’s Supper as Symbolic Passover: the textual connections,
historical tradition, and symbolic features of the Lord’s Supper remain
decisive. The connection to the Jewish Passover is quite strong. The
Synoptic Gospels do not identify a lamb (the main dish of Passover,
laden with pertinent symbolism), so that Jesus and the disciples appear
to be eating only bread and wine. Consider theological significance
here, as the “flesh” and “blood” of Messiah were offered for the life of
the world (John 6:51)… but the Paschal Lamb was raised to new life.
E. New Creation, New Temple, and New Exodus in John’s Gospel
1. The Fulfillment of OT Signposts in the Fourth Gospel
a. Jesus as New Creation: see John 1:1-5. The one who has life in
himself, gives life to all believers. The one who speaks light into
existence, illumines the saints.
b. Jesus as Eschatological Temple: see John 2:18-22. Divine glory was
veiled behind the curtain, within the Holy of Holies. Likewise, divine
glory was hidden by the flesh of Jesus, but disclosed at the crucifixion
(John 12:23-33), and most powerfully in His post-resurrection
appearances (John 20:28).
c. Jesus as Savior: see John 3:14-15. The curse of Num 21:8-9 was lifted
by the gracious salvation of God. The venomous snakebite of sin is
also cured by the crucifixion of Christ.
d. Jesus as Wilderness Provision: see John 6:32-35. Moses, exodus,
wilderness wandering are all in view. As believers, our salvation is
due to God’s faithfulness (in Christ), bringing promise to fulfillment.
And our preservation/perseverance is due to God’s provision (in
Christ) of “manna/bread” from heaven to sustain us.
e. Jesus as Source of Living Water: see John 4:14; 7:37-39. Textual
Syntax (John 7:37-39): does Jesus (or John) refer to living water
flowing from believers, or from Messiah? The textual syntax of this
passage is difficult.104 However, when we interpret Jesus’s cry in John
7:37-38 in light of the imagery of Sukkoth and in light of John’s clear
identification of Jesus’s body as the temple, we find satisfying
solutions to a notorious cluster of exegetical problems in the passage.
• The OT source of the apparent quotation in John 7:38 is either
Zech 14:7-19, or Ezek 47:1-2. This is not a direct quotation,
but a summary of OT texts associated with the Feast of
Tabernacles (see John 7:2).
• Translation: Jesus cried out, “Let anyone who is thirsty come to
me, and let the one who believes in me drink.” As the Scripture
has said, out of his [i.e., Jesus’s] belly shall flow rivers of

104
Details are from Hays, Echoes in Gospels, 328-29.

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 living water. Now he said this about the Spirit, which believers
in him were to receive; for as yet there was no Spirit, because
Jesus was not yet glorified (John 7:37-39).
f. Jesus as Davidic Shepherd: see John 10:14-15 (cf. Ezek 34:11-16, 23-
26). On David as shepherd-king, in the context of the Messianic
Covenant and the resurrection of the Temple, see Ezek 37:21-28.
• The Fourth Gospel insists that Israel’s story and symbolic
world be reshaped, retold, and redefined in light of Christ.
• Christ does not join the story of Israel; the story of Israel is
taken up and transfigured in Him.
g. Jesus as True Israel: see John 15:1-5. In the OT, the choice vine of
God’s vineyard is Israel (Ps 80:8-16; Isa 5:1-7; Jer 2:21). Jesus is the
fulfillment, embodiment, and representative figure… He is the singular
faithful Israel. The church becomes corporate New Israel by Spirit-
union with Christ (individual New Israel).
2. High View of the Sovereignty of God (John 6:37, 44-45, 65). In John 6:44-
45, see New Covenant fulfillment from Isa 54:13 (context = “Covenant of
Peace”) as covenant history is rehearsed throughout the chapter.
3. New Temple Christology: the temple no longer represents the place of God’s
presence where sacrificial atonement is secured. Jesus is the new temple in
himself (John 2:19-20; 4:20-24), and believers, united to Christ, become the
temple of the Holy Spirit (1 Cor. 3:16; 2 Cor. 6:16).
4. Feeding Five Thousand: only miracle/sign in all four gospels. We understand
that Jesus is the New Moses, but more… one greater than Moses has come.
He is not only the provider, but the provision of God.
5. Works-Righteousness: there is an unmistakable thread of works-righteousness
in John 6:26-29. Do not work… what must we do… what are the works God
requires… the “work” of God is to believe. The Jews, representing humanity,
struggle with grasping (effort, striving, self-assertion, self-will, personal
accomplishment, cooperation with God, contribution to salvation), when God
requires only that humans receive, believe, trust, and rest in His faithfulness.
F. Biblical Theology in the Book of Acts
1. Fulfillment of Israel, Inception of Church (Redemptive Institutions of the Old
& New Covenants)… the universal church is established on the Apostle
Peter’s authoritative interpretation of the gospel.
2. Pentecost as Reversal of Babel
a. Pattern: Babel—Abrahamic Blessing—Holy Spirit as Fulfillment—
Reunification of languages.
b. Historical Level = first-fruits of the harvest. The Feast of Tabernacles
as the end of the harvest.
c. Babel as human pride, Abrahamic Covenant as God’s response. The
Abrahamic blessing (the Spirit) reverses Babel at Pentecost.
3. Overlap of the Ages: tongues as specific gift of a specific age (see how the gift
of tongues is understood in the Jerusalem Council).
a. The Baptism of John v. Baptism of Holy Spirit in Acts 19
b. The Universal Church: established on the authoritative ministry of the

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 apostle Paul.
4. Jerusalem Council (Background of Galatians): Gentiles & the Mosaic Law
a. Circumcision as Eternal Sign of Abrahamic Covenant
b. David’s Fallen Tent
5. Biblical Theology in the Sermon of Stephen: the church has authority to
interpret the OT signposts in a Christ-centered manner.
a. Land: God’s presence with Abraham was based on faith, not the
geographical land of Canaan. God was with Abraham before his
inheritance of the land. “Blessing” (as God’s presence) is tied to
Abraham’s trust, not the inheritance of real estate.
b. Law (Torah): the identity of the true covenant people was always
determined by faith, not by adherence to the Law. In fact, the Jews
had largely rejected Moses (and Torah), so that their covenant status
was seriously in doubt.
c. Temple: the presence of God was not confined to the Temple, or any
geographical location (Isa 66:1-2 in Acts 7:49-50). The presence of
God within the covenant people transcended and redefined the temple.
As Pate observes, “His faithful people, those who follow Christ and
are filled with his Spirit, are his true temple.”105
6. Biblical Interpretation: the apostle Philip serves as authorized interpreter of
OT (Acts 8:26-39): an apparent shift in biblical interpretation takes place in
this scene.106
a. Philip is a Spirit-led interpreter of OT Scripture, whereas the Ethiopian
is still “outside” the new covenant community, for he still interprets
the Law according to Jewish tradition. The words of the OT haunt his
mind (Deut 23:1).107
b. Suffering Servant: the Ethiopian cannot understand Isa 53 within the
traditional Jewish framework.
c. Philip plays a ministerial role within this dramatic narrative.108 He
becomes a model interpreter, explaining OT Scripture in a typological,
canonical, and Christological way.

105
Pate, Story of Israel, 201.
106
The scene is an “interpretive interaction.” See the questions: (1) Philip asks, “Do you understand
what you are reading?” in 8:30; and (2) the eunuch asks, “How can I, unless someone guides me?” in 8:31. The
word “guides” is the same word from John 16:13, in which the Spirit of Truth would “guide” the disciples into all
truth. It is connected to the Greek word ἐξάγω upon which the word “exegesis” is founded.
107
The verse reads, “No one whose testicles are crushed or whose male organ is cut off shall enter the
assembly of the LORD.” This clear definition of a “eunuch” leaves us with no confusion.
108
Kevin J. Vanhoozer. Biblical Authority After Babel (Grand Rapids: Brazos Press, 2016), 118 says, “If
Scripture is self-interpreting, what was Philip doing in that chariot? There are at least three possibilities for
understanding what Philip represents: (1) the sharing of oral tradition (Acts 8:35); (2) a strategy for reading the text
(typologically, canonically, and christologically); (3) the teaching office of the church. These three options are
related to three ways of viewing the relationship between Scripture and the ongoing life of the church.”

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 d. Philip begins with the Old Testament and explains it according to the
“good news of Jesus” (Acts 8:35). He learns hermeneutics by
apprenticeship; he demonstrates the same hermeneutic technique as
Jesus (on the Emmaus Road, he began with Moses and the Prophets
and “interpreted to them in all the Scriptures the things concerning
himself,” Luke 24:27).
e. Everlasting Name: for a eunuch, the result of Isa 53 (substitutionary
atonement) is found in Isa 56 (an “everlasting name”).109
7. Apostle Peter as New Adam (Acts 10): Peter functions as a New Adam,
subduing the “unclean animals” of his vision through proclamation of the
gospel to Gentiles.
a. Rise, Kill, Eat: the animals in the sheet symbolize the Gentile nations
that are “unclean.” Peter is to realign his evangelism according to
God’s missional purposes (partial fulfillment of John 21:18).
b. New Covenantal Definitions: Peter is not to consider the Gentiles
“unclean” because God, in Christ, had cleansed many (like Cornelius).
c. Gospel Proclamation: in the message of Peter, the Spirit subdues
Gentile peoples and includes them within the covenant.
8. Apostle Paul as Interpreter of OT
a. Acts 13:16-41, 46-48. Paul addresses Jews and Gentiles, saying that
“the God of Israel chose our fathers.” Gentiles, united to Christ,
become heirs of the Old Testament, the Patriarchal promises, the
covenant blessings, and the lineage of Messiah.
• The Davidic Covenant has been fulfilled in Christ (13:32-37).
• The Davidic King, fulfilled in the eternal son. David died, but
Christ was resurrected. David saw decay, but Christ was
raised speedily as the “Holy One” who—through resurrection
life—inherits an eternal (= heavenly, not earthly) throne and
establishes an eternal (= spiritual, not millennial) reign.
• Luke 1:32 & Acts 13:37: the resurrection and ascension of
Christ means he inherits the “throne of his father, David.”
b. Acts 28:23-28. Paul interprets Israel’s rejection of Messiah according
to Isa 6:9-10, and understands that Gentile salvation (with the
preservation of the Remnant of Israel) marks God’s unveiled purposes
in this eschatological era of redemptive history.

109
Isa 56:3-5 says, “Let not the foreigner who has joined himself to the L ORD say ‘The LORD will
surely separate me from his people;’ and let not the eunuch say, ‘Behold, I am a dry tree.’ For thus says the L ORD,
‘To the eunuchs who keep my Sabbaths, who choose the things that please me and hold fast to my covenant, I will
give in my house and within my walls a monument and a name better than sons and daughters; I will give them an
everlasting name that shall not be cut off.’”

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Session 4: The Kingdom Miracles of Jesus in the Synoptic Gospels
A. Set of Miracles in Mark: most Second Temple Jews expected a Messiah who would
perform the right signs to confirm his royal and divine status. Many were waiting for,
and were even eager to accept a Messiah who would expel the Romans from the Holy
Land. So, while the miracles of Jesus validate his message, they were not the “right”
messianic signs in the minds of unbelieving Israel.
1. We begin in Mark 4:35, at a point in the Messianic ministry that follows a
period of parabolic teaching. We understand—and will see further, in the next
session—that the function of parables is to communicate truth that essentially
distinguishes the disciples from the crowds that follow Jesus.
a. For Mark, this is certainly true, but the parables serve another
function; they prove that Jesus, who explains all things to his disciples
(4:34), is the powerful Messiah and foretold “Teacher of Israel.”
b. In order to cement this concept in his readers’ minds, Mark follows the
parables of chapter four with the miraculous calming of the storm.
Jesus’ authority over the wind and the waves demonstrate a clear point.
Mark shows that miracles communicate theology.
The Calming of the Storm
Mark 4:35-41 Matthew 8:18, 23-27 Luke 8:22-25
35 18 22
On that day, when evening had Now when Jesus saw a crowd One day he got into a boat with
come, he said to them, “Let us go around him, he gave orders to go his disciples, and he said to them,
across to the other side.” over to the other side. “Let us go across to the other side
36 23
of the lake.”
And leaving the crowd, they took And when he got into the boat,
him with them in the boat, just as his disciples followed him. So they set out,
he was. And other boats were with
him.
37 24 23
And a great windstorm arose, and And behold, there arose a great and as they sailed he fell asleep.
the waves were breaking into the storm on the sea, so that the boat And a windstorm came down on
boat, so that the boat was already was being swamped by the waves; the lake, and they were filling with
filling. 38 But he was in the stern, but he was asleep. 25 And they went water and were in danger. 24 And
asleep on the cushion. And they and woke him, saying, “Save us, they went and woke him, saying,
woke him and said to him, Lord; we are perishing.” “Master, Master, we are perishing!”
“Teacher, do you not care that we
are perishing?”
39 26
And he awoke and rebuked the And he said to them, “Why are And he awoke and rebuked the
wind and said to the sea, “Peace! you afraid, O you of little faith?” wind and the raging waves, and
Be still!” And the wind ceased, and Then he rose and rebuked the winds they ceased, and there was a calm.
there was a great calm. 40 He said to and the sea, and there was a great 25
He said to them, “Where is your
them, “Why are you so afraid? calm. faith?”
Have you still no faith?”
41
And they were filled with great 27
And the men marveled, saying, And they were afraid, and they
fear and said to one another, “Who “What sort of man is this, that even marveled, saying to one another,
then is this, that even the wind and winds and sea obey him?” “Who then is this, that he
the sea obey him?” commands even winds and water,
and they obey him?”

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 2. Identity of Jesus: Jesus who has divine insight and can explain the mysteries
of the Kingdom is also the same “man” who can command the winds and the
waves. This is a “show of power that can come only from the Creator
himself”110 and serves to authenticate his verbal message and awaken faith in
the lives of the disciples. Accordingly, it is meant to deepen and strengthen
our faith, for we have been invited to join the Twelve in their journey of
discovering the answer to their question, “Who is this man?” This is the
question that Mark now begins to answer.
3. Identity of Jesus: in the following construction and arrangement of Mark’s
narrative, the power of Jesus over the demonic realm (5:1-20) and over the
sicknesses of mankind, even over death (5:21-43) is powerfully evident.
a. Though the disciples still do not fully understand who Jesus is, the
demon in the Gerasene region is aware that he is the “Son of the Most
High God” (cf. Melchizedek in Gen 14:18-20; Balaam in Num 24:15-
16; Nebuchadnezzar in Dan 3:26; Gabriel in Luke 1:32).
b. Indeed, the point of the miracles is to prove that Jesus is the Messiah.
But this reality is unveiled progressively, just as the text unfolds
progressively in moving toward the climactic declaration of Peter.
c. We recall as well the inquiry of John the Baptist, sent through a group
of messengers in Matthew 11, and Jesus’s response. He tells John that
a specific set of miracles provide his Messianic credentials. The blind,
lame, and deaf are healed, as well as the lepers, and the dead are raised
to life. Further, the good news is proclaimed. So the theological intent
of the miracles and the message of Christ is revealed: they both speak
about his identity. Theological truth is communicated in the historical
accounts of Matthew, Mark, and Luke, not only in the narrative
discourses, but in all aspects of their reports.
4. Two Miracles & Literary Juxtaposition: the Gospel of Mark includes the two
miracles of chapter five because the first strikes at the heart of Gentile
spirituality while the second reveals the deepest need of the Jewish
community.
a. Among Gentiles, Jesus casts out a demon that had restricted its host
from all social interaction. He then sends the demon into a herd of
pigs which are drowned in the very waters he has just calmed. Later in
Mark, the water is stirred again (6:45), possibly by the demonic host
that now dwells in the deep. Mistaken for a ghost, Jesus walks on the
water, a sign that he treads upon the demonic host in overcoming all
spiritual opposition (cf. Job 9:8-11 in Mark 6:48, where God treads
upon the chaos waters of primordial creation, intending to show his
divine glory. As he passes by, humanity is unable to perceive him due
to its contingent, and ultimately sinful nature).111

110
Pate, Story of Israel, 137.
111
Sinai, with Moses (Exod 34:6-7) and Elijah (1 Kgs 19:11-13), stands behind the Markan account.

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 b. Among Jews, Jesus is confronted with two members of society that
could not be further apart in their associations. Initially, he is
approached by Jairus and, on the way to the ruler’s home, Jesus is
approached by a lowly woman.
Jairus Bleeding Woman
Blessed Man Cursed Woman
Prominent & Well Known Common & Unknown
Leader of Israel’s Worship Unclean, Shunned from Synagogue
Daughter of Twelve Years Bleeding for Twelve Years
Fell at Jesus’ Feet Fell at Jesus’ Feet
Healed Immediately by Words Healed Immediately by Touch
Daughter Touched by Jesus Jesus Touched by Woman
Private Healing Public Healing
Approached Jesus from the Front Approached Jesus from Behind
Father Seeks His Daughter’s Healing Woman Seeks Her Own Healing
Daughter “Daughter”
Told to Believe Possessed Personal Faith
Jesus Mocked by Crowd Jesus Questioned by Disciples
Pate, Story of Israel, 141

c. Each of the Synoptic Gospels include the account of Jairus. He

approaches without a hint of faith or a confession of the Christ.
Perhaps he is still blind to Jesus’ true identity. To be sure, those who
came from his house are still blind, for they believe the girl’s death is
the closing of Jesus’ window of opportunity to heal her.
d. The common woman’s faith exceeds that of the synagogue ruler, and
she is commended for it. She is presented by Mark as a literary foil of
the synagogue ruler; she demonstrates the faith, wisdom, and character
that he was supposed to possess. She understood the restorative nature
of God’s presence in Christ and recognized the power of the Kingdom
in her presence.
e. Thus, Mark is telling us that “righteous Israel” remained spiritually
blind while those shunned from the temple (and synagogue) possess
the faith that unlocks the miraculous power of God. We recognize
again that Jesus has come into contact with uncleanness: first in the
contact with the unclean woman and second in touching a dead body.
Again, the text does not indicate that Jesus has become unclean, but
has made the unclean person clean.
f. Mark is telling his readers that Jesus is transforming the Law, he has
authority to determine and interpret the meaning and extent of the
Law. Note: this is the reason for the confrontation in Mark 7:1-23 over
the issue of ceremonial purity. Mark places this incident in immediate
proximity with the uncleanness of pigs, dead bodies, bleeding women,
and as we will see, in the context of an unclean “dog” as well.
5. Theological Value of Miracles: the miracles reported in the gospels have
instructional qualities, just like the historical details each author includes. But
modern scholarship has sought to discredit the miracles of Jesus as merely

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 natural phenomena that the gospel writers misunderstood. They argue that
historical details of the past must be reflected in present reality in order for
their veracity to be proved. Thus, if we do not see miracles like the calming
of storms or raising people from the dead, then they must not have been
authentic in the gospel accounts. The conclusion is made that the gospel
writers invented myths to prove what they believed about Jesus. Even in the
best of cases, these modern scholars argue that the ethical instruction of the
kingdom takes precedent over the miracles. But even in the structure of Luke,
the astute observer notes Luke’s balancing of Jesus’ teaching and miracles “in
such a way as to give them equal weight.”112
B. Feeding Five Thousand: the only miracle of Jesus to be recorded in all four
gospels.113 Thus, it must carry special significance for understanding Jesus as the
Messiah,114 the fulfillment of Old Testament prophecy (as in Matthew), the Son of
God (as in Mark), the Servant of the Lord (as in Luke), and the Eternal Word of God
(as in John).
1. Similarities in the Canonical Gospels
a. Jesus and the Twelve are in a “desolate place” (Matthew, Mark, Luke)
b. A great crowd was following Jesus (Matthew, Mark, Luke, John)
c. There were about 5,000 men (Matthew, Mark, Luke, John)
d. Jesus instructs the disciples, saying, “You give them something to eat.”
(Matthew, Mark, Luke)
e. There are only five loaves and two fish to feed the crowd (Matthew,
Mark, Luke, John)
f. Jesus orders the crowd to sit in the grass (Matthew, Mark, Luke, John)
g. Jesus gives thanks (or blesses) the food and then distributes it
(Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John)
h. The whole crowd eats and all are satisfied (Matthew, Mark, Luke,
John)
i. There are twelve baskets of leftover food (Matthew, Mark, Luke, John)
2. Differences in the Canonical Gospels
a. Jesus ascended a mountain (John)
b. Jesus healed the sick from among the crowd (Matthew, Luke)
c. Jesus teaches the crowds (Mark, John)
d. Jesus speaks to the crowds concerning the Kingdom of God (Luke)
e. The crowds are “like sheep without a shepherd.” (Mark)
3. Synthesis of Texts: the significance of the miraculous account is recognized in
the synthesis of the four accounts. Note: normally, we value the individual

112
Achtemeier “The Lucan Perspective on the Miracles of Jesus,” Journal of Biblical Literature 94, in
Pate, Story of Israel, 138.
113
See Matt 14:13-21; Mark 6:30-44; Luke 9:10-17; John 6:1-14.
114
In Mark 6:51-52, if the disciples had understood the “loaves,” they would have understood the
identity of the Lord who had climbed into the boat with them. But their hearts were “hardened.”

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 voices of each biblical author (we seek a “vertical” reading and not a purely
“horizontal” reading). Our goal is to emphasize—not minimize—the
authoritative biblical authors and their unique, individual perspectives. But let
us synthesize for now, knowing this is not a general rule to follow.
a. First, the intentional and repeated reference to a “desolate place”
recalls the wilderness wandering after Israel’s exodus from Egypt.
b. Second, the lack of food in a wilderness setting, coupled with the
miraculous provision by God recalls the provision of manna in Exodus
16:31 and following. John’s Gospel makes this link explicit (John
6:35, 41): “I am the bread of life” and “I am the bread that came down
from heaven.” Jesus also references Moses and the manna God
provided in the wilderness. There can be no mistake that Jesus intends
for us to understand the feeding of the 5,000 in the context of Israel’s
history.
c. Third, the reference to “sheep without a shepherd” in Mark’s Gospel
echoes Num 27:15-17115 and further confirms the above connections
with the history of Israel. Thus, the crowds that follow Jesus into the
wilderness indicate the coming of a new Moses who is followed by a
new Israel.
d. But more than that, we have an indication of an eschatological feast
for the people of God that fulfills the words of Isaiah.116 Lest we
overlook the significance of the twelve remaining baskets, the detail is
reported in all four gospels to show that the new people of God would
lack no provision in their relationship with him. Again, John’s Gospel
is instructive at this point: Jesus would give his “flesh” as the “living
bread” that “came down from heaven” for “the life of the world.”
4. Return to Mark’s Gospel: The miracle of the feeding of the 5,000 is used by
the gospel writers to reinterpret Israel’s history in light of Jesus as the
fulfillment of God’s plan for his people. They allow readers to see Jesus as
the prophet who is greater than Moses (cf. Deut 18:14-22).
a. Returning briefly to the Gospel of Mark, we find that the feeding of
the 5,000 is followed by the walk on water, the discourse on
ceremonial purity, and then the interaction with the Syrophoenician
woman. The children’s “bread” may recall the “loaves” in the feeding
of the 5,000; the message of the kingdom (bread) belongs to the

115
The verses read, “Moses spoke to the Lord, saying, ‘Let the Lord, the God of the spirits of all flesh,
appoint a man over the congregation who shall go out before them and come in before them, who shall lead them
out and bring them in, that the congregation of the Lord may not be as sheep that have no shepherd.’” (italics added)
116
Isa 25:6-9 reads, “On this mountain the LORD of hosts will make for all peoples a feast of rich food,
a feast of well-aged wine, of rich food full of marrow, of aged wine well refined. And he will swallow up on this
mountain the covering that is cast over all peoples, the veil that is spread over all nations. He will swallow up death
forever; and the Lord GOD will wipe away tears from all faces, and the reproach of his people he will take away
from all the earth, for the LORD has spoken. It will be said on that day, ‘Behold, this is our God; we have waited for
him, that he might save us. This is the LORD; we have waited for him; let us be glad and rejoice in his salvation.’”

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 Israelites (children) and not to the Gentiles (dogs).
b. But Jesus says, “Let the children be fed first,” which indicates that the
Gentiles were to receive it, with the grace of God as well. Thus, this is
not a racial slur on the part of the Lord, but an indication of his
priority: to the Jew first and then to the Gentile.
c. The miracle that follows in Mark 7:24ff reveals the fourth instance in
which Jesus is contacted by uncleanness: this time, it is an unclean
(Gentile) “dog.” As we concluded above, the inclusion of these four
instances within the Gospel of Mark shows Jesus’ authority in
reinterpreting the Law and, indeed, in transforming the Law.
d. Before moving forward, we pause to observe that Mark repeats the
emphasis on the theological significance of the breaking of the bread
in 8:14-21. There the disciples still do not understand who Jesus is
because they still fail to recognize the significance of the miracle.
They are still influenced by the “yeast” of the Pharisees and Herod.
C. The Miracles of Jesus as Fulfillment of Isaiah 35:5-6
1. Metalepsis: when we recover the entire passage in Isa 35:1-10, we come to
discover the glory of God in Christ (see below).
2. Prophet Isaiah: the greatest of Israel’s prophets speaks of a physical and
political exile while also teaching about a spiritual exile of the people of God.
a. He then speaks of a political Messiah, the Persian monarch Cyrus the
Great, and a spiritual Messiah, the Spirit-endowed Servant of the Lord.
The physical and political return of Judah’s exiles occurred under the
Persian Period referenced in earlier lectures.
b. But the spiritual exile of God’s people would not occur until the
conditions of Isaiah 35:5-6 were evident. In the eschatological “Day
of the Lord,” the redeemed would “see the glory of the LORD, the
splendor of our God” and would “say to those with fearful hearts, ‘Be
strong, do not fear, your God will come… he will come to save you.’”
c. The conditions that followed bore witness to God’s salvation: “Then
will the eyes of the blind be opened and the ears of the deaf unstopped.
Then will the lame leap like a deer, and the mute tongue shout for joy”
(Isa 35:2, 4-6).
3. Miracles as Fulfillment: the first miracle to fulfill this glorious prophecy is
found in Mark 7:31-37.
a. The teaching regarding the bread given first to the Jews and then to the
Gentiles is demonstrated visually by the miracles in Decapolis. Jesus
heals a man who is deaf and dumb (a speech impediment).
b. The healing leads to the astonishment of the people, who wonder if
this is the Messiah. Though he “has done all things well,” according
to Isa 35:5-6, they are not expecting a suffering servant, but a political
liberator, as our study in the background of the New Testament world
confirms. A spiritual return from exile is underway, and it can be
spoken of and heard (as in, the healing of one who is deaf and dumb).
c. Mark continues the theme of “bread” to indicate the extension of the
proclamation of the kingdom’s arrival.

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 d. In Mark 8:1-10, Jesus feeds 4,000 with the same bread and fish that
had fed the 5,000; only now, the miraculous feeding takes place in the
same region of the Decapolis. The “bread” meant for Israel will also
be supplied to Gentiles.
e. Moving forward, Mark reports in 8:14-21 a section of teaching that
reveals spiritual blindness in the disciples. Jesus’ healing power is
meant to confront spiritual conditions of blindness, deafness,
muteness, and hard-heartedness. And the gradual opening of the blind
man’s eyes in Bethsaida reflects the spiritual transition the disciples
undergo; they move from “having eyes [that do] not see” to
understanding “you are the Christ.” Spiritual blindness is gradually
healed as the identity of Jesus is revealed
4. Miracles as Fulfillment: second and third miracles that fulfill the Isaiah
prophecy are found in Luke’s Gospel.
a. In Luke 5:17-26, a lame man is healed. But Jesus does not speak
healing according to the man’s physical condition, and instead
proclaims, “Your sins are forgiven you.” Again, the return of the
captives would be executed in spiritual terms, not primarily in physical
terms or in political terms. The response is similar to that recorded in
Mark 7; the people are seized by amazement. This speaks of the same
“astonishment beyond measure” that Mark reports and suggests the
crowd’s speculation about Jesus being the Messiah.
b. Luke then follows with an unmistakable connection to Isaiah 35, when
in chapter 7 he reports concerning the raising of a widow’s son from
the dead. The witnesses, Luke tells us, are “seized” with “fear” and
glorify God saying, “A great prophet has arisen among us!” and “God
has visited his people!” Though it is accurate to call Jesus a “great
prophet,” it is nevertheless insufficient to recognize him only as such;
Messiah, Son of God, Son of Man, or Lord must be included as well.
c. But the link that is clear enough in Luke 7:16-17 is made crystal clear
by Luke’s arrangement of material; for he follows this remarkable
resurrection miracle with the inquiry of John’s disciples. In response,
Jesus refers to Isaiah 35:5-6 as a way of confirming his identity; he is
the revelation of the “glory of the LORD” and the “splendor of our
God.”
d. These signs were used as confirmation to John the Baptist regarding
Jesus’ true identity. As his disciples inquired of the Christ, they were
told to report the kingdom that they saw and heard. All was fulfilling
the words of Isaiah 35:5-6, indicating that the glory of the LORD was
on display and the day of salvation was at hand.
5. Returning to Mark’s Gospel, the recognition of the Messiah and the divine
revelation on the Mount of Transfiguration serve as a major transition in the
book.117

117
Mark 10:46ff includes the healing of Bartimaeus and uses “Son of David” only here.

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 a. Peter’s confession of Christ is incomplete. He recognizes the
Messianic Servant for who he is, but does not fully understand the
Messianic Mission; for he rebukes the Christ when suffering and death
are foretold. But he would see the kingdom of God in power not more
than a week later.
b. Transfiguration: “The whole scene has re-interpretive power and
functions as a declarative event parallel to Sinai and illustrative of
eschatological fulfillment. The mountain is high and enveloped in a
cloud, symbolizing the power and glory of God’s presence. Israel’s
story and her glorious experiences in the past, now lost in the
judgment of exile, are being restored among Jesus’ followers, God’s
new people (cf. Isa 4:5). Any interpretation of God’s story with Israel
that ran contrary to Jesus’ teaching militated against God himself and
the teaching of his prophets (Moses & Elijah). The ultimate Word of
God had been revealed, and everyone should heed God’s call to ‘listen
to him.’”118
6. Miracles as Identification (Matt 11:2-19; Luke 7:18-35): recall that Jesus
replied to John the Baptist with the words of Isa 35:5-6, but that the larger
context in Isaiah indicates that, when the conditions of the prophecy are
fulfilled, the people of Israel would “see the glory of the LORD, the majesty of
our God.” If you see the fulfillment of Isaiah’s prophecy, you should expect
to see the glory of God in the face of Christ.
The Miracles of Jesus
Miracle Matthew Mark Luke John
1 Jesus Turns Water into Wine at the Wedding in Cana 2:1-11
2 Jesus Heals an Official’s Son at Capernaum in Galilee 4:43ff
3 Jesus Drives Out an Evil Spirit From a Man in Capernaum 1:21-27 4:31-36
4 Jesus Heals Peter’s Mother-in-Law Sick With Fever 8:14-15 1:29-31 4:38-39
5 Jesus Heals Many Sick and Oppressed at Evening 8:16-17 1:32-34 4:40-41
6 First Miraculous Catch of Fish on the Lake of Gennesaret 5:1-11
7 Jesus Cleanses a Man With Leprosy 8:1-4 1:40-45 5:12-14
8 Jesus Heals a Centurion’s Paralyzed Servant in Capernaum 8:5-13 7:1-10
9 Jesus Heals a Paralytic Who Was Let Down From the Roof 9:1-8 2:1-12 5:17-26
10 Jesus Heals a Man’s Withered Hand on the Sabbath 12:9-14 3:1-6 6:6-11
11 Jesus Raises a Widow’s Son From the Dead in Nain 7:11-17
12 Jesus Calms a Storm on the Sea 8:23-27 4:35-41 8:22-25
13 Jesus Casts Demons into a Herd of Pigs 8:28-33 5:1-20 8:26-39
14 Jesus Heals a Woman in the Crowd With an Issue of Blood 9:20-22 5:25-34 8:42-48
15 Jesus Raises Jairus’s Daughter Back to Life 9:18ff 5:21ff 8:40ff
16 Jesus Heals Two Blind Men 9:27-31
17 Jesus Heals a Man Who Was Unable to Speak 9:32-34
18 Jesus Heals an Invalid at Bethesda 5:1-15
19 Jesus Feeds 5,000 (plus Women and Children) 14:13-21 6:30-44 9:10-17 6:1-15
20 Jesus Walks on Water 14:22-33 6:45-52 6:16-21

118
Pate, Story of Israel, 146-47.

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 21 Jesus Heals Many Sick in Gennesaret as They Touch His Garment 14:34-36 6:53-56
22 Jesus Heals a Gentile Woman’s Demon-Possessed Daughter 15:21-28 7:24ff
23 Jesus Heals a Deaf and Dumb Man 7:31ff
24 Jesus Feeds 4,000 Plus Women and Children 15:32-39 8:1-13
25 Jesus Heals a Blind Man at Bethsaida 8:22-26
26 Jesus Heals a Man Born Blind by Spitting in His Eyes 9:1-12
27 Jesus Heals a Boy With an Unclean Spirit 17:14-20 9:14ff 9:37ff
28 Miraculous Temple Tax in a Fish’s Mouth 17:24-27
29 Jesus Heals a Blind, Mute Demoniac 12:22-23 11:14ff
30 Jesus Heals a Woman Who Had Been Crippled for 18 Years 13:10ff
31 Jesus Heals a Man With Dropsy on the Sabbath 14:1-6
32 Jesus Cleanses Ten Lepers on the Way to Jerusalem 17:11ff
33 Jesus Raises Lazarus from the Dead in Bethany 11:1ff
34 Jesus Restores Sight to Bartimaeus in Jericho 20:29-34 10:46ff 18:35ff
35 Jesus Withers the Fig Tree on the Road From Bethany 21:18:22 11:12ff
36 Jesus Heals a Servant’s Severed Ear While He Is Being Arrested 22:50ff
37 The Second Miraculous Catch of Fish at the Sea of Tiberias 21:4ff

Session 5: The Kingdom Parables of Jesus in the Synoptic Gospels

A. Function of Parables
1. Truth: parables are Jesus’s means of communicating valuable truth through a
“narrative analogy in order to teach a moral or spiritual lesson.”119 The moral
or spiritual lessons learned are revealed in stories that present analogous
comparisons to the Kingdom of God.
2. Judgment: parables were intended to communicate truth only to those whom
God had chosen in Christ to receive the Kingdom.
a. Different Responses: this is an indication of inaugurated judgment,
whereby the identification of those to whom the Messianic secret is
revealed and those to whom it remains hidden is unveiled.
b. Parables revealed the judgment of God on those who held presupposed
notions of what the arrival of the kingdom ought to look like. Their
hearts remained unresponsive to the truth revealed in Jesus’ teaching.
Parables were plain enough for the “simple” people to understand; the
Pharisees even understood that Jesus taught against them in the use of
parables (cf. Matt 21:45).
c. Parables were hidden truth (to the “crowds,” those who were interested
in Christ but remained uncommitted).
d. Parables were uncovered truth (for the disciples, who served and
followed from a genuinely committed heart).
e. Parables extended the judgment of God placed upon spiritually exiled
Israel in Isa 6:9-10. This judgment is also extended in the Fourth
Gospel, through the use of Messianic signs.

119
ESV Study Bible (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2008), 1847 (text note on Matt 13:3).

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 3. Clarification: the structure of the gospels shows Jesus proclaiming the arrival
of the kingdom, then teaching according to the new “law” of the kingdom
which is validated and even dramatized in the performance of powerful
miracles.
a. Parables function to continue the theme of Old Testament fulfillment
and connect the ministry of Jesus to the ancient story of Israel.
b. Parables confront the misunderstandings of Second Temple Judaism.
They explain the relatively insignificant inception of the kingdom in
light of the universal rule of its King, the plan of God in the delayed
destruction of the wicked, the ultimate growth and global influence of
the gospel in the fullness of time, the rejection of the King by the
Jewish leadership, and the final eschatological blessings and judgment
to be expected by those who follow the Christ.
B. The Parable of the Sower (Matt 13:3-9; 18-23): the most important parable of Jesus is
the one concerning the sower. The truth revealed is important for understanding the
inner-working of the soul when confronted by the gospel of the kingdom. But
equally important is the fact that Jesus explains the purpose for using parables and
then interprets the moral lesson behind the metaphorical story.
1. Story of Soils: the parable shows the farmer distributing seed widely and
generously. The Father, through the ministry of the Son, is spreading the news
of the kingdom near and far. But much of the gospel seed is wasted; for some
reject it outright, others accept it first and then reject it later, and others
receive it without bearing fruit. Those who receive the good news unto a
fruitful harvest are clearly ones among whom the Spirit of God has been
working. They receive and understand the word of Christ.
2. Soils as Metaphors: the metaphoric use of soils (to stand for the hearts of men)
and seeds (to stand for the gospel), sowing (to stand for the proclamation of
that gospel) and the various results the sowing accomplished (to stand for the
receptivity among the crowds) describes the nature of Christ’s ministry to the
disciples.
a. Further, as the immediate context of Matthew’s Gospel shows, there is
repeated confrontation between Jesus and the Pharisees.
b. First, they condemn the Sabbath practices of Jesus and his disciples in
the grain fields.
c. Second, they condemn Jesus for healing on the Sabbath.
d. Third, they consider that Jesus’ power to perform miracles has come
from demonic origins.
e. Finally, they are condemned by Jonah and the “Queen of the South”
because they failed to see the one greater than Jonah and Solomon.
3. Rejection & Reception of Messiah: it is evident in the parable of the sower
that Jesus is explaining why the Jewish leadership rejects him. Further, the
connection is made with eighth-century Judah and the hard-heartedness within
Isaiah’s context, as Jesus quotes from Isaiah 6 to explain the Pharisees’
inability to see, hear, and understand.
a. Divine Judgment (Matt 13:11-15): the judgment of God (Isa 6:9-10)
remains on religious leaders who experience ongoing spiritual exile.

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 b. Divine Enablement (Matt 13:9, 16-17): the command is for those with
ears to hear. Thus, Jesus is also explaining why the disciples have
followed him. In the Gospel of Matthew, we are told that knowledge
had been given to the disciples so that they could understand the
“secrets of the kingdom of heaven.” Thus, the disciples stand in
contrast with the Pharisees in terms of their Spirit-given ability to see
and perceive the gospel. Where the Pharisees had formulated strong,
yet inaccurate, conclusions about what the Messiah “must” be, the
disciples are blessed; and Jesus says that more will be given to them.
C. The Interpretation of Parables: we must connect Matt 13:3-52 and the parables with
the truth of revelatory epistemology in Matt 11:25-30. Jesus had just instructed the
disciples concerning his use of parables and then provided an explanation of how the
allegorical story of the sower communicated divine truth. So, a few principles for
interpreting parables have been established.
1. Parables as Two-Level Narrative: we must recognize the two levels of
meaning within the parable. As we have already highlighted, a parable is a
story that is told for the purpose of illustrating spiritual truth by way of
analogy. There are two things, or two levels of meaning, brought together in
the parable:
a. Daily Life: the first level is an incident from daily life.
b. Spiritual Truth: the second level relates to the spiritual truth illustrated
in the analogy to daily life. We must first understand the earthly
meaning of the parable before unlocking the spiritual truth that is
illuminated. It is easy to stray into over-interpretation in attempt to
uncover the symbolic meaning. Interpreters of parables often drift into
spiritualizing even the simplest story details. But we must remember
that two levels of meaning usually exist within any given parable.
2. Narrative Sequence & Characterization: we must remember that parables
focus on a sequential arrangement of actions, as all narrative texts do. The
action and the main characters will help us identify the meaning; we must
therefore, attempt to discern the central message of the parable by determining
the specific points of correspondence.
a. We would ask the question, “Who is being represented by the main
characters of the parable?”
b. Parable of the Two Debtors (Luke 7:40-42)
• The Moneylender = God
• The Debtor Who Owed 500 denarii = Prostitute
• The Debtor Who Owed 50 denarii = Simon
c. Parable of the Prodigal Son (Luke 15:11-32)
• The Father = God
• The Younger Son = Tax-Collectors & “Sinners”
• The Older Son = Scribes & Pharisees
3. Cultural Context: we must pay careful attention to the cultural and historical
background. Perhaps more than any other literary genre in the Bible,
understanding these elements of parables is absolutely essential. We must
remember that Jesus used illustrations from everyday life that people in first-
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 century Palestine would have immediately understood. Thus, if we do not
understand their historical background, then we cannot fully grasp the
meanings of the parables.
4. Specific Situations: each of the parables of Jesus was told within a context and
was specifically aimed at addressing a particular need, question, problem, or
situation. Understanding exactly why Jesus told a given parable when He did
will enable the interpreter to discern the main point that Jesus was
communicating. As the interpreter seeks to determine the purpose of a given
parable, it may be helpful to realize that some parables were told in response
to a specific question, a specific request, a specific complaint, or a specific
misconception (see the outline below). The purpose of others, however, will
need to be gleaned inductively from the larger literary context and/or from the
content of the parable itself.
a. Parables Responding to Specific Questions
• Matthew 9:14ff
• Luke 10:25-29
b. Parables Responding to Specific Requests
• Luke 11:1ff
• Luke 12:13
c. Parables Responding to Specific Complaints
• Luke 7:39ff
• Luke 15:2ff
d. Parables Responding to Specific Misconceptions
• Luke 18:9ff
• Luke 19:11ff
5. Main Idea: the primary goal of the interpreter is to discern the main point that
was communicated through the parable. We note here that the whole parable
is intended to communicate, not just the opening analogy. So when Jesus
says, “The kingdom of heaven is like a net,” he means to communicate
through the whole of the forthcoming story unveils the kingdom. In regard to
the main idea, it is sometimes clear and obvious from a simple and
straightforward reading of the parable. Other times, however, it can be more
difficult to determine this overarching truth. In the process of seeking to
discover the main point, pay close attention to certain key elements…
a. The Historical Situation: historical occasion that gave rise to the telling
of the story. If the interpreter can pinpoint the question, problem, need,
or situation being addressed (as highlighted above), the main point will
likely be apprehended. Further Study: try to identify the situation
addressed in the following parables: Matt 9:14; Luke 7:39; 10:25, 29;
11:1; 12:13; 15:2; 18:9; 19:11.
b. The Stated Purpose: sometimes the interpreter will find that the
purpose of the parable is stated explicitly in the passage itself (cf. Luke
18:1). Other times the purpose is stated implicitly and can be found by
identifying an exhortation or principle that accompanies the telling of
the parable. Further Study: try to identify the stated purpose of the

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 following parables: Luke 11:9; 17:10; 18:1; 18:4; Matt 18:1; 22:14;
24:44; 25:13; Mark 13:33-37.
c. The Final Statement: the emphasis of the parable can often be found at
the very end, in the final element of the story. This is sometimes
referred to as the principle of “end stress,” and is a feature of all good
storytelling. The speaker or writer focuses on the conclusion of the
story by building toward it. Further Study: try to focus on the “end
stress” in the following parables: Matt 13:3-9; 21:33-40; 22:2-14;
25:14-30; Luke 10:30-36.
d. The Unexpected Twist: like many good stories, the parables of Jesus
often include an unexpected turn of events in the plot. This turn of
events communicates a point. The listener is forced to reconsider
his/her perspective. Further Study: try to identify the unexpected twist
in the following parables: Matt 20:1-16; 22:3; Luke 10:25-37; 14:15-
24; 15:11-32; 16:1-13; 18:9-14.
D. The Parables of the Kingdom (Matt 13:3-52)
1. Parable of Weeds (Matt 13:24-30): the story includes four main characters:
a. Master: sows good seed.
b. Enemy: sows weeds.
c. Servants: the servants of the Master.
d. Reapers: harvest the crops.
The action is centered on the sowing of wheat and weeds, their growth
together, and their eventual separation at the time of harvest. The question of
the servants concerns the Master’s response to what the enemy has done in
sowing weeds among the wheat in his fields.
a. In the immediate context of Matthew 13, we note that Jesus teaches
concerning the identity of his true mother and brothers, and then
instructs the crowds in parables as a way of illustrating how his true
family responds to the mysteries of the kingdom.
b. Jesus employs a true-to-life illustration that simple farmers of rural
Palestine would easily have understood and connects to it a spiritual
truth that must be understood.
2. The Parable of the Weeds Explained (Matt 13:36-43): the field is the world;
the Master of the house is the Son of Man; the good seed that ultimately yields
a crop of wheat is the sons of the kingdom. And the enemy, Satan, has sown
his sons among them. The final judgment (harvest) appears at the end of the
age and the angels (reapers) eternally separate the righteous and wicked.
a. The Inaugurated Kingdom: the kingdom that grows on the earth will
be a mixture of weeds and wheat whereas the kingdom that endures
forever in the presence of God himself will be purified. This
interpretation answers the question of the servants. They wonder why
the weeds are not immediately pulled up in light of their potentially
destructive presence among the wheat. The disciples (and crowds)
clearly wondered why Jesus, if he was indeed the Christ, did not judge
the wicked immediately. Away from the crowds, and in the seclusion
of a private residence, Jesus clearly teaches that the kingdom would

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 come in two stages… first, the Son Man would establish the kingdom
in the world.
b. The Consummated Kingdom: the Angelic Host would initiate the
consummation of the kingdom in the judgment.
c. Conclusion: interpretive tools are employed for understanding, but we
strongly caution ourselves. Truth is not discerned by, nor readily
available to, human cognitive ability. In Matt 11:25, Jesus declared, “I
thank you, Father, Lord of heaven and earth, that you have hidden
these things from the wise and learned, and revealed them to little
children; yes, Father, for such was your gracious will.” The Spirit
unveils the mysteries of the kingdom (cf. Matt 13:13-16).
3. Parables of Mustard Seed & Yeast (Matt 13:31-33): next two parables are
arranged as a set. Matthew apparently wants us to interpret them together,
with the symbols being understood in a similar way. So the mustard seed and
the leaven are placed side-by-side.
a. Narrative Action: the first character is a man; he sows the mustard seed
in his field. The second character is a woman; she prepares bread by
mixing leaven into the flour.120 The result of the mustard seed having
been sown is the sprouting of a magnificent and large tree, sufficient
for housing even the birds of the air. The result of the leaven is an
invisible and imperceptible effect within the flour that yields enough
bread to feed many people.
b. Parabolic Interpretation: this time, we have no divine interpretation,
but we rely on the Spirit and employ hermeneutic tools.
c. Smallest of Seeds: the smallest of seeds is compared to the smallest of
nations (Israel, among the nations of the world); both are chosen
because they are seemingly insignificant in the larger contexts. The
kingdom of heaven, then, would come through the smallest of nations
and would initially have the smallest effect. The expectation of first-
century Jews highlights a mindset unprepared for an insignificant
beginning, so the parable would have shocked such listeners.
However, in its final expression, it would be large and significant.
Indeed, the kingdom would be the only “political” entity left, ruling
over the new heavens and the new earth throughout eternity.
d. Invisible Leaven: the leaven is like the kingdom in that it is invisible.
It spreads throughout the world in the hearts of believers who
faithfully follow Christ and enthrone him there. Thus, the parable of
the leaven communicates the spiritual nature of the kingdom. When
the bread is ultimately baked, at the consummation of the woman’s
efforts, the leaven would be very evident. So also, when the kingdom
is fully revealed, its effects would be both inwardly and outwardly

120
This is significant, for Jesus communicates a counter-cultural concern for women in this parable.

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 noticed. The kingdom would be characterized by remarkable growth
and extensive influence in its final manifestation.
4. Parables of Hidden Treasure: (Matt 13:44-45): the parables of hidden treasure
communicate a very powerful point even though they are, even in
combination, relatively short. The only character present is a single man. The
action is presented in the verbs: found, covered, goes, sells, buys. And the
emotion of joy is telling as well. A man who finds treasure first protects it,
and then he sells all his possessions in order to acquire it. The parable clearly
speaks of the disciples’ self-sacrifice in leaving everything behind to follow
Christ. The “kingdom of God is worthy of any sacrifice Jesus’s disciples may
be called upon to make.”121 Likewise, the parable of the pearl, by its very
positioning next to the parable of the hidden treasure, is meant to
communicate the sacrifice of “all that he had” is nothing in comparison to
finding and buying “one pearl of great value.” The parables of the mustard
seed and leaven, placed together, as well as the hidden treasure and pearl,
communicate by repetition, a useful tool in the ancient world where truth was
mainly conveyed orally.
5. The Parable of the Net (Matt 13:47-50): the parable focuses on the fishermen
among the followers of Jesus.
a. The principle characters are a group of men who sort out their catch of
fish. The net has gathered all kinds of fish, but the fishermen are
selective, keeping only the good ones while throwing the bad ones
back into the sea.
b. A word of cultural background will serve us well, for the ancient world
considered the sea as the source of all evil. This thought is
communicated in Revelation 21:1, where John says, “there was no
more sea” against the backdrop of the Beast having emerged from the
sea (Revelation 13). While rivers and streams were a life-giving
supply in the midst of desert wastelands, the sea in Semitic mythology
was home to a monster (the leviathan of Job, for example) and
represented a “shadowy chaos.”122
c. Perhaps Jesus intends to teach that all people (in Adam) begin life
within the realm of evil, having been sold as slaves to sin, and are
rescued from among the masses who dwell there by the power of the
kingdom of heaven.
d. Regardless, the parable teaches that the disciples (and all true
followers of Jesus) will be kept in the Day of Judgment, while the
others will be cast back into the sea. Alongside the parable of the
wheat and weeds, we see a similar theme. The kingdom will be
revealed in two stages and the temporal distinctions of “righteous” and

121
Köstenberger. Cradle, Cross, Crown, 206.
122
R.C. Sproul, “There Will Be No Sea in the New Heaven and New Earth” (18 August 2014),
http://www.ligonier.org/blog/there-will-be-no-sea-new-heaven-and-new-earth (accessed 14 Sept. 2017, 2:42pm).

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 “wicked” will be finalized in eternity at the “end of the age.”
6. Old & New Treasures (Matt 13:51-52): Jesus, having asked for and
subsequently confirmed the disciples’ understanding, proclaims that a scribe
who follows the Christ brings out both old and new treasures. This confirms
what has already been taught; that the disciples have seen and heard—through
Spirit-empowered illumination and understanding—the mysteries of the
kingdom. God had chosen to reveal himself, through the Divine Son, to the
disciples, who were being “trained for the kingdom of heaven.” They were
better qualified to explain the kingdom, for they had both old (Old Testament)
and new (the Teaching of Christ) treasures. They are being made “like a
master of the house,” in their preparation with Jesus. And indeed, as the Book
of Acts powerfully shows, they would perform the same miraculous signs as
confirmation of this fact.
7. Conclusion: understood together, the parables of Matthew 13 highlight the
two-phased implementation of the kingdom. There would be an insignificant,
almost invisible beginning in which wheat and weeds, good fish and bad,
would grow up together. During this time, the wheat and the good fish would
be characterized by self-sacrifice. And finally, at the end of the age, at the
consummation of the kingdom, there would be a final separation of the
righteous and wicked in final judgment.
E. The Parables of Luke 15
1. Many of the parables of Jesus recorded by Luke contain a “great reversal.”123
a. This idea communicates a unique facet of Luke’s Gospel: namely,
Jesus’s concern for the poor, the needy, the sick, the sinner, and the
non-Jew (Samaritans and Gentiles).
b. Luke goes to great lengths to show Jesus as the friend of sinners, who
eats and associates with tax-collectors (5:30-32), and even calls one to
be among the Twelve, who heals the sick and disabled (repeatedly
emphasized in Luke 4-8), who accepts and honors the women who
follow him (7:36-50; 8:2-3; 10:38-42; and 23:55-24:10), and who
exalts culturally insignificant children to a prominent place within the
kingdom (9:46-48; 18:15-17).
c. Perhaps the immediate context of chapter 15 is most important for our
purpose in understanding the parables Luke presents.
Jesus says that the “last will be first” and the “first will be last” in
Luke 13; he continues, “everyone who exalts himself will be humbled,

123
Köstenberger, Cradle, Cross, Crown, 283. See also Wright, Jesus and the Victory of God, 118-19
who suggests that the prodigal son parable is about the end of the Babylonian exile: the older brother represents the
Samaritans (historically, those who opposed the Jews in their return from Babylon); the younger brother represents
true Israel (those who turned back to the Father in repentance, fulfilling Jer 31:18-20). Thus, the exile is ending in
Jesus’ ministry while those who grumble about repentance in Jesus’ day are actually Samaritans (those who oppose
God’s true people). This story reads, for Wright, much like the “Good Samaritan” story; it is a subversive
reinterpretation of Israel’s history centered on Jesus the Messiah. Compare and contrast Luke 15 and Acts 15
(Wright, Jesus and the Victory of God, 119-120).

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 and he who humbles himself will be exalted” in Luke 14.
Then the poor and physically disabled are to be invited to
prominent banquets as a way of previewing the great banquet feast in
the kingdom of God. Finally, the cost of discipleship is forsaking
everything else in pursuit of Jesus and His glory. And all the
immediate context is couched in the larger context of “he who has ears
to hear, let him hear” (14:35).
2. This sets the stage for how we must understand the parables of Luke 15.
a. Those with divinely enabled ears that hear the truth of the gospel are
called to pay attention.
b. Those who remain in spiritual exile will ultimately miss the message.
c. Before moving into the parables themselves, one further detail helps us
understand the figural/allegorical significance of the three stories that
follow.
• Luke records that certain Pharisees and scribes were grumbling
about Jesus’ association with sinners. And he tells us, “So he
[Jesus] told them this parable.” The word “so” is the key for
unlocking the purpose of the parables.
• Because of their grumbling, the Pharisees would be confronted
in them; but more than that, their concern for ritual purity and
law-keeping holiness would be addressed as Jesus handles their
complaints. We must understand the word “so” as meaning
“thus, therefore, or as a result.” The connection is clear
enough. The parables will address the situation at hand.
3. The Lost Sheep (Luke 15:3-7): a shepherd owns one hundred sheep.
a. The fact that he is a shepherd connects us immediately with the
cultural context, for everyone in Palestine would have related to this
story.
b. Additionally, we note Luke’s concern for the poor in the indication of
the man’s occupation, for shepherds were the lowliest members of
Jewish society; their testimony was not even admissible in a court of
law. They were insignificant outcasts, left to roam the wilderness, the
fringes of human culture. But Luke places this group in a prominent
position within the parable Jesus tells.
c. In terms of the analogy, the lost sheep are sinners; they are first found
by the shepherd, who then turns them around in repentance. He brings
them back to the fold. Note here that the lost sheep belonged to the
shepherd before it was found. It was of the “fold” of God before it had
been rescued. But the fold (the ninety-nine) is the collection of those
who did not need repentance.
d. Luke undoubtedly intends this to be ironic, for the emphasis in his
work repeatedly falls on the universal need for repentance. So this is a
clear challenge to the Pharisees. They should rejoice that the “lost
sheep” of Israel are entering the kingdom. The first parable addresses
the Pharisees directly, showing their own need of repentance in the
lack of rejoicing over the revelation of God’s kingdom. They still

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 have not seen that Jesus’ eating with sinners is likened unto the
searching of lost sheep on the part of a shepherd.
4. The Lost Coin (Luke 15:8-10): the main character in the second parable is a
woman, which advances Luke’s theme of the inclusion of marginalized
members of society within the kingdom of God. The meaning is similar, for
she has a coin of value that is lost. After finding it, she rejoices with her
friends and neighbors, a metaphor for the rejoicing of the angels when one
sinner repents and comes into the kingdom. Like the shepherd before her, the
woman stands for Christ. When he is eating with sinners, he is like the
shepherd searching for his sheep; he is like the woman searching for her lost
coin. The fact that Luke compares Jesus to a shepherd and to a woman would
have been shocking among his original audience.
5. The Lost Son (Luke 15:11-32): the final parable that addresses the Pharisees’
concern is the famous parable of the Prodigal Son. But interpreters have
focused too much attention on the prodigal son in missing the significance of
the “older son.” The parable contains much more information about the
younger son, but is nevertheless mainly about the older son. So any
interpretation that does not highlight the centrality of the older son is
imbalanced.124
a. This parable has been so widely preached that very little of the detail
will be unfamiliar. But some cultural background will help.125 In the
ancient Near Eastern world, the inheritance was always distributed
after the death of the family patriarch. So when the younger son
approaches the Father for his share of the inheritance (while the Father
is still alive), this is perhaps the highest insult one could communicate.
The son essentially says to the Father, “I wish you were dead.”
b. Jesus redefines God the Father as one who is infinitely humble, for he
is portrayed by the father in the story who acquiesces to the son’s
request. Later, when the Father runs to meet his lost son, this theme is
advanced further, for Near Eastern patriarchs did not run; it was a sign
of disgrace to be in a hurry.
c. Also important to the story is the fact that the younger son becomes a
servant of a Gentile pig farmer. Thus, after paying his father an
ultimate disgrace, he too is subjected to an unthinkable humiliation. A
pious Jew hearing that another Jew subjected himself to servitude
under a Gentile pig farmer would have been shocked to the core. The
humility of the Father is then reflected in the humility of the son, who
returns seeking apprenticeship and not restoration within the family.
The son, who was dead (in sin) is made alive. And, just like the

124
This belief is held in common with John Piper, who preaches a beautiful sermon called “A Tender
Word to Pharisees” here: http://www.desiringgod.org/messages/a-tender-word-to-pharisees (highly recommended).
125
Much of what follows is adapted from Timothy Keller, who preaches another powerful sermon on
this topic here: http://www.gospelinlife.com/the-prodigal-sons-5434 (and again, it is highly recommended).

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 shepherd and the woman before them, the two celebrate with the
household of the Father.
d. The parable is not primarily about the younger son, however. It is
about the older son, who does not need repentance because he has
remained “with” the Father. He is angry that the “lost son” of Israel
has been restored to the kingdom. The Father who runs to meet the
prodigal son comes out to entreat the older son. He addresses him as
“son” (Greek: Τέκνον), which is used elsewhere in the Bible for “little
boy” (1 John 2:12, where the word carries a deep relational affection
between the Apostle John and his beloved congregations in Asia
Minor). The Father is pleading with the Pharisees, calling them “my
dear boy,” and inviting them to join the celebration over the
resurrection of the younger son.
e. Sin is redefined in this parable; the younger brother indulges in all
manner of visible sins—“obvious” sins, called sinful by anyone, such
as prostitution, wild living, and all among the uncleanness of Gentiles.
But the less obvious sins of anger, self-righteousness (in the phrase, “I
have never disobeyed your command”), serving from an improper
view of God, and the desire to “celebrate with my friends” are also
highlighted. Salvation is also redefined, for both sons are in desperate
need of it. Otherwise they would both be excluded from the
celebration of the Father.
6. All three parables begin with an expression of the lost condition of mankind,
which is applied particularly to the Pharisees.
a. All three contain startling images in which God the Father is redefined
and the mission of God the Son is gloriously interpreted.
b. All three involve a successful finding of that which was lost and a
subsequent celebration that illuminates the heavenly response to
sinners who repent.
c. All three are intended to show the self-righteousness of the Pharisees
in stark contrast with the humble unworthiness of the sinners with
whom Jesus had been eating.
d. And all three powerfully demonstrate the advancing of God’s kingdom
through the mission of Jesus Christ, counter-intuitive and therefore a
stumbling block among the Jewish religious community, but clearly
recognized as the “words of eternal life” among those blessed by God
with “ears to hear.”
7. See chart below; employ hermeneutical tools to interpret various parables.

Parable Mark Matthew Luke

Guests of the Bridegroom 2:19-20 9:15 5:33-39
Unshrunk Cloth 2:21 9:16 5:36
New Wine & Old Wineskins 2:22 9:17 5:37-39
Strong Man Bound 3:22-27 12:29-30 11:21-23
The Sower 4:1-9,13-20 13:1-9,18-23 8:4-8,11-15
A Lamp Under a Bowl 4:21-25 5:14-15 8:16-18
Secretly Growing Seed 4:26-29 - -

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 Mustard Seed 4:30-32 13:31-32 13:18-19
Wicked Tenants126 12:1-12 21:33-46 20:9-19
Budding Fig Tree 13:28-32 24:32-36 21:29-33
Watchful Servants 13:34-37 - 12:35-38
Father & Son - 7:9-11 11:11-13
Two Gates - 7:13-14 13:23-27
Good & Bad Trees - 7:16-20 -
Wise & Foolish Builders - 7:24-27 6:47-49
Weeds among Wheat - 13:24-30,36-43 -
Yeast - 13:33 13:20-21
Hidden Treasure - 13:44 -
Pearl of Great Price - 13:45-46 -
The Net - 13:47-50 -
Owner of a House - 13:52 -
The Lost Sheep - 18:12-14 15:1-7
Unmerciful Servant - 18:23-35 -
Workers in the Vineyard - 20:1-16 -
Two Sons - 21:28-32 -
Wedding Feast - 22:1-14 14:15-24
Thief in the Night - 24:42-44 12:39-40
Faithful & Wise Servant - 24:45-51 12:42-46
Wise & Foolish Virgins - 25:1-13 -
The Talents - 25:14-30 19:11-27
Sheep & Goats - 25:31-46 -
Two Debtors - - 7:41-50
The Good Samaritan - - 10:25-37
The Persistent Friend - - 11:5-8
Rich Fool - - 12:13-21
Unfruitful Fig Tree - - 13:6-9
Lowest Seat - - 14:7-14
Great Banquet - - 14:16-24
Tower Builder - - 14:28-30
Warring King - - 14:31-33
Lost Coin - - 15:8-10
Prodigal (Lost) Son - - 15:11-32
Shrewd Manager - - 16:1-8
Rich Man & Lazarus - - 16:19-31
Humble Servant - - 17:7-10
Persistent Widow - - 18:1-8
Pharisee & Tax Collector - - 18:9-14

126
This parable, as with the “prodigal son” of Luke 15, cannot be understood without the absolutely
necessary historical/cultural/theological background of first-century Judaism. We cannot understand the depth of the
passage without these details, a further validation of author-text centered hermeneutics.

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Session 6: The Crucifixion & Resurrection in the Synoptic Gospels
A. The Rejection of Messiah: the fulfillment of the parables is realized in extended
judgment upon the spiritually exiled Pharisees and in the clarity of kingdom
revelation to the disciples. This is clear in Peter’s confession of Christ (Mark 8:27).
The miraculous restoration of the blind man at Bethsaida in the preceding context is
intended to communicate the spiritual condition of the disciples. They, like the blind
man, receive sight incrementally and through the persistence of the Son of Man.
Jesus had been working through ethical instruction, miraculous activities, and
parabolic communication of truth to gradually open the eyes, hearts, and minds of his
followers. And with Peter’s confession, we often assume the final element of
spiritual healing has taken place.
However, this is difficult to deduce from the text that follows, for in Mark 8:31
and following, Peter is rebuked for an ongoing spiritual blindness that rejects the
nature of the Messiah’s mission. He confronts the Christ directly. In response, Jesus
reveals that Peter is not just human-centered in his way of thinking, but satanic in his
rejection of God’s plan. It is in light of this same rejection that the Pharisees and
teachers of the Law continually find themselves in conflict with Jesus. The difference
between the Pharisees and Peter, apart from the bold confession of Jesus as the Christ,
is that the former group remains distant from the Lord while the latter continues in
fellowship with Him.
It is no accident that the Transfiguration in Mark’s Gospel is placed against the
confession and confusion of the Apostle Peter. Peter joins Jesus, alongside James and
John, on the Mountain in Mark 9:2 and following. There the connection between the
greatest prophets of the Old Testament, who were rejected by the people of Israel, and
the Eternal Prophet who would likewise be rejected is made. Jesus is affirmed by the
Father in a parallel, yet more powerful declaration than had been made at his baptism.
The disciples are to “listen” to Jesus; his word is authoritative and decisive. Where
Peter had just refused to listen to Jesus, he is now commanded by God the Father to
heed the words of the Son.
1. On the road to Jerusalem, Jesus predicts his passion and death two more
times. Mark is identifying the Lord as the Suffering Servant anticipated in the
Book of Isaiah.
a. And after each of the predictions, Jesus redefines the servants of the
Kingdom; they would be least among the people, the slave of all.
b. They would reflect the nature of the Servant in their own servanthood,
for they would be called to serve after the resurrection and ascension
of the Lord.
c. But Mark has already foreshadowed the ultimate rejection of the
Messiah.
2. Forgiveness (Mark 2:1-12): Jesus has returned to Capernaum, about 32 km
northeast of Nazareth, which serves as his headquarters during the Galilean
ministry. Four friends bring their crippled companion to the house where
Jesus is preaching. They lower him down through the roof in order to place
him at the feet of Jesus.
a. Old Testament prophets were quick to declare the forgiveness of sins,

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 but did so in an essentially indirect manner, for they were not able to
declare the forgiveness of God from their own authority.
b. For example, in 2 Samuel 12:13, the prophet Nathan declares to David,
“The Lord has taken away your sin” (NIV).
c. Or, later in Israel’s history, the prophet Isaiah declares the word of the
Lord, “Though your sins are like scarlet, they shall be as white as
snow; though they are red as crimson, they shall be like wool” (NIV).
d. We note that each declaration is either an indirect pronouncement of
the Lord’s forgiveness or a record of the actual words of the Lord
3. Pharisaic Questioning: the thought of the scribes was biblically correct. They
ask, “Who can forgive sins but God alone?” Indeed, none can forgive sins but
God alone.
a. Root of the Problem: forgiveness, but also the deity of Christ. There
are two levels of healing in this narrative. Internal healing—through
divine forgiveness of sins—far outweighs external healing.
b. The emphasis of Jesus on the need for sin to be cleansed is revealed in
the order of this particular miracle.
• First, sins are forgiven…
• Second, the man’s paralytic condition is reversed.
• The outward sign points to an inward reality. The crowd is
amazed, but the seeds of conflict are sown in the hearts of the
Jewish leadership. Blasphemy is punishable by death, which
foreshadows the crucifixion for the original audience who
doubtless understood its consequences.
4. Ritual Purity (Mark 2:15-17): the conflict revealed in this section of Mark’s
Gospel concerns ritual purity.
a. Jesus is eating with tax collectors and sinners, according to the text,
and it appears that they have been following Jesus as part of the
crowds coming from every quarter.
b. The placement of this conflict in direct contact with the calling of
Matthew is intentional; the point of Jesus’ actions is made explicit in
the phrase, “I came not to call the righteous, but sinners.”
c. The typical arrangement of such meals involved the host, in this case
Jesus, sitting at the head of a U-shaped setting of tables with the
honored guests reclining toward him. This kind of interaction in the
ancient world meant an acceptance of people into a meaningful inter-
personal relationship.
d. The Pharisees considered tax collectors and sinners as those who
disregarded the Law of Moses; they stood in sharp opposition, for the
Pharisees believed that meticulous adherence to the Law gained
righteousness and retained favor with God. By placing Jesus among
this group, they are essentially saying that he has no concern for ritual
purity. He should have kept himself “clean” from such people.127

127
This ceremonial part of the Law of Moses is outlined in Lev 10:10 and chaps 12—15.

81
 e. The confrontation is not with Jesus directly, but initially with his
disciples. Jesus answers the question of the Pharisaic scribes by
identifying the true state of the inner man.
f. Those who considered themselves “well” were also those who
considered themselves in no need of a doctor; they were the so-called
“righteous.” But the sick found themselves in desperate need of a
physician; they were the “sinners” whom Jesus had come to call.
g. Superlative Holiness: sinful people in relationship with Christ do not
make Him unclean. Instead, the superlative holiness of Christ
transforms the uncleanness around Him. Jesus makes sinners clean,
which is demonstrated in the later healing of the leper. It is not Jesus
who is made unclean, but the leper who is made clean in the presence
of the Lord.
5. Fasting (Mark 2:18-22): the third conflict in Mark’s Galilean narrative deals
with the issue of fasting.
a. The ceremonial fasts of the Jewish people are well documented in the
biblical record, and their own calendar highlighted several such
occasions. Only one fast was commanded by the Old Testament, the
one in connection with the Day of Atonement. This is a significant
detail, for it was on that day when the High Priest would enter the
Holy of Holies and seek the presence and forgiveness of God.
b. Jesus calls himself the bridegroom in apparent connection with Isaiah
62:5, which says, “As a bridegroom rejoices over his bride, so will
your God rejoice over you” (NIV). The context in Isaiah speaks of the
redemption of Zion and the righteousness that she shines forth
reaching the nations.
c. In the context of Mark, Jesus identifies himself as the Lord in two
powerful ways.
• The first is in connection with Isaiah.
• But the second connects us to the meaning of the fasts; the
people were to seek the face of God in repentance and
mourning. The fasting of the Pharisees had become so external
that they missed the point. And now, with the Lord’s face in
their very presence, how would it be appropriate for the
disciples of Jesus to fast? It would be unnecessary to seek the
Lord when his presence was powerfully and personally in front
of them. After the resurrection and the ascension of Christ, his
disciples would again fast in seeking his face.
6. Sabbath Controversy (Mark 2:23-28): fourth conflict in the text concerns
proper Sabbath observance. It is clear by now that the Pharisees expect a
Messiah who conforms to the Law (or one who conforms to their own
expectations of Law-keeping).
a. See Exodus 34:21 and the restrictions concerning work on the
Sabbath. The Law of Sabbath was meant to show the people that
God—who had just rescued Israel from slavery in Egypt—was not a
taskmaster deity who sought to enslave people to do his bidding.

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 b. In fact, he was the God who would labor for their sakes in bringing
them to salvation.128
c. The Sabbath rest from work was a visual reminder to the people that
God had not brought them out of Egypt so that they might be enslaved
again. No, he brought them out so that he might lead them to a land of
rest.
d. Jesus correctly interprets the Sabbath; it was made for man, such that it
should not enslave man in its restrictive observance, but should offer a
foretaste of heavenly rest, God’s own Sabbath, on the horizon of
redemptive history.
7. Lord of the Sabbath: Jesus implicitly refers to Deut 23:25 in defending the
practice of his disciples; more overtly, he refers to 1 Sam 21:1-6 in
challenging the Pharisees on the practice of their most beloved King. Hunger
gave license for people to set aside the regulations of the Sabbath, which had
originally been given as a gift for spiritual and physical refreshment. So, man
was not to be enslaved by any of God’s gifts.
8. Sabbath Controversy (Mark 3:1-6): the final conflict in this section deals
again with the Sabbath. But this time, it is not the satisfaction of one’s own
hunger at stake, but the healing of a man with a withered hand.
a. The Pharisees “watch” Jesus in order to “accuse” him. This accusation
carries legal implications. Therefore, it appears as though the
Pharisees are now keeping a record of Jesus’ actions so that they might
pursue legal action against him. They are building a case to prove his
guilt.
b. Jesus confronts the Pharisees’ hardness of heart with a question that
reveals just how far their tradition had strayed from the Old Testament.
It would have been lawful to do good and to save life on the Sabbath,
but the silence of the Pharisees reveals their stubbornness in adhering
to the prescribed traditions. The subsequent revelation that loving God
and loving one’s neighbor is the fulfillment of the entire law129 further
reveals the distance between Pharisaic tradition and OT Scripture.
B. The Crucifixion of Messiah
1. Triumphal Entry & OT Connections
2. Temple Cleansing: in Jesus’s cleansing of the temple, the narrative illustrates
just how distorted the worship of God’s people had become. It was empty,
meaningless, and devoid of true devotion while lacking in the corresponding
outworking of holiness – that is, social justice. The events of the triumphal
entry and the cleansing of the temple are easily understood by the reader. But
Mark includes as bookends to the temple cleansing event the circumstances

128
For a powerful illustration of this thought, see Isaiah 46 and the contrast of the idols, which are a
“burden” to the people and God, who will “carry” and “sustain” and “rescue” his people.
129
See Mark 12:28 and following.

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 surrounding the fig tree. There is no fruit, for the season for figs had not yet
come. The appearance of leaves suggests the harvest is at hand. However,
there is no fruit. This event is ripe with symbolic significance.
a. Fig Trees are significant in the Old Testament narrative. Without the
following point, the symbolism could be lost on the reader. In the
context of Jeremiah 8:13, the people of Israel are being rebuked by the
Lord for their empty religious observances. They trust in vain words
and do not practice social justice. Then God declares that judgment is
coming, saying, “I will take away their harvest, declares the Lord.
There will be no grapes on the vine. There will be no figs on the tree,
and their leaves will wither. What I have given them will be taken
from them.”130 The vine and tree (Israel) alongside the grapes and figs
(individuals within the larger nation of Israel) would be punished. The
literal fulfillment of this judgment is the Babylonian invasion and
subsequent destruction of the temple that ultimately led to the exile of
the Jewish people. The spiritual fulfillment of this judgment is
highlighted in Mark 11:12 and following. The people remain under
the curse of God and are still in spiritual exile.
b. Jesus is clearly addressing the spiritual condition of the people. The
Old Testament context not only demonstrates this, but the structure of
Mark’s text highlights this idea as well. Jesus enters Jerusalem and the
temple on Palm Sunday. But he leaves it without having cleansed it.
Mark then tells us that on Monday, Jesus and the disciples approached
the city again from the eastern village of Bethany. The following day,
Tuesday, after having cleansed the temple, the disciples and Jesus
again see the now-withered fig tree that had been cursed.
c. Jesus is addressing the hypocrisy of empty religion, showing that the
Pharisees and teachers of the Law have an external appearance of
holiness, evident from a distance, without bearing the fruit of the
kingdom. In their legalism, the people had turned away from God and
now practiced a religion devoid of true worship, prayer, and
righteousness. Israel’s worship of God is cursed; it is dead and
withered. God looks upon his people as Jesus looked upon the tree
and finds no fruit. Not only had Israel forsaken her God, but she was
also prohibiting the nations from coming to the temple for inclusion
within the universal worship of the Almighty.
3. The Crucifixion & Intertextuality (Psalm 22 in Matthew 27)
a. Jewish Trial of Jesus: following the familiar events of the Gethsemane
prayer and betrayal, Matthew narrates the Jewish trial of Jesus. The
Lord stands before the Sanhedrin, and following the denials of Peter,
also stands before Pilate after having been delivered there by the
religious leaders of the Jews. In the Sanhedrin trial, Jesus is first

130
Jeremiah 8:13, NIV. See Hosea 9:10-16 and Joel 1:7 for other Old Testament examples of this.

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 silent, which fulfills the prophecy of Isaiah 53. He then speaks, saying
that he is the “Son of Man” (cf. Dan 7:13-14) who will sit at the right
hand of the Father (cf. Ps 110:1-2) and eventually come to reign in
power over the whole earth, a concept only alluded to in the phrase
“come on the clouds of heaven.” Once more, Matthew shows Jesus in
his life, ministry, death, and resurrection as the fulfillment of the Old
Testament.
b. Roman Trial of Jesus: The Roman trial of Jesus begins in Matthew
27:11 with the question “Are you the King of the Jews?” The
Synoptic authors show at this point that the Jewish people do not
recognize their legitimate king and instead demand that the enslaving
Roman occupiers kill him.
• Pilate’s usual practice of releasing a prisoner to the crowd is a
ploy of the governor to win the favor of the larger population
of Palestine. But on this occasion, the criminal was Barabbas,
a notorious thief and murderer. His name is significant in that
it means “the son of the father.” The crowd condemns Jesus to
crucifixion while asking for the release of the “son of the
father.”
• In a note of bitter irony, the Jewish crowd is revealed to be
totally blind, remaining under the judgment of God, as to the
identity of the true “Son of the Father,” who stands, bloody and
beaten, in their midst. The irony is continued, as the mockery
of the soldiers reveals the blindness of the Roman accusers as
well. They call him the “King of the Jews,” but clearly do not
recognize that he is also their king, for he is their maker.
• Thus, the accusation that the gospels are anti-Semitic in their
presentation of Jesus’ death is nullified. There is no
preferential treatment given to the Romans in the Synoptic
Gospels; they are equally blind to the King in their presence.
c. “My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?” (Ps 22:1 in Matt
27:46). When we follow the hermeneutic principle of metalepsis,
some important theology is illumined. In the Psalms, the original
words are uttered by a righteous sufferer who appeals to the Lord for,
and ultimately receives, vindication.
• This is essential in noting Matthew’s use of Psalm 22
throughout his crucifixion narrative. The informed reader,
noting the inclusion of various details from Psalm 22,
anticipates the vindication of Jesus in the gospel.
• Some interpreters have taken Psalm 22 to be a direct prediction
of the suffering of Jesus. But perhaps it is better to understand
the Psalm as a lament used by a righteous sufferer; from this
point, the gospel writers use the lament and provide us with a
fuller meaning through Jesus’ use of it. This conclusion seems
particularly relevant in light of Matthew’s use of Psalm 22
throughout chapter 27 of his gospel.

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 •
First, he echoes the division of garments. Then, he recalls the
mockery and wagging of heads. Next, he notes the taunts of
the crowd, who challenge the righteous sufferer to seek
deliverance from the hand of the LORD. And finally, he
recounts the words from Jesus’ lips as being directly from the
introduction of the Psalm.131
• The obvious indirect connections between the crucifixion
narratives in the gospels and Psalm 22 include: the dogs
(Gentiles, Romans) and evildoers that encircle the Christ, the
scourging of Christ that meant he could count all his bones, and
the delivery of His soul from the sword, dog, and lion.132
4. Jesus, the Righteous Sufferer (Psalm 22): Jesus is the ultimate and perfect
example of the Righteous one who suffers at the hands of wicked men. But
more than that, he is also the ultimate example of the vindication of God
because of his superlative righteousness. The vindication of the righteous
sufferer would include…
a. Praise from the vindicated individual (Psalm 22:22). The praise of the
Father is a result of the vindication of the sufferer.
b. Praise from the “offspring of Jacob… of Israel” (Psalm 22:23). The
people of God would ultimately join in the celebration of the
vindication of the righteous sufferer.
c. Praise from the “ends of the earth” (Psalm 22:27). The nations would
also praise the Lord for vindicating the righteous sufferer.
d. Psalm 22:1 in Matt 27:46 is not intended to communicate a separation
between the Father and the Son.
e. Intertextual use of Psalm 22 demonstrates how Christ is the ultimate
example of the righteous sufferer, not to instruct that the Father
abandoned Christ on the cross. The righteous sufferer of Psalm 22 is
“not despised” and “not abhorred” and thus, “he [God] has not hidden
his face from him, but has heard, when he cried to him” (Ps 22:24).
f. Davidic Psalms: many patristic interpreters understood the Davidic
Psalms to record the voice of Messiah, the Davidic Son.
g. Finally, we observe that “kingship belongs to the Lord” (Ps 22:28).
The questions of the governor and his military officers find their
resting place in the truth of Christ’s eternal and universal kingship.
Thus, the significance of Psalm 22 in light of its use in the crucifixion
narratives of the Gospels cannot be overlooked.
C. The Resurrection of Messiah: the Synoptic Gospels show the resurrection of Christ as

131
See Matt 27:35 in light of Ps 22:18 on the first point. On the second point, see Matt 27:39 in light of
Ps 22:7. On the third point, see Matt 27:43 in light of Ps 22:8. On the final point, see Matt 27:46 in light of Ps 22:1.
132
See Ps 22:16-21. This is purely speculative in nature, but we see that the righteous sufferer is saved
from the dog (Gentile?), the lion (Satan?), and the Ox (the fate of the slave that had been gored in Exodus 21?).

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the vindication of God. Jesus had claimed divine status and, while many in Israel
disagreed (violently), the Father affirmed the unique claims of the Son and proved
him (with power) to be the Messiah.
1. The Great Commission: the verbs in the Great Commission are important and
instruct as to the nature of the ministry Jesus intended.
a. One Imperative: “Make” disciples. This is the essence of the
command of Christ: that his followers should not remain exclusive in
their faith, but should move outside themselves in proclaiming the
truth of the Kingdom and its arrival. Further, they should not stop at
the mere proclamation of the Word of Christ, but should continue until
they have produced disciples. This speaks of Jesus’ intent of calling
the first disciples. His teaching was meant to produce in them a
reproductive power; they were meant to be spiritually reproductive.
Thus, each subsequent set of disciples was intended to spiritually
reproduce themselves. This would not happen of their own power, but
from the power of the Spirit in bringing about the new birth.
b. Three Participles: “going,” “baptizing,” and “teaching.” These suggest
ongoing action, such that the command might be expressed in the
following terms: “As you are going, make disciples.” The process by
which disciples are made is threefold:
• Going
• Baptizing
• Teaching
c. The extent of the Great Commission is also important; it calls
reproducing disciples to a universal scope in their gospel ministry.
d. The authority of the Great Commission is founded upon the risen
Christ himself; his death and resurrection secures the success of the
missionary endeavor upon which the disciples now embark.
e. The Spirit: without the risen Lord sending the Spirit, there can be no
missionary success (wrongly, it is sometimes thought to rest on man’s
clever contextualization; rightly, it is thought to rest on the authority of
Christ and the illumination of the Spirit).
f. The power of the Great Commission is realized in the promise of
Christ, that by his Spirit, he would be with the disciples who are going,
baptizing, and teaching (thereby, making disciples) into the whole
world until the end of the age.
2. The Emmaus Road: we recognize there are only two disciples. These are not
of the Twelve (or now, of the Eleven), but are of those who attended the
Passover celebration in Jerusalem with knowledge of Jesus and hopes that he
might be the Jewish Messiah.
a. This is a seemingly insignificant number of disciples, but shows the
tender care of the Shepherd who leaves the larger flock of sheep and
goes in search of the smaller number who are going astray.
b. Perhaps this is indicated in the movement away from Jerusalem where
all these things have just taken place. These disciples are strangely
categorized by that name, and yet seem to remain under the same

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 judgment of God (e.g.: spiritual blindness) as the Pharisees.
c. This is the passive voice; they did not actively keep themselves from
recognizing Jesus, but were kept, and all indications point to God as
the active force in the story. They did have knowledge of Jesus,
considering him to be a great prophet and also hoping that he might be
the Christ, but disappointed because of his crucifixion, which from
their limited perspective closed the door on those dreams.
d. Jesus then explicates the Scriptures, showing at an unidentified
number of points how the Old Testament spoke directly of him. But
apparently, they still do not recognize him.
3. Passover Meal, Breaking Bread, and Seeing Christ: in an event strikingly
similar to the feeding of the five thousand (Luke 9:16) and the Passover meal
with the disciples (Luke 22:19), Jesus once again takes bread, breaks it after
having given thanks… and at this point, the eyes of the Emmaus Road
disciples are opened.
a. Communion with Christ is that which creates relational knowledge of
Him. This is also a passive voice: their eyes “were opened,” which is
meant to indicate God’s activity in illuminating the identity of His Son.
The passive voice continues at the end of the story, as the two tell the
eleven about their encounter with the risen Lord. They report how “he
was known to them in the breaking of the bread” (24:35).
b. At this point, we are possibly being taught as to the nature of the
Lord’s Supper. Perhaps Luke is telling us that communion is a
powerful and spiritual meal in which Jesus is known to communicants
in greater degrees of truth. Regardless, there are some conclusions to
be made.
• First, we witness such tender care for only two disciples. Jesus
indeed does not lose any of those whom the Father has given
him.133
• Second, we see a great love displayed here in redeeming them
from their wandering.
• Third, we encounter such truth communicated in the exposition
of the Old Testament. And finally, we observe such tender
healing that the two disciples should finally recognize Jesus
where once their eyes had been blinded to his identity.

Session 7: The Theological Sermons of the Book of Acts

A. The Apostle Peter at Pentecost: this sermon connects the current work of God in
redemptive history with the foretold outpouring of the Holy Spirit in Joel’s prophecy.
It further focuses on the Messianic status of Jesus.
1. Before that monumental event in church history, the Spirit descends upon the

133
Cross-reference John 10 on this point.

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 disciples in the form of tongues that are “as of fire,” a phrase that indicates
Luke’s inability to describe exactly what descended.
a. It is likely, then, that we are not speaking of literal fire, but something
that communicates the purifying presence of God. The wind
communicates the power in which the Spirit comes, and the power
with which the Spirit clothes the disciples.134 Armed with power and
purity, the disciples then speak about “the mighty works of God”
(2:11).
b. The first instance of speaking in tongues in the Book of Acts occurs
within a context of known and recognizable languages. It establishes a
pattern whereby tongues in Acts are never interpreted – contrary to
what Paul prescribes in 1 Corinthians 12-14 – and serve as the
authenticating sign of true belief. In a book that represents a transition
between the Old and New Covenants, we would anticipate a sign from
God that marks out true disciples who cross over from Old Covenant
observances to New Covenant faith.
c. According to the geographical expansion of the kingdom (outlined in
1:8), we would further expect that a sign from God would mark and
accompany the successful proclamation of the kingdom among these
various people groups. This is exactly what we will find. Thus, if we
are to recognize normative value in the speaking of tongues within the
Book of Acts, we must understand this value in the following terms: it
is the use of known languages by Jesus’s disciples in establishing the
church among pagan people with no previous exposure to the gospel.
2. The context of Pentecost also indicates the Lord’s fulfillment of the promise
of blessing given to Father Abraham. We recall that the word “blessing” in
the Genesis account stands for the reversal of the curses proclaimed upon the
man, woman, serpent, and earth resulting from the Fall of Man in Genesis 3.
a. One scholar notes, “Opposite Babel, where people were scattered
throughout the earth and cursed with language barriers that disabled
community and communication, Pentecost parades a gathering of
people from ‘every nation under heaven’ (Acts 2:5) who all understood
the same speech as if spoken in their own language (Acts 2:6). It is
not that God undid what he had done at Babel – rather, he re-enabled
what was possible before Babel – that God-fearing people of all
languages could understand God’s actions. Israel’s exile was coming
to an end.”135
b. Further than this, the Pentecost context establishes two larger
connections to the story of Israel’s history.

134
Note the wind as a manifestation of God’s power in the Old Testament context of Ps 104:3 and Isa
59:19; see below in connection with Exod 19:16-19.
135
Pate, Story of Israel, 189.

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 • First, the feast finds its roots in Exodus (23:16) and its
theological significance in Deuteronomy (16:9-12). People had
come from distant (spiritual?) exile to celebrate their
deliverance from (spiritual?) captivity and to celebrate God’s
presence in their midst. The exodus of God’s people was now
coming to an end.
• Second, the language used to describe the arrival of the Spirit
brings the rushing wind of Old Testament appearances of God
(theophany). The most strikingly comparable account, in the
giving of the Law at Sinai (Exodus 19:16-19), speaks of
rushing wind and consuming fire and brings us to the
conclusion that the giving of the Spirit is the fulfillment of the
Old Covenant Law and the institution of the New Covenant
blessings. Pentecost, then, was finally being celebrated as it
was intended: as the remembrance and celebration of past
covenant renewals and, more importantly, the fulfillment of the
New Covenant.136
3. The sermon of Peter beginning in Acts 2:14 is primarily addressed to Jews and
therefore contains many Scriptural proofs associated with the life, death, and
resurrection of Jesus. It is also a sermon to address the question of the
crowds, “What does this mean?” (2:12). All the aforementioned connections
to the Old Testament needed an explanation, and Peter, now endowed with
“power from on high” can boldly proclaim the Gospel and put the “keys to the
kingdom” to their proper usage. Peter connects all that had been happening to
the “last days” and does so by the use of the prophet Joel, who declared
beforehand that the Spirit’s arrival would signify the onset of the
eschatological “day of the Lord.” The last days were proclaimed in terms of
the kingdom’s spatial proximity by the Lord Jesus, who – now enthroned with
the Father – has fulfilled his promise to remain with the disciples “to the end
of the age” through the Spirit.
4. The “last days,” then, are understood biblically as the time between the
coming of the Spirit at Pentecost and the coming of Christ at the end of the
age. In this sense, then, the “last days” are also synonymous with the
messianic age. In this messianic age, God had brought his people out of exile,
leading them through his Spirit for the purpose of being their God, and had
reversed the fellowship breaking events of Babel in the community building
events of Pentecost. The Spirit that had hovered over the depths at creation
now dwells within mankind as the new creation and transformative restoration
of the world begins. The age in which this same Spirit would not rest on a
select few, as in the Old Testament, but on all God’s people irrespective of

136
See the connection between Pentecost and the New Covenant language of Ezekiel 36:27-29 and
Jeremiah 31:33ff

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 race, gender, or age had dawned. The Spirit had come upon each of them
(Acts 2:3).
5. Peter then unpacks the significance of the death and resurrection of Jesus
within the eternal plan of God. The repeated mention of “Israel,” seen again
in 2:22 recalls the presence of God that had been in Christ and is now in the
disciples – once rejected by “men of Israel” in the crucifixion of the Messiah,
but now leading to the conversion of three thousand souls. In the connection
between Christ and King David, Peter announces that various clues as to the
Father’s eternal and divine purposes through Israel were given throughout
Israel’s history. In David, the people of Israel were to see a type of Christ (a
prophet and king who knew God: Acts 2:30) and yet an imperfect prefiguring
of the Messiah as well. For David’s words about the resurrection of the
eternal heir were not about himself,137 but about his Lord. Based on the
overwhelming evidence of the Old Testament story, the people are convicted
and converted. Repentance is commanded and forgiveness is given. The gift
of the Holy Spirit is announced.
6. In short, the Apostle Peter is now binding and loosing on earth that which is
bound and loosed in heaven. He is using the “keys of the kingdom.” His
voice mimics the prophetic voices of the Old Testament in the confrontation
of covenant breaking through (1) idolatry, (2) external religious observance,
and (3) social injustice in the marginalization of the poor.
a. Now, in the establishing of the new covenant community, there is
constant attention on God’s presence (in the teaching, fellowship,
breaking of bread, and prayer within the community); there was an
evident heartfelt devotion marked by “glad and generous hearts” and
by “praising God.”
b. And finally there was a social justice that was to characterize the
people of God from the beginning; they were giving to each as they
had need. All this was evidence that the Spirit was among them, for
the call of the prophets had finally been heeded.
B. The Apostle Peter at Solomon’s Portico: this sermon focuses on the continuing voice
of Israel’s prophets who collectively called Israel to faith and repentance in turning
away from corporate and personal sin, just as Peter now does.
1. Background: major redemptive-historical transition in the Book of Acts is
progressive. In Acts 3:1, we find that Peter and John are going up to the
temple at one of the several prescribed times of prayer.
a. The healing of a lame man provides an indication that, just as Jesus
taught and healed, so also the disciples – now empowered with the
Spirit – would also teach and heal.
b. In terms of normative authority, this passage is established
christologically, for it is Jesus that restored to perfect health this lame

137
This is the argument of Peter in Acts 2:34 and highlights his use of Psalm 110:1 in making this
argument.

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 man. It is also an example of programmatic narrative. But the fact
that such events happen in a transitional book helps us understand the
forward looking intent of the author.
c. God works in the world to establish his church by empowering his
people to teach and heal, but never from their own power and only in
dependence upon the Spirit.
2. Foundational Nature of Teaching: Everywhere in the Book of Acts where the
church is established, it is later strengthened by teaching. Teaching is
repeated in every instance whereas healing is not. When we come to speaking
in tongues, we notice that it occurs repeatedly, but does so as the concentric
circles of the gospel’s expansion move outward, from Jew to Samaritan, from
Samaritan to Gentile, and so on. Thus, the normative value of tongues in the
Book of Acts is understood to be…
a. Language: tongues are known languages.
b. Gift of Spirit: tongues serve to confirm the veracity of the gift
of the Spirit.
c. Apostolic Authority: tongues offer proof of apostolic authority
as the means by which legitimate believers are identified and
the church is established/advanced.
d. Gentile Salvation: tongues are the common sign among Jewish
and Gentile believers that validate inclusion within the New
Covenant to the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15).
3. Peter’s sermon in Acts 3 occurs in Solomon’s Portico along the eastern wall of
the Temple complex.
a. He proclaims that the healing of the lame man was a signal of God’s
redemptive plan from the time of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.
b. The blessings promised to Abraham and his descendants, the intent of
Moses’ call and subsequent ministry, and the words of Isaiah. God
glorified his servant Jesus (Acts 3:13) and raised up his servant (Acts
3:26). Peter believes that all OT prophets foreshadowed or foretold
the events that were now taking place.
c. In Jesus, the eschatological plans of God were coming to fruition; that
which had been planned from eternity and foretold from antiquity was
now front and center on the stage of redemptive history. God’s
willingness to forgive the ignorance of his people is set in the context
of the resurrection of Christ and the repentance demanded on the part
of those people.
d. Though the people had killed the “Holy and Righteous One,” it had
ultimately happened by the will of God. And though it happened by
the will of God, the people committing this unthinkable crime were
nevertheless held responsible for it.
4. Story Serves Teaching: the action in the narrative establishes the framework
for the didactic material. Thus, all the sermons in Acts reveal that the
narrative serves the teaching.
a. In Peter’s first sermon, the narrative action of the Pentecost events
served his explanation from the Old Testament and the life of Christ.

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 b. Now, in Peter’s second sermon, we see that the healing of the lame
man serves the teaching connecting the Torah to the life, death, and
resurrection of Christ.
c. The healing that allowed the man to leap and joyfully enter the temple
with Peter and John (note: he had been limited to begging outside the
temple gate) is the kind of invitation to spiritual healing that brings
those outside the temple, and therefore outside the covenant
community, into the presence of God.
C. The Sermon of Stephen to the Sanhedrin: this sermon to the Jewish leadership
recounts the entire scope of Israel’s story and confronts Israel’s misinterpretation of
God’s actions in their midst; thus, she missed the purpose of her calling and forfeited
her role within God’s plan.
1. Background: Stephen performs many signs and wonders because he is full of
grace and power; he is irresistible in his wisdom and teaching, all because he
is indwelt by the Holy Spirit. He is accused falsely of speaking against the
temple and Moses, he is a blasphemer.
a. Luke undoubtedly intends for us to see Stephen in light of Jesus. And
the reference to his face shining like one of the angels invokes images
of the Law having been given by angels, as it was believed in
antiquity,138 and draws our attention to the new law being given by
Stephen.
b. The vindication of Stephen is the heavenly vision of Christ at the right
hand of the Father, which serves to show that his interpretation of the
Old Testament is valid and right. He had not missed the point in
blasphemy, but rather his opponents stood condemned as law-breakers
and the ones who missed God’s will. Stephen’s message and Jesus’
claims matched, just as their prayers matched after the similar
surrendering of their souls to the Lord.
c. The sermon of Stephen rightly interpreted Israel’s history.
2. Textual Observations: the sermon is scandalous in the sense that a Hellenistic
Jew from outside the land is instructing Hebraic Jews from the land about
their history. His sermon is also so thoroughly Christian in its understanding
of the Old Testament that very few modern readers would hold to a divergent
view. Stephen interprets the Old Testament in such a solidly Christological
way that it becomes a straightforward depiction of our own interpretation in
the present, evangelical world. Several observations assist our understanding
of Stephen’s sermon…
a. Interpretive Authority: the church is invested with interpretive
authority to rightly understand Israel’s purpose. Stephen, a Hellenistic
Jew connected to the church, proclaims and interprets the history of
Israel to Hebraic Jews. He applies a Christ-centered hermeneutic to

138
Josephus, Antiquities, mentions learning the Law from God by angels or ambassadors. See also Gal
3:19 and Heb 2:2 on this point.

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 the correct interpretation of the OT. The church has the authority to
interpret, by the illumination of the Spirit, the history of Israel and
God’s unfolding purposes in redemptive history. In this teaching role,
Stephen shifts the focus from Israel to the nations. He does so in
various startling, yet theologically accurate revelations.
b. Promised Land: Stephen explains the life of Abraham. From the
beginning, God had been working in the life of Abraham—before the
Promised Land was received—and in the lives of the Patriarchs for the
sake of Israel and the nations (i.e.: God’s new covenant people).
God’s presence with Abraham was before the inheritance of land, and
was based on faith.
• Thus, the blessing of God’s fellowship was not contingent upon
the inheritance of Canaan, but upon faith.
• Even Jacob, the father of Israel and her twelve tribes, received
the blessing while he was outside the land. Thus, the land was
not the blessing in itself, but only at best, a physical expression
of the blessing.
• God’s presence, blessing are not limited to the land of Israel.
c. Exodus from Egypt: next, Stephen explains the Exodus events. God
brought about salvation in an unexpected way.
• In the life of Moses, the pagan Egyptians not only preserved
his life, but educated him as well.
• Further, the notion that Moses stood as the prophet who
defined the covenantal relationship with God is confronted. It
was believed that the Law, mediated by Moses, was the
evidence of Israel’s chosen status as God’s people. But the
people of Israel rejected Moses, even though he was God’s
ruler and redeemer.139
• The people of Israel refused to obey Moses even after the Law
had been given and, in their hearts, returned to Egypt.
• Rather than turning to God in faith and being truly liberated,
they turned to Egypt in rebellion and remained in spiritual
exile.
• Thus, Moses was a type of Christ in being ruler and redeemer,
but also in being rejected and disobeyed even after miraculous
signs proved God’s presence with him.
d. Pillars of Second Temple Judaism: thus far in his speech, Stephen had
confronted the two major pillars of Second Temple Judaism: the Land
and the Law. Now, Stephen turns his attention toward the Temple.
• Beginning in Acts 7:44, the true meaning of the temple is
addressed. The establishment of the tabernacle meant that

139
Note the similarity between Stephen’s speech naming Moses as “ruler and redeemer” and Peter’s
speech before the same governing council naming Jesus “Leader and Savior” in Acts 5:31. Connect to Acts 3:19-26.

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 God’s presence among his people was not contained to one
place. Even after the construction of Solomon’s Temple, and
the use of Isaiah 66 illustrates this, the Lord was enthroned
above the whole earth and not only above Jerusalem.
• The permanent Temple did not sufficiently house God, for his
presence, as indicated in the tabernacle, was one of mobility
and expansive existence. It had been believed that God’s
presence belonged to the temple, but the greatest of Israel’s
temple prophets, Isaiah, refuted that claim.
• History and prophecy show in harmony that God’s presence
remains on those in whom his Spirit dwells and not in any
specific geographical location. “His faithful people, those who
follow Christ and are filled with his Spirit, are his true
temple.”140
e. Spiritual Interpretation: Stephen highlights the spiritual fulfillment of
Israel’s history in the events of Jesus’ life, death, resurrection, and the
outpouring of the Spirit at Pentecost. He understands the presence of
God not to be limited to the Land, the Law, and/or the Temple, but to
the spiritual fulfillment of each. By following the new law-giver, the
Prophet like Moses (Jesus Christ), and by receiving his Spirit by faith,
the new covenant people of God would…
• Be transformed into a spiritual temple,
• Serving the nations (as a light to the nations),
• Preaching the Gospel of peace (the new law),
• Proclaiming restoration from exile (to the “land” of God’s rest,
to the place of his presence in Christ).
f. Luke completes the story of Israel by proclaiming the inclusion of the
Gentiles as the eternal plan of God. This is not done in the verbal
declaration of Stephen’s sermon, but in his subsequent death. Before
being stoned, Stephen declares that the people of Israel had received
this law, the teaching that he has just exposited, which is not different
from the Old Testament, but one and the same. It is for this that they
killed him: he had revealed their ongoing rejection of God in the self-
deceived notion that they were keeping the Law.
D. The Apostle Peter in the House of Cornelius: this sermon confirms—by the
outpouring of the Spirit upon Gentile believers—that God’s very presence reveals “no
partiality, but in every nation anyone who fears Him and does what is right is
acceptable to him” (10:34). Indeed, those who do the will of the Father are the
brothers and sisters of Christ (Luke 8:21).
1. Excursus: Philip & Ethiopian Eunuch. In this dramatic scene, Philip plays a
ministerial role. He stands in the middle of two interpretive realities, with

140
Pate, Story of Israel, 201.

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 those who emphasized human tradition (Pharisaic Jews) on the one side and
those who exaggerated the immediate articulations of the Holy Spirit on the
other (mystics).
a. One scholar writes, “If Scripture is self-interpreting, what was Philip
doing in that chariot? There are at least three possibilities for
understanding what Philip represents... (1) the sharing of oral tradition
(Acts 8:35); (2) a strategy for reading the text (typologically,
canonically, and christologically); (3) the teaching office of the church.
These three options are related to three ways of viewing the
relationship between Scripture and the ongoing life of the church.”141
b. Hermeneutic Convictions: we see Philip interpreting Scripture in a
canonical, typological, and Christological manner.
• Philip, in a certain sense, represents the kind of interpretive
methodology that we have found most helpful; that is, he
begins with the Old Testament and explains it according to the
“good news of Jesus” (Acts 8:35).
• He demonstrates the same interpretive (or hermeneutic)
technique as Jesus had, when on the Emmaus Road he began
with Moses and the Prophets and “interpreted to them in all the
Scriptures the things concerning himself” (Luke 24:27).
• Philip imitates the Master; he examines the points of inter-
connectivity between the Old & New Testaments and explains
redemptive history with Jesus at the center. Thus, Philip is
instructive to all students of biblical interpretation; he is “canon
conscious and Christ-centered” in his biblical interpretation.142
2. Apostle Peter in Acts 10: Peter, having received the “keys of the Kingdom” in
the Gospels, is the first to take the gospel to the Samaritans (Acts 8:25) and
the first to take the gospel to the Gentiles as well. In Acts 10, we return to the
vision of Peter and the final “interpretative obstacle”143 that stands in the way
of God’s universal plan of redemption being fully understood. The vision that
declares the truth that Gentiles were to be included within this plan is affirmed
verbally in Peter’s speech in the house of Cornelius. This is now the fourth
major speech in the Book of Acts, in which the outpouring of the Spirit upon
Gentile believers confirms that God’s very presence reveals “no partiality, but
in every nation anyone who fears Him and does what is right is acceptable to
him” (10:34). Indeed, those who do the will of the Father are the brothers and
sisters of Christ (Luke 8:21). A few observations need to be made…
a. The narrative coherence in Acts is developed from the truth revealed in

141
Kevin J. Vanhoozer. Biblical Authority After Babel (Grand Rapids: Brazos Press, 2016), 118.
142
Vanhoozer, Biblical Authority, 128.
143
Pate, Story of Israel, 203.

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 Peter’s speech. In other words, the Evangelist Luke unpacks the
significance of God’s inclusion of the Gentiles throughout the rest of
Acts, pivoting with Peter’s sermon to God’s redemptive-historical
purposes as they shift from majority Jews to primarily Gentiles.
b. God has brought Peter into contact with this “unclean” Gentile and his
family. This is evident in three ways: first, the vision is the result of
the prayer of Cornelius (a Gentile!); second, as Peter outlines how
Jesus was the fulfillment of Israel’s history, the Holy Spirit descends
upon the Gentile gathering; and third, water baptism is commanded
because Spirit baptism has already taken place. One scholar notes,
“Since God had evidenced his acceptance of these people (Spirit
baptism), they should be allowed entrance into the assembly of the
Lord (water baptism).”144
c. The baptism of the Holy Spirit marked these Gentile believers as
members of God’s eschatological people.
d. Acts 10:15 is the key for understanding the significance of the
Cornelius event: God is overturning the old distinctions of “clean” and
“unclean,” the old dietary laws, and the old “ceremonial” laws found
in the Mosaic Covenant.145 Thus, it is not surprising that Gentiles are
welcomed into fellowship with Jews (and with God himself).
e. The repetition in 10:16 may suggest God’s accommodation of Peter’s
personality. Peter denied Christ three times (Luke 22:54-62) and was
reinstated by Christ with a threefold questioning (John 21:15-19), so
here God shows Peter the shift in covenantal paradigms three times.
f. Peter understands the vision to mean that God has not considered the
Gentiles unclean, and neither should he (Acts 10:28). What was
“unlawful” in the old system was now perfectly acceptable.
g. Tongues speaking in Acts 10:46 is also a known language that needs
no interpretation (contra 1 Cor 12—14). It serves to mark with divine
authority a major shift in redemptive history. Tongues speaking is
used by Luke to show how the Jews were convinced of Gentile
salvation.
h. Luke has now asserted his main point, that God intended from the
beginning—and is now bringing to pass—the inclusion of all people
from all places “without hindrance” (28:31) because the Gentiles “will
listen” (Acts 28:28). The rest of the Acts narrative illustrates with
powerful visual demonstrations how that main point is fulfilled.
E. The Apostle Paul in Pisidian Antioch: this sermon highlights God’s past work with

144
Pate, Story of Israel, 203.
145
Note here a connection with what was taught concerning the miracles of Jesus in our exposition of
Mark 4-9. Jesus’ interaction with a Gentile demoniac (and pigs), with a dead body (in the Jairus account), with a
bleeding woman (in the same section of Mark), and with a Syrophoenician “dog” later in Mark are meant to show
his unique authority in re-interpreting and transforming the Law of Moses.

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Israel and then emphasizes the restoration God provides in the forgiveness of sin. A
contrast is drawn between the powerless Law of Moses and the all-powerful Christ in
terms of the ability to release captives in sin unto true spiritual liberty.
From this point forward, the Antioch church comes into view. The events of chapter
thirteen feed into the sermon of Paul, which highlights God’s past work with Israel
and then emphasizes the restoration God provides in the forgiveness of sin. A
contrast is drawn between the powerless Law of Moses and the all-powerful Christ in
terms of the ability to release captives in sin unto true spiritual liberty. The flow of
the narrative speaks to Luke’s authorship under divine inspiration. The release of
Peter from Herod’s jail anticipates the freedom from spiritual captivity proclaimed in
Paul’s sermon. The message here is equally clear: no spiritual authority will stand in
opposition to God’s plans either. The unique features of this sermon are…
1. There are Jews and Gentiles among the crowd. Note the similarity between
Peter’s address in Acts 2:22 (“Men of Israel”) and Paul’s address here in 13:16
(“Men of Israel”). Also note the inclusion of those “who fear God,” which is
an allusion to the Gentile “God-fearers” within the synagogue.
2. Paul’s address is similar in scope to Stephen’s address, which summarizes the
entire Old Testament. Whereas Stephen’s address was intended to show
Israel’s misinterpretation of their own history, Paul’s address emphasizes
restoration and the forgiveness of sins. Contrasted with the powerless Law of
Moses, the work of Christ brings complete and total freedom from sin.
3. Israel’s history is briefly recounted to show God’s mercy in providing for his
people.
a. First, this provision is evident in the birth of the nation of Israel in
Egypt.
b. Second, this provision is extended in the exodus from Egypt.
c. Third, it is evident in the subsequent wilderness wandering period of
Israel’s history, in which manna and water from the rock were
graciously provided for the people’s very survival.
d. Fourth, God provided for his people by driving out the nations who
inhabited Canaan and giving the Promised Land to the people.
e. Fifth, he gave the people leadership in the form of judges, and kings,
most notable is King David, who is mentioned by name as a “man
after my own heart, who will do all my will” (1 Sam 13:14).
4. The Davidic kingship, as good as it was, was not sufficient in bringing about
God’s ultimate purposes. The unique ministry of Christ, over and above that
of David, is evidenced in the resurrection, which is key for understanding
Pauline soteriology. In Christ, the purposes of God were (and are) brought to
perfect completion.
5. Through Jesus, forgiveness of sins is proclaimed, leading both Jew and
Gentile out of bondage and slavery to sin, into the freedom of God. The word
“freed” in Acts 13:39 is often translated “justified” or “declared innocent.”
Thus, Luke highlights what it means to be freed; it is to be declared by the
Judge of the universe to be innocent of all charges. Just as Jesus had been the
righteous sufferer, and through his resurrection had been declared to be
innocent of all charges, so also his people would be declared innocent through

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 his blood.
6. Paul begins with the Jews, and then turns to the Gentiles. This is a pattern of
Paul’s in every city he visited. Going first to the synagogue, Paul addresses
the Jews. Having faced opposition from the Jews (as happened in the next
Sabbath), Paul and Barnabas declare, “Behold, we are turning to the Gentiles”
(Acts 13:46).146
7. The sovereignty of God is on full display. The sermon speaks of God’s
election, God’s promises, God’s deliverance, God’s saving plan, God’s power
in raising Jesus from the dead, and God’s desire to forgive sins.
a. Now, after the sermon had been preached and the subsequent Sabbath
had come, we are told that “as many as were appointed to eternal life
believed” (13:48). Their belief was not self-directed, nor was it a
decisive act of the human will that brought it about. Instead, the belief
comes from the fact that they were appointed to eternal life.
b. In the midst of reporting the fact of Gentile salvation, Luke pauses to
interpret the nature of that salvation, saying clearly that it is based on
God’s divine election. The bookends of this sovereign choice (see
Acts 13:16 & 13:48) highlight the nature of salvation from the very
inception of redemptive history in the calling of Abraham.
F. The Apostle Paul in Rome: this final sermon indicates that the judgment of God
remains on the people of Israel (as indicated by the use of Isaiah 6:9-10) and,
although Israel remained hard-hearted, God would raise up stones for Abraham in the
granting of ears to hear among the Gentile peoples of the world. God is not
dependent upon ethnic Israel to fulfill his mission, but God remains dedicated to
fulfilling eternal purposes through the Remnant (Messiah himself, and all followers of
Messiah thereafter). So, while ethnic Israel would not listen and subsequently
forfeited her role and calling, God’s plans move forward unhindered, toward their
intended completion. See major emphases of Paul’s sermon…
1. Paul is free from accusation that he has broken or compromised his Jewish
heritage or that he has in any way opposed his ethnic people.
2. Paul is also free from accusation that his ministry had threatened Roman rule
and the peace of the Empire. This is recognized by the Romans, who wish to
set him free.
3. Jewish opposition has led to this point; it is on their account that Paul had
appealed to Caesar. This opposition is the result of spiritual exile, in which
the judgment of God remains on the Jewish people.
4. In a twist of irony, Paul declares that he is a prisoner for believing in and

146
Note the connection between Acts 14:21 and the command of the Great Commission (Matt 28). In
addition, see N.T. Wright, Jesus and the Victory of God (London: SPCK, 1996), 219-220, and note the connection
between Luke 15 and Acts 15. Contrast the Pharisees and Apostles in the two scenarios: new groups are returning to
God in repentance, but the former group opposes it while the latter group affirms it. See Amos 9 in Acts 15 and the
dramatic shift in perspective, that the Apostles have rightly understood Israel’s Scriptures. They interpreted (1) by
the illumination of the Spirit and (2) according to the interpretive centrality of “exile and restoration” culminating in
Jesus’ life, ministry, death, and resurrection.

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 proclaiming the hope of Israel. Again the resurrection features prominently in
Pauline theology. The opposition of the Jews is against their own Scriptures,
for the Old Testament speaks of the resurrection of Christ and the subsequent
hope of all who are his people.
5. In all that had occurred, Paul is aware of the sovereignty of God over his life.
He has come to Rome as a witness to the Jewish population, which resulted
from God’s intentional direction.147 The call for all people to hear his voice
echoes the themes developed in Luke’s Gospel (chaps 1—2).
6. The rejection of Israel is the fulfillment of Scripture, as Isaiah 6 reveals. Jesus
had used the same passage to explain Israel’s rejection of him (Matthew
13:14-15). Additionally, Bock suggests that any reading of Romans 9—11
must be done in light of Acts 28:23-31.148 The consistency of Paul’s
eschatology in regard to Israel is striking when the two passages are compared
side-by-side.
7. The word “therefore” in verse Acts 28:28 is instructive. It is because of
Israel’s rejection that the Gospel is now going out to the Gentiles.
a. The Book of Acts opens and closes on the note that Christianity is
intended for Jew and Gentile and continues to witness to the Jews
because its faith “is the culmination of Israel’s hope.”149
b. Gentiles who embraced the faith in the Book of Acts had embraced the
hope of Israel. Jews who rejected the faith in stubborn opposition to
the purposes of God, ultimately rejected their own hope. So, although
the pattern of rebellion from Old Testament history continues, there is
hope that Jews would embrace this fulfillment of redemptive history in
Christ in listening to Paul’s gospel call.
c. God moves to advance his kingdom through believers (e.g. the
church), not through a particular ethnic people group.

Session 8: Introduction to the Gospel of John

A. Author of the Fourth Gospel: The Apostle John or John the Elder?150
1. Internal Textual Evidence: the Apostle John is the Beloved Disciple
a. The “disciple Jesus loved” appears in the upper room, conversing with
Peter (John 13:23, εἷς ἐκ τῶν μαθητῶν αὐτοῦ ἐν τῷ κόλπῳ τοῦ Ἰησοῦ, ὃν

147
Note the fulfillment of Acts 1:8 alongside the details of 19:21; 23:11; 25:10-12; and 27:24.
148
Darrell L. Bock. Acts. (BECNT. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2007), 749.
149
Bock, Acts, 749.
150
For a thorough treatment of authorship issues concerning the Fourth Gospel, see Richard Bauckham,
Testimony of the Beloved Disciple: Narrative, History, and Theology in the Gospel of John (Grand Rapids: Baker
Academic, 2007), chaps. 2 and 3. Our goal in this section is not to cover each detail exhaustively, but to provide
Ethiopian students with (1) basic knowledge of the major issues (touching briefly on the most pertinent points), and
(2) a written resource to which they might return periodically.

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 ἠγάπα ὁ Ἰησοῦς); with Mary at the crucifixion (John 19:26-27, καὶ τὸν
μαθητὴν παρεστῶτα ὃν ἠγάπα); at the tomb of Jesus with Peter (John
20:2-8, πρὸς τὸν ἄλλον μαθητὴν ὃν ἐφίλει ὁ Ἰησοῦς); and on the shore of the
Sea of Galilee, fishing with Peter (John 21:7, ὁ μαθητὴς ἐκεῖνος ὃν ἠγάπα
ὁ Ἰησοῦς) and as the topic of Peter’s conversation with Jesus (John
21:20-23, τὸν μαθητὴν ὃν ἠγάπα ὁ Ἰησοῦς). Köstenberger advises, “Note
the articular specification” in each passage.151
b. In John 21:21–23, Peter and Jesus are speaking about the Beloved
Disciple who appears to be greater than the apostle Peter. Who is
more well-known than Peter? Who is, perhaps, more authoritative as
eyewitness than Peter? Would this be a non-itinerate disciple from
Jerusalem (John the Elder) or one of the inner-circle disciples (Peter,
James, John; cf. Matt 17:1; Mark 9:2)?
c. In John 19:35, the Beloved Disciple says that he testifies about what
he has seen. Thus, we are not dealing with an author who merely
reports eyewitness testimony (as news reporters interview
eyewitnesses to various newsworthy events). No, we are dealing with
an author who wrote about what he witnessed. The Gospel of John is
not based on eyewitness accounts, but is a written eyewitness account.
d. In the same vein, John 1:18 says, “We beheld his [Jesus’s] glory.” Is
this metaphoric “seeing” as one who encountered Christ through
eyewitness testimony? Or is this historical “seeing,” as the apostle
John had witnessed the Transfiguration (cf. Matt 17:1; Mark 9:2ff)?
e. See John 15:26-27… the Spirit will come, will bear witness about
Christ, and then the disciples will bear witness about Christ too. So,
who is in the Upper Room and who receives the Spirit (and testifies) in
the Book of Acts? Peter and John, together, are pivotal figures in
John’s Gospel and the early accounts in the Book of Acts.
f. Again, John 15:27 affirms that the disciples have been with Jesus
“from the beginning.” In John 1:35, 40, we see Andrew with an
unnamed disciple as the first of Jesus’s followers. Luke 5:10 tells us
that the apostle John had been a business partner (fishing) with
Andrew, the brother of Peter.
g. The Fourth Gospel is the most intimate gospel account, because John
(the apostle and author) witnessed Jesus’s ministry from the beginning
(1:35) to the end (19:35), and was with Peter at the Tomb (20:3-9).
2. External Historical Evidence: the Apostle John is the Beloved Disciple

151
Andreas J. Köstenberger and Stephen O. Stout, “The Disciple Jesus Loved: Witness, Author,
Apostle—A Response to Richard Bauckham’s Jesus and the Eyewitnesses,” Bulletin for Biblical Research 18.2
(2008): 210. In short, Köstenberger identifies the textual evidence that shows a singular Beloved Disciple is present
as eyewitness in both the Jerusalem Upper Room (eating the Passover with Jesus; cf. Matt 26:20) and the Sea of
Galilee, post-resurrection of Christ. Other internal evidence links John’s Gospel with Luke-Acts and shows the
close association of apostles Peter and John in various pericopes (John 13:23-24; 18:15-16; 20:2-9; 21:2-23; cf.
Luke 22:8; Acts 1:13; 3:1—4:37; 8:14-25; Gal 2:9).

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 a. Papias on John’s Gospel: Papias mentions two figures named John, the
first in concert with the known disciples of Jesus (which means he is
almost certainly the apostle John) and a second who is mentioned with
an otherwise unknown “Aristion.”152 The question is whether both
figures refer to the same (or different) people.153
b. Eusebius, the fourth-century church historian, affirms that John is the
apostle and beloved disciple (Historia Ecclesiastica, 3.23.1).
c. The Muratorian Fragment:154 this document refers to “John the
disciple” as one whom “Andrew the apostle” convinced to write a
spiritual gospel. First, the friendship of Andrew and John probably
endured through many hardships until they were living in the same
community in Asia Minor around the end of the first century AD.
Second, the difference between “disciple” and “apostle” is emphasized
to show that Andrew was superior to a mere disciple named “John”
who wrote the Fourth Gospel. Presuppositions determine the readings
that find two people named “John” implied in the Muratorian
Fragment. Finally, the group in John 21:24 that reviewed the Fourth
Gospel and found it authoritative was comprised of “fellow disciples
and bishops” (probably not Andrew, who had died by the date of
composition) who confirmed that John’s testimony was true.
d. Polycrates is cited in Eusebius (Historia Ecclesiastica, 5.24.1-7) as
saying, “John, who lay on the Lord’s breast, who was a priest wearing
the breastplate, and a martyr, and teacher. He sleeps at Ephesus.” (See
footnote 21 below) Did Polycrates refer to the John in Acts 4:6, and
would a Pharisee under Annas have been a disciple of Jesus and author
of a canonical gospel? This seems unlikely. The problem, of course,
is that tradition does not consider the apostle John to be of High
Priestly lineage. In John 18:15, the Beloved Disciple gains access to
the courtyard of the High Priest during Jesus’s arrest and trial. Does
this access require a familial link to the High Priest? Or is it possible
that the Zebedee family had acquired wealth, and were higher class
citizens in Jerusalem by the end of Jesus’s public ministry?
e. Irenaeus (disciple of Polycarp, a disciple of apostle John) identifies
Matthew as author of a Hebrew Gospel, Mark as the disciple and

152
“Fragments of Papias,” in The Apostolic Fathers: Greek Texts and English Translations (ed. and
trans. Michael W. Holmes; 3rd ed.; Grand Rapids: Baker, 2007), 733-35, cited in Köstenberger and Stout, “Disciple
Jesus Loved,” 218. Papias was a Greek Apostolic Father, Bishop of Hierapolis, and author who lived from c. 60 to
c. 130 AD. He wrote the Exposition of the Sayings of the Lord in five books.
153
On Papias, and the distinction between “Elder” and “Apostle,” see D. A. Carson and Douglas J.
Moo, An Introduction to the New Testament (2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2005), 233-34. The simplest—and
most satisfying—explanation is that the apostle John was known in Asia Minor as the most significant church
“Elder” who wrote the Johannine Epistles within that ecclesial context.
154
The Muratorian Fragment is a late second-century fragment of a Latin list of New Testament
writings, which were historically regarded by Christians as canonical (scripturally authoritative).

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 interpreter of Peter, Luke as the companion of Paul (we have
something akin to a “Gospel of Paul”155 in the writings of Luke), and
John as the author of the Fourth Gospel. Irenaeus says, “John the
disciple of the Lord, who also had leaned upon His breast, did himself
publish a Gospel during his residence at Ephesus in Asia.” Irenaeus
reports that many in Ephesus “saw not only John, but the other
apostles also.”156
f. Clement of Alexandria refers to John of Ephesus, author of the
Apocalypse and presumably also of the Fourth Gospel as “John the
apostle” (Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 3.23.6). In fact, the entire
Egyptian tradition ascribes authorship of the Fourth Gospel to the
apostle John.157
g. Tatian’s Diatesseron (c. 160–175 AD) prefers and ascribes authority to
John’s Gospel (above the Synoptic Gospels) in matters of chronology
and sequencing… only the apostolic testimony of John would qualify
it to be so preferred and authoritative.
h. Summary: the evidence from the Church Fathers is nearly unanimous,
as Craig Blomberg notes: “The external evidence must be deemed to
opt overwhelmingly in favor of John, the son of Zebedee, as author of
this document.”158
3. John the Elder is the Beloved Disciple: a view that resists traditional patristic
evidence and points away from historically reliable and relevant sources to
those of spurious quality.
a. Bauckham argues, “This author was a personal disciple of Jesus,
though not one of the Twelve, who has depicted himself within the

155
So if Paul received his gospel directly from the risen Christ (at Sinai, as N.T. Wright proposes), then
his testimony is basically eyewitness as well. See N.T. Wright, Paul: A Biography (San Francisco: HarperOne,
2018), chap. 3.
156
Irenaeus, Against Heresies 3.1.1 in Ante-Nicene Fathers (ed. Alexander Roberts and James
Donaldson; trans. A. Cleveland Cox; Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2004), 1:414, in Köstenberger and Stout,
“Disciple Jesus Loved,” 223. We come to the conclusion that Irenaeus appears to be the most reliable, closest
source to the pertinent information. Concerning the authorship of the Johannine corpus, such information came
from the apostle John, through Polycarp, to Irenaeus only a single generation after the apostolic era. Predispositions
are very influential in the authorship debate. Personally, there seems to be a dispositional issue at stake here. If one
can read the patristic evidence in support of the traditional view (apostolic authorship of the Fourth Gospel) and
embrace it, there seems to be a trusting, fiduciary comportment not only to the historical record, but perhaps also to
the text of Scripture (a disposition that Scripture itself honors). If one is convinced by the modernist claims, there
seems to be a skeptical disposition toward church history and, perhaps also the text of Scripture.
157
Bauckham, Testimony of the Beloved Disciple, 43.
158
Craig L. Blomberg, The Historical Reliability of John’s Gospel: Issues & Commentary (Downers
Grove: IVP Academic, 2002), 26. Standing in the stream of conservative, evangelical scholarship, Blomberg
represents scholars who respect John’s historical integrity, and therefore counter modernist claims. Problems of
authorship or historicity in the Fourth Gospel are visible only to critical eyes of skeptical minds whose specific set of
presuppositions influence scholarship, but are not necessarily present in the texts themselves.

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 narrative as the ‘disciple Jesus loved.’”159
b. Elsewhere, Bauckham argues that John’s Gospel was not only “based
on eyewitness accounts” but that it claims “to have been actually
written by an eyewitness.”160
c. Preliminary Summary: Bauckham undercuts his own insistence that
the Fourth Gospel was written by an eyewitness when he affirms that
a relatively little-known “John the Elder” was its author.
d. Bauckham argues that John was from Jerusalem, hosted Jesus and the
disciples for the Passover in the Upper Room, and took Jesus’s
mother, Mary, as his own mother after the crucifixion (19:27). This
portrait appears to be inconsistent with the Synoptic Gospel accounts
of how Jesus advised the disciples to locate the Upper Room and
secure it from an apparently anonymous “master of the house” (Luke
22:7-14). Furthermore, Luke 22:14 indicates that Jesus was at table
with the apostles (cf. Matt 26:20, “ἀνέκειτο μετὰ τῶν δώδεκα [later
manuscripts add] μαθητῶν”). Entrusting his mother to John meant
that Jesus saw John as family (consider traditional Ethiopian culture
here; see footnote 23 below). Did a non-itinerate, Jerusalem-based
disciple, qualify as such? Perhaps, but it seems unlikely.
4. John the Elder is the Beloved Disciple: evaluating the counter-arguments,
internal (textual) and external (historical).
a. Bauckham believes that affirming apostolic authorship of the Fourth
Gospel is like preserving “a relic of the traditional identification of the
beloved disciple with John the son of Zebedee.”161
b. Bauckham argues that the internal textual evidence points to the
Beloved Disciple as the author of the Fourth Gospel, but for him, it is
not the apostle John (see points 10.A.2.a-e below).
c. With Papias, Bauckham argues that John was a disciple of Jesus, just
not one of the Twelve. There were, indeed, many disciples of Jesus
who followed him itinerantly and many disciples who remained
localized (one thinks of Mary, Martha, and Lazarus).
d. In light of Papias, Bauckham argues for an intentional distinction
between two different people: John the Elder and the apostle John. In
truth, only Papias identifies “John the Elder” in writing.
e. Being that the Johannine Church was centered in Ephesus, the most
reliable sources regarding authorship must be from Ephesus: Papias of
Hierapolis and Polycrates of Ephesus. (We might respond by saying
that geographical/spatial proximity does not trump relational

159
Bauckham, Testimony of the Beloved Disciple, 9.
160
Richard Bauckham, Jesus and the Eyewitnesses: The Gospels as Eyewitness Testimony (Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans, 2006), 358.
161
Bauckham, Testimony of the Beloved Disciple, 21.

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 intimacy—as with Polycarp and Irenaeus—in matters of reliability.)
f. The evidence in Polycrates is particularly strong (in favor of non-
apostolic authorship).162 (We might respond by saying that Polycrates
is dependent upon Irenaeus for his information and, after reading
Papias, suggests two different people named “John.”)
g. In Polycrates, the issue of the πέταλον is puzzling. Josephus tells of the
High Priest’s turban, a second turban with blue trim, and a golden
crown with a blooming flower upon it, with the inscription of YHWH
in the center. The πέταλον is part of the headdress of the High Priest,
who had the unique privilege of bearing the divine name upon his
forehead. Could the apostle John have been High Priest? Could he
have been the acting High Priest in Ephesus, after the 70 AD
destruction of the Jerusalem Temple? Both seem unlikely, if we take
the statement literally.163 Could the apostle John have been
symbolically considered a “high priestly” figure in Ephesus?164
h. Bauckham argues that Timothy was the first Bishop of Ephesus, and
the second was John the Elder (appointed by the apostle John).
Perhaps the apostle John was bishop, who obtained the ceremonial title
“elder” and was honored in Ephesus as a priestly figure.
Summary of Authorship: In the end, Bauckham only surveys Papias and Polycrates with
significant depth. He nearly ignores Irenaeus (Against Heresies 3.1.1-2) altogether, and
instead engages in speculative historical reconstruction with great uncertainty. Many
assumptions and presuppositions—derived almost exclusively from “John the Elder” in
Papias—drive the argumentation forward and preempt a balanced presentation of reliable
patristic tradition. Bauckham insists on eyewitness testimony as the source of gospel
composition, but undercuts his own convictions by arguing for non-apostolic authorship
of the Fourth Gospel. As we have seen, external evidence from the Church Fathers is
nearly unanimous, leading to a decisive conclusion in favor of John, the son of Zebedee,

162
Polycrates, bishop of Ephesus, in a late second-century letter, says, “Philip, one of the twelve
apostles, who has fallen asleep in Hierapolis, [as have] also his two daughters who grew old in virginity, and his
other daughter who lived in the Holy Spirit and rests at Ephesus; and, moreover, [there is] John too, he who leaned
back on the Lord’s breast, who was a priest, wearing the sacerdotal plate (τὸ πέταλον πεφορεκώς), both martyr
(μάρτυς) and teacher. He has fallen asleep at Ephesus. Moreover, Polycarp too, at Smyrna, both bishop and
martyr…” in Bauckham, Testimony of the Beloved Disciple, 23. Apart from the controversy of this passage, it is
fascinating to think that John, Andrew, and Philip remained in contact—likely as close friends—until their dying
days (see point B.2.c above). It seems likely that Polycrates identified the apostle John as martyr, after his exile on
Patmos and subsequent death in Ephesus.
163
See the larger argument in Bauckham, Testimony of the Beloved Disciple, 25-32.
164
Blomberg, Historical Reliability, 35 offers “the list of women standing by the cross in the various
Gospels: the sister of Mary, the mother of Jesus (John 19:25) is equated with Salome, the mother of James and John
(Matt 27:56; Mark 15:40). But Luke 1:36 also calls Elizabeth, the wife of Zechariah the priest and herself a
descendant of Aaron (v. 5), a relative of Mary. The upshot is that the sons of Zebedee were relatives to at least one
priestly family in Judea.” This solves the issue of access to the High Priest’s courtyard in John 18:15-16, but may
not sufficiently solve the πέταλον issue from the mysterious Polycrates text. It also solves the issue of Jesus’s
familial relationship with John, to whom he bequeathed his mother and her ongoing care.

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 as author of the Fourth Gospel. Internal evidence, when cross-referenced with the
Synoptic Gospels, corroborates this testimony.165
B. The Modernist (Liberal) Approach to Interpreting the Fourth Gospel166
1. Rejection of Traditional View on Authorship
a. The modernist approach to Johannine theology set forth post-liberal
scholarship that denied apostolic authorship, John’s involvement in the
story (as the Beloved Disciple), and denied that the gospel surfaced
from Ephesus, where John lived in his advancing years.
b. The modernist approach considered the Johannine community to be
too small to be operative in a large metropolitan city, like Ephesus.
2. Rejection of Traditional View on Composition
a. Source Criticism: Bauckham accurately represents the modernist
position (which he later refutes) as teaching, “The Gospel of John is
the product of a complex history of literary composition which has left
the marks of its various stages on the text as we have it, making it
possible to reconstruct its literary prehistory.”167 The extreme form of
this critical approach believes that later communities constructed
various allegorical stories to parody their experience as the social
minority in a world of hostile majorities.
b. Modernist, post-liberal scholarship treats the Gospel of John similarly
to the Prophecy of Isaiah. The Old Testament book is divided into
three sections: (1) Proto-Isaiah (Isa 1—39, composed in the eighth
century BC); (2) Deutero-Isaiah (Isa 40—55, composed during the
Babylonian Exile in the early sixth century BC); and (3) Trito-Isaiah
(Isa 56—66, composed in the post-exilic, mid-sixth century BC). In
the Fourth Gospel, however, multiple authorship is not featured.
Instead, a sectarian community is considered the group that

165
For a conservative evangelical perspective embracing the traditional, pre-Enlightenment view on
apostolic authorship of the Gospel, three Epistles, and Apocalypse, see Paul A. Rainbow, Johannine Theology: The
Gospel, the Epistles and the Apocalypse (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2014), 39-52. Rainbow’s single-author
position allows for a fully integrated, well-rounded presentation of Johannine Theology.
166
This section is especially indebted to Bauckham, Testimony of the Beloved Disciple, chap. 1, which
undermines the seminal work of J. Louis Martyn, History and Theology in the Fourth Gospel (1st ed., New York:
Harper & Row, 1968; 2nd rev ed., Nashville: Abingdon, 1979). As curious as Bauckham’s convictions about
authorship of the Fourth Gospel remain, his contribution to reshaping Johannine studies in conformity to traditional
exegetical and expositional conclusions is absolutely brilliant.
167
Bauckham, Testimony of the Beloved Disciple, 7. Bauckham exhumes the corpse of this movement
by identifying Rudolf Bultmann who, in his commentary on the Fourth Gospel, introduced a hermeneutic approach
to canonical writings that sought to separate theological, ethical, and/or mythological claims in Scripture from its
pure historical details. Bultmann (1884-1976) introduced the term demythologization to describe his hermeneutic.
As a Lutheran scholar, he tried to keep Christianity socially relevant, despite the fact that modern society could no
longer believe in the uninformed mythology of ancient biblical cosmology. In New Testament interpretation, one
must strip off the husk of cultural ignorance in order to get the kernel of truth. (Consider: anything from Scripture
that we think is “primitive” and, thus, we dismiss it in light of biology, chemistry, and/or astrology—we dismiss it in
light of its quaint antiquity—means we have fallen prey to Bultmann’s demythologization agenda. If we dismiss
miracles or demons and embrace science or technology instead, we have fallen prey yet again.)

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 constructed and reconstructed the work according to its own
experience(s).
3. Rejection of Traditional View on Historical Reliability168
a. The modernist view believes that John was the construct of a later
Christian community which purposely shaped the material (thus, it is
not as historical or historically reliable as the Synoptic Gospels).
b. The modernist view holds a false dichotomy that separates history and
theology, saying that John’s Gospel is theological (thus, it cannot be
historical). We would agree that John presents a theological
interpretation of history, but we would disagree that history can be told
(written, reported, or codified) in an objective manner. All history is
interpreted history.
4. Issues Concerning the Johannine Community
a. Two-Level Reading of the Fourth Gospel: on the surface, the gospel
tells the story of Jesus and the disciples. Below the surface, the gospel
tells the story of a sectarian community that wrote an historical
document, allegorizing its own experiences.169
b. Classic Example: in John 9, the story reconstructs the community’s
history in which Jesus stands for a Christian prophet presently active
within the community, the blind man is a new convert to Christianity
(meaning he has joined the small, sectarian group), and the “Jews” are
the majority rulers of the synagogue (where members of the
community had worshipped until their unpleasant expulsion).170
c. The Gospel of John was written of the sectarian community, by the
community, and for the community. This view is ultimately refuted by
Bauckham’s effective argumentation.
C. Historical Background & Date of Composition

168
Modernist, post-liberal scholarship says biblical writers intentionally manipulated historical facts for
theological purposes. Skepticism drives the hermeneutical engine of this approach to biblical interpretation. In
response, Bauckham, Testimony of the Beloved Disciple, 18 writes, “John has indicated that he takes seriously his
own programmatic statement of the theological significance of real history: ‘the Word became flesh’ (1:14). He
intends to be faithful to the history.”
169
Please note carefully that our own interpretation of the Fourth Gospel will refer to a two-level
narrative, but we explicitly reject a post-liberal, two-level reading of John’s Gospel with an alleged Johannine
community beneath it. Our two-level narrative shows that, on the surface, Jesus speaks of earthly realities but is all-
the-while referring to spiritual realities perceptible only to those blessed by the Spirit with eyes to see and ears to
hear. Consider living water, which may refer to literal streams, or the outpoured Holy Spirit (see John 4 below).
170
Bauckham, Testimony of the Beloved Disciple, 8. See also Rainbow, Johannine Theology, 34-5.
Presenting an elaborate scenario that he ultimately rejects, Rainbow writes that the Johannine community was
comprised of “a group of Jews devoted to Jesus separated or suffered expulsion from their parent synagogues (the
event behind the Gospel), had strife with at least one rival Christian group holding a different Christology and ethics
(1–3 John), and stood apart from the pagan environment of Asia (the Apocalypse). The movement became
increasingly sectarian on all fronts. To bolster their fragile identity they stressed Jesus’ divine authority (e.g., John
5:18) and otherness (John 8:23), they engaged in anti-Jewish polemics (John 8:42-44), defined Jesus’ saviorhood in
exclusive terms (John 14:6), claimed to be over-comers against impossible odds (John 16:33), and construed reality
starkly as a contest between light and darkness (John 1:5).”

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 1. The Historical Setting of the Fourth Gospel
a. The Johannine Community (see details above)
b. The Qumran Community: “The lasting effect of the discovery of the
Scrolls is not to range John alongside Qumran, but to give decisive
support to the Jewish character of John and the Johannine church.”171
For some time, scholars studied the Fourth Gospel believing in its
polemical quality against a Qumran community. This community may
have identified John the Baptist as the Teacher of Righteousness (an
eschatological messianic expectation from the first century BC).172
By contrast, John’s Gospel was presumably composed to minimize the
significance of the Baptist and to foreground the fulfillment of
messianic expectation fulfilled in Jesus of Nazareth. However we
understand the Qumran connection, we must recognize it as a value of
more recent modernist, post-liberal scholarship in contrast with
scholarly views in the first half of the twentieth century, for most of
whom John was obviously the distinctively Hellenistic Gospel in the
New Testament canon. The Qumran link has helpfully brought
scholarly reflection back to Old Testament and Second Temple Jewish
roots as influential backdrops to the theology of the Fourth Gospel.173
c. The Church at Ephesus: the apostle John wrote his Gospel from
Ephesus, where believers were swimming against the current of great
spiritual darkness and swamped by legion overwhelming temptations.
The multi-ethnic nucleus of the Greco-Roman world in Asia Minor,
Ephesus became the epicenter of the Imperial Cult outside of Rome.
The Empire was to be unified by an unprecedented network of
temples, wherein the Emperor was worshipped as prayers and incense
were offered in his name. “Caesar is lord!” became the rallying cry of
pious and patriotic citizens. The Artemis/Diana Cult was also
prominent in Ephesus.174

171
Barnabas Lindars, John, (New Testament Guides. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1990), 49, in
Bauckham, Testimony of the Beloved Disciple, 16.
172
The Teacher of Righteousness refers to an enigmatic apocalyptic figure found in the Dead Sea
Scrolls, featuring prominently in the Damascus Document. The Essenes expected this teacher to be thoroughly
grounded in Torah, which would qualify his instruction, and eminently insightful in order to guide the community in
hidden knowledge, revealing God’s will, leading to the eschatological vindication of Israel. The Essenes believed
eschatological Israel should primarily be a people of communal purity (abstinence from the world, unpolluted by
social entanglements, and monastic-like isolation from the patterns of worldly life).
173
Rainbow, Johannine Theology, 37 offers a helpful summary: “In places the wording seems sharply
pointed to counter either adherence of some to a lingering Baptist sect (John 1:8; 3:22-30), or Jewish nomism
centered on Moses’ ascent of Mount Sinai (John 3:13), or official Jewish rejection of Jesus (John 9:22; 12:42; 16:1-
4), or proto-Gnosticism (John 1:14; 6:53-58). But these accents are subordinate to an overall purpose, which is to
draw people of all sorts to Jesus.” The reference to John 3:13 invokes Moses’ ascension on Sinai to receive divine
revelation and clarifies the different modes of grace (or God’s self-revelation) in John 1:16-18. Provisional grace is
evident in Torah, divine self-revelation given through Moses. Eschatological grace is evident in Christ, the
embodiment of divine self-revelation.
174
The Greek name “Artemis” is found in the biblical record (Acts 19:24-40) whereas the Latin name

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 2. The Date of the Fourth Gospel
a. The general scholarly consensus positions the Fourth Gospel sometime
after 70 AD (and the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple) and before
100 AD (the extent of John’s lifetime). The date of the Fourth Gospel
is not as significant for its interpretation as the Book of Revelation
(early date = Nero; later date = Domitian), though a literary
interpretation of the narrative genre generally subordinates historically
conditioned details to a larger, transcendent purpose. (Such
subordination does not downgrade the historicity of biblical accounts,
but emphasizes a theological interpretation of history; the biblical
authors are not news reporters, but theologians.)
b. The significance of a post-70 AD date is the palpable absence of a
spatial, geographical, and localized center of worship in Jerusalem.
This absence serves John’s theological purposes in presenting Jesus as
the eschatological temple (locus of God’s presence, collapse/overlap of
heaven and earth, manifestation of the divine glory, covenantal
fulfillment of God dwelling amongst His people).
Major Historical Events in Johannine Studies
Dates Events
6 BC The Birth of John the Baptist
5 BC The Birth of Jesus Christ
4 BC Flight to Egypt; Death of Herod; Return to Nazareth
AD 8 Jesus in the Jerusalem Temple (age 12)
AD 8–28/30 Jesus Works as a Carpenter in Nazareth
AD 28.30 Jesus Begins Public Ministry; John Becomes a Disciple
AD 33 (30?) Jesus Crucified & Resurrected
AD 67 Jerusalem Church Flees to Pella
AD 70 Destruction of the Jerusalem Temple by Romans
AD 81-96 Reign of Emperor Domitian
AD 85-95 Gospel of John Written
AD 85-95 Epistles of John Written – Probably from Ephesus
AD 95-96 The Book of Revelation Written from Patmos

3. The Jewish Complexion of the Fourth Gospel

a. The View of Apostolic Authorship allows for a definitive Jewish
“flavor” in the Fourth Gospel.
b. The Apostle John signals a more precise and comprehensive

“Diana” was adopted by Saint Jerome’s Latin Vulgate as the linguistic equivalent. In Ephesus, Artemis was
worshipped as the great mother-goddess of nature and fertility. Depictions of the goddess strongly suggest Oriental
influence and pagan syncretism with the mystery religions of the Far East. One of the seven wonders of the ancient
world, the temple was an asylum for fugitives and runaway slaves. Besides the Imperial Cult, the Artemis Cult was
the most widespread and important of the cults in the Mediterranean world, playing a major role in the social,
economic, and religious life of Ephesus.

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 knowledge of Palestinian geography, social customs and historical
context than any other Evangelist. For this reason, the Fourth Gospel
is seen as more historically reliable than the Synoptic Gospels.
c. The Fourth Gospel mentions various details and/or events that
concentrate in Old Jerusalem, where Christian tradition took shape.
d. The linguistic devices of the Fourth Gospel point to its Palestinian
origin (transliteration, parenthetical explanation, etc.).
e. The Fourth Gospel’s Christology is located within Jewish monotheism
that John intends to maintain.
f. Pharisaic Judaism influenced Jesus’s ministry more than any other
background consideration (note how the Gospel refers to the
“Pharisees” and the “Jews” almost interchangeably).175
g. The Gospel of John employs language reminiscent of an Aramaic
Commentary (Targum) on the Prophet Isaiah.176 In terms of
hermeneutic methodology, John mirrors Jewish Midrash (exegesis)
present in the Talmud (Rabbinic, Hebrew Commentaries).
h. Note the prominence of the Scriptures, the centrality of the Abrahamic
Covenant, the continuity with the revelation given to Moses, a hint of
legalistic works-righteousness (John 6:28), and themes related to the
Temple, ritual purification, anti-Samaritan sentiment, Sabbath
observance, the Feasts of Passover, Tabernacles, Hanukkah, and
more.177
4. The Greek Complexion of the Fourth Gospel
a. John is clearly concerned for a Gentile audience (alongside a Jewish
Diaspora community in Ephesus); he explains cultural and ceremonial
concepts that Hebraic Jews from Palestine would have known from
childhood.
b. The Greek language was the mode of communication most suited to
win a wide audience. In short, the Gospel was not intended for an
isolated community, but for a broad circulation.
c. In the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries, Johannine
scholarship was particularly interested to show the Greek/Gnostic

175
Rainbow, Johannine Theology, 59 finds influential Pharisaic Judaism in Josephus, who bluntly states
that the Pharisees swayed the general populace (Antiquities 13.298; 18.15).
176
Rainbow, Johannine Theology, 59 writes, “The Judaism of the Fourth Gospel—the heritage of the
author and of his characters—approximates that of the sages, sometimes on quite technical points. Jesus taught in
synagogues (John 6:59; 18:20). He and his followers were loyal, for they were troubled at being expelled (John
9:22; 12:42; 16:2). He and his Jewish interlocutors shared the highest possible view of the inspiration and divine
authority of the Scriptures (John 5:39; 10:35). “To search” (ἐραυνᾶν) them (John 5:39; 7:52), a phrase attested only
in John among New Testament writings, was an activity known to the Tannaim as “midrash” (from ‫ דרׁש‬, “seek, be
intent on”). There are correspondences in phraseology between the Johannine writings and Targum Isaiah.”
177
Rainbow, Johannine Theology, 62 summarizes: “Major ideas of Palestinian Judaism—Biblicism,
nomism, two ages, messianism, resurrection, judgment—thus combine with concerns for ritual purity and Sabbath
and festival observance typical of the Pharisees. This is the sphere that formed John’s worldview radically.”

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 influences behind the Fourth Gospel. While this is certainly true in
John’s articulation of “Logos Christology,” we will labor to show that
a balanced integration of Hebrew and Greek influences aids our
interpretation of the Fourth Gospel immensely.
D. Literary Structure of the Fourth Gospel
1. Book of Signs = Chapters 1—12 (show video in class).178
2. Book of Instruction or Upper Room Discourse = Chapters 13—20 (show
video in class).179 Note that chapter 21 poses some interesting questions on
authorship, redaction, and a Johannine community that compiled, arranged,
edited, and perhaps contributed the final chapter to the overall shape of the
Fourth Gospel.
3. See chiastic structures of both sections in the exposition below.
4. The Structural Value of Recurrent “Sevens”180
a. Seven Messianic Signs in John’s Gospel
The Seven Messianic Signs in the Fourth Gospel
Messianic Sign Textual Reference
1. At the wedding in Cana, Jesus changes water into wine. 2:1-11
During the Passover, Jesus cleanses the temple in Jerusalem.* 2:13-22
2. At Capernaum, Jesus heals the official’s son. 4:46-54
3. At the Bethesda Pool, Jesus heals an invalid on the Sabbath. 5:1-15
4. Near the Sea of Galilee, Jesus feeds the multitude of people. 6:1-13
5. Jesus walks on water at the Sea of Galilee.* 6:16-21
6. Jesus heals the man born blind on the Sabbath. 9:1-7
7. In the village of Bethany, Jesus raises Lazarus from the dead. 11:1-44
The Ultimate Sign: Self-Resurrection (all other signs point here) 2:18-19; 10:17-18
* These two signs are debated, but clarification will be given in following sessions.

b. Seven Absolute “I AM” Statements in John’s Gospel: a perfectly

complete indication of who Jesus in himself. This is not to suggest an
exhaustive divine self-disclosure, but a sufficient self-revelation of
God in Christ for the stated purposes of Jesus (John 17:4, 6) and of
John, the author (John 20:31).
c. Seven Covenantal “I am” Statements in John’s Gospel: a perfectly
complete indication of who Jesus is for the disciples. Note the
differentiation between the absolute statements (“I AM”) and the
covenantal statements (“I am”) that are qualified by a predicate phrase.

178
The Bible Project has created a helpful resource for introducing the Gospel of John. “Part One” can
be found here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G-2e9mMf7E8 (accessed 25 July 2022 @ 8:30pm).
179
Again, the Bible Project has created a helpful resource for introducing the Gospel of John. “Part
Two” can be found here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RUfh_wOsauk (accessed 25 July 2022 @ 8:35pm).
180
Rainbow, Johannine Theology, 45.

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 The “I AM” Statements in the Fourth Gospel
Statement References
Seven Absolute “I AM” (Greek: ἐγώ εἰμι) 4:26; 6:20; 8:24, 28, 58; 13:19; 18:5 (6, 8)
-- Seven Salvific/Covenantal “I am” Statements --
1. I am the Bread of Life 6:35, 48, 51
2. I am the Light of the World 8:12; 9:5
3. I am the Door of the Sheep 10:7, 9
4. I am the Good Shepherd 10:11, 14
5. I am the Resurrection & the Life 11:25
6. I am the Way, the Truth, and the Life 14:6
7. I am the True Vine 15:1

5. The Liturgical Rhythm of Jesus’s Ministry: the unfolding of ministry in light

of the religious year and major Jewish festivals. The Fourth Gospel’s
theology also presents contextualized Christology (Jesus reveals himself in
profoundly symbolic ways, within appropriate liturgical contexts = Liturgical
Context for Divine Self-Disclosure… see throughout).

The Prologue of the Fourth Gospel (John 1:1-18): the prologue serves to introduce the
major themes of the gospel.
A. John introduces “the divine origin and essence of God’s only-begotten one, who as
the life and light of the human race became flesh to reveal the Father (John 1:1-18).
The subsequent narrative unfolds its theology according to Jesus’ earthly career.”181
1. Life: Physical Life (as characteristic of initial creation) & Spiritual Life (as
characteristic of new creation). The statement “in him was life” (John 1:4)
refers more to the ontology of Christ (cf. 5:26) than to his ministry of
imparting life by revealing the Father (cf. 5:21). The argument, to this point
in the prologue, establishes Jesus as someone “other” than the initial creation,
discussing his pre-existence and self-existence.
2. Light v. Darkness: John introduces the theme of “light” in 1:4 and then
indicates that Nicodemus met Jesus “at night” (3:2); Jesus says that judgment
comes upon those who “loved darkness instead of the light” (3:19); Jesus
teaches in the temple—with the Feast of Tabernacles as context—that He is
the “light of the world” (8:12); He heals a man born blind (chap. 9); Jesus,
again in the temple, declares that the “light” will be with them only a “little
while longer” (12:35-36); and finally, when Judas leaves the upper room to
betray Christ, John specifically mentions “it was night” (13:30). While
Nicodemus leaves the darkness to come into the Light, Judas retreats from the
true Light and shrinks back into darkness. John communicates through the
use of this theme that Nicodemus may well have been saved (cf. 19:39); he
may have “put [his] trust in the light” (12:36). He also identifies Judas as the

181
Rainbow, Johannine Theology, 36.

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 mysterious “devil” among the Twelve, the one who “loved darkness,” who
was overcome by darkness, and did not walk in the light.
a. Light as Saving Revelation of the Father: the covenantal context of
John’s Gospel is New Creation. The soteriological context of John’s
Gospel is divine self-disclosure of God (in Christ), leading to eternal
life (eschatological life v. provisional life; the quality of divine life,
over-and-against physical animation), as illumined by the Spirit. Thus,
if the Logos gives “light to every man” (John 1:9), we have a doctrinal
dilemma. Does Jesus give saving light to everyone, or only to some?
And further, if Jesus gives light to everyone, are all men saved?
Solution: remember John 1:5 teaches that illumination is given in the
midst of the pervasive darkness over all humanity (such darkness is
not physical, as in the initial creation… instead, it is moral and/or
spiritual, referring to original sin). Note the presentation of light and
darkness, as a “masterpiece of planned ambiguity.”182
b. Light as Philosophical/Epistemic Illumination: On John 1:4-5,
Rainbow writes, “Wherever human reason, conscience or imagination
discovers truth, be it in the progress of philosophy, science, letters or
art, that is made possible by the activity of the universal Logos: ‘In
your light do we see light’ (Ps 36:9). As ‘the true light that enlightens
every person’ (John 1:9), the Logos illumines all cultures and each
individual to impart knowledge of the divine. But due to sin and
unbelief, the world does not benefit (John 1:10-11).”183
c. True Light v. Provisional Light: here we encounter the true, or
eschatological, revelatory light (Christ) that inaugurates New Creation
versus the provisional, or temporary, revelatory light (Torah) that could
not effect heart transformation. It was divine revelation written on
stone tablets, whereas Christ (by the Spirit) means divine revelation

182
D.A. Carson, The Gospel According to John (Pillar New Testament Commentary. Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1991), 95. Carson says that John 1:5 could “refer exclusively to creation, without
moral overtones. Light and darkness are not simply opposites; darkness is nothing other than the absence of light.
At the first creation, ‘darkness was over the surface of the deep’ (Gen 1:2) until God said, ‘Let there be light’ (Gen
1:3). At no time other than creation could it more appropriately be said, the light shines in the darkness. Precisely
because John is talking about creation, and is not describing a dualistic universe in which light and darkness,
goodness and ill, are matched opposites, he can describe the victory of the light: the darkness did not overcome it (as
the verb katelaben can be translated).” However, the reader could also anticipate the “light/darkness duality that
dominates much of the rest of the book. The ‘darkness’ in John is not only absence of light, but positive evil (cf.
3:19; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 John. 1:5, 6; 2:8, 9, 11); the light is not only revelation bound up with creation, but with
salvation. Apart from the light brought by the Messiah, the incarnate Word, people love darkness because their deeds
are evil (3:19), and when the light does put in an appearance, they hate it, because they do not want their deeds to be
exposed (3:20). In fact, wherever it is true that the light shines in the darkness, it is also true that the darkness has
not understood it (taking katelaben as in the NIV)” (96, emphasis original).
183
Rainbow, Johannine Theology, 192. The question must be asked: Is this John's meaning of “light,”
or does this quotation reflect a modern import into the text? Remember the helpful hermeneutic axiom: it cannot
mean now, what it did not mean then. Perhaps, then, the initial recipients of John’s Gospel understood “all truth is
God’s truth,” but the covenantal context of John’s Prologue speaks of New Creation more so than philosophical
reason.

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 written on human hearts (2 Cor 3:3), as the fulfillment of the
Messianic Covenant (New Covenant).184
3. Testimony/Witness: The Apostle John introduces the themes of “witnessing”
and “testifying” (Greek: μαρτυρέω) in the prologue (1:7-8, 15) and develops
them throughout the narrative.185
a. People at the temple “believed in his name” because they “saw the
miraculous signs he was doing” (2:23, NIV), but Jesus “did not need
man’s testimony” either to confirm his identity or to testify about the
heart of a man.
b. Quickly thereafter in the text, in chapter 3, a man of the Pharisees,
named Nicodemus, comes to Jesus; but Jesus does not need this man’s
self-testimony, for he knows Nicodemus’s heart.
c. Chapter 4: Jesus meets a woman in Samaria who is of low status,
immoral, needy, and he knows her heart as well. Though she testifies
about the Messiah, Jesus’s self-testimony is powerful and effective in
transforming spiritual conditions (see 4:42).
d. Chapter 5: A man is miraculously healed after thirty-eight years of
suffering, but Jesus does not need his testimony (5:15-17).
e. Chapter 6: The crowd witnesses the miraculous multiplication of bread
and fish, but Jesus does not conform to their testimony (6:14-15).
f. Chapter 7: Multiple sources testify about the identity of Jesus, but each
account is immediately dismissed. The crowd testifies that no one is
trying to kill Jesus (7:20), but others immediately contradict their
testimony (7:25). The crowd testifies that Jesus cannot be the Messiah
since no one will know of His origins (7:27). Upon hearing the self-
testimony of Jesus, others testify that He is the Prophet (7:40) and
others still testify that He is the Christ (7:41). The Pharisees reject
Jesus as the Messiah because they know he should come from
Bethlehem (7:42), and the scene reaches its climactic edge with Jesus
“appearing as [his] own witness” and the concluding assumption that
his “testimony is not valid” (8:13, NIV).

184
Two things must be considered here: (1) that 2 Cor 3:3-11 speaks in continuity with John 1:16-17
(that provisional grace has fading glory, and eschatological grace has surpassing glory… so that we have received
grace upon grace in receiving the Law and now Christ); and (2) that the biblical covenants should be named
according to their representative figurehead and/or mediator: the Adamic Covenant (Creation Covenant), the Noahic
Covenant, the Abrahamic Covenant, Mosaic Covenant, the Davidic Covenant, and the Messianic Covenant (New
Covenant). Note the connection with Adam (individual, head of creation), Moses (as mediator of the corporate,
Israelite covenant), and Messiah (corporate representation in the individual—Adam, Abraham, David—and the head
of new creation).
185
The concept being unpacked here does not transgress the ideology of John’s Gospel. In some cases,
Jesus’s own self-testimony (accompanied by the Messianic Signs) is sufficient to call forth saving faith. However,
in other cases, the apostolic testimony is vital, as Spirit-inspired and Spirit-illumined, not only for disciples of
forthcoming generations, but also for the very disciples whom Jesus initially called. Later disciples believe, not
because they have personally seen (as Thomas did), but because they see through the eyes of the apostolic
eyewitnesses (20:29-31). The very first disciples, the eyewitnesses, believed through the testimony of John the
Baptist (1:7).

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 g. Chapters 8 & 9: Jesus offers his own testimony, the man born blind
and his parents offer their testimonies and, though Jesus needs none of
them, they continue to surface again and again.
h. Finally, the testimony theme crescendos with the crowds who gather
and ultimately believe in Christ because of Lazarus—now raised from
the dead—and the opposition of the chief priests who seek a violent
end to both Jesus and Lazarus as a result (12:9-11).
4. Incarnation = Tabernacle/Temple: Inaugurated New Creation would mean the
return of YHWH to Zion and the vindication of Israel through return from
exile. John demonstrates the fulfillment of these realities in three specific
ways…

The True Manifestation of Wisdom

Description “Word” “Wisdom”186
Existed in the beginning John 1:1 Proverbs 8:22-23; Wisdom of Solomon 9:9
Proverbs 8:30; Sirach 1:1; Wisdom of Solomon
Existed with God John 1:1
9:9
Proverbs 3:19; 8:30; Wisdom of Solomon 7:22;
Co-Created with God John 1:1-3
9:1-2
Is the “Light” John 1:4, 9 Wisdom of Solomon 7:26; Baruch 4:2
Contrasted with “Darkness”
John 1:5 Wisdom of Solomon 7:29-30; 18:4
or Evil
Came into this world John 1:10 Sirach 24:7-12
Rejected by his own John 1:11 1 Enoch 42:1-2; Baruch 3:20-23
Dwelt among his people John 1:14 Sirach 24:10; unsuccessfully in 1 Enoch 42:1-2
Pate, Story of Israel, 164-65

a. Jesus is revealed in the “Wisdom” literature of the Old Testament and

Jewish Tradition.
b. Jesus is shown throughout the Gospel of John exercising divine actions
and claiming divine rights.
c. Jesus reconstitutes Israel around himself in the calling of Twelve
Disciples.187

186
The apocryphal books listed are: Wisdom of Solomon (written in Greek by a Hellenistic Jew in
Alexandria, Egypt in the mid-first century AD), Wisdom of Jesus, Son of Sirach (or Wisdom of Joshua, Son of Sirach
is a collection of famous wisdom sayings also known as Sirach and Ecclesiasticus, dated around 180 BC), 1 Enoch
(a large compilation work of five books, dated in the first century AD), and Baruch (named after the scribe of the
Prophet Jeremiah and dated at the end of the Maccabean Period, around 142 BC).
187
N.T. Wright, Jesus and the Victory of God (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1997), 430-31 says that
Jesus’s calling of the Twelve is part of a “remnant theology” or a “return-from-exile theology” present in the New
Testament Gospels. In N.T. Wright, History & Eschatology: Jesus and the Promise of Natural Theology (London:
SPCK, 2019), 198, we encounter the idea of Temple-cosmology, wherein the Temple (fulfilled in Christ) operates as
the center of the cosmos, the place where heaven and earth overlap, “the new microcosmos, the ‘little world’ which
declares that the creator is restoring his creation after the failure of the original humans.” Later we find that
“Temple-cosmology, Sabbath-eschatology and Messianic-anthropology formed a comprehensible whole [that, when]
reworked around Jesus and the spirit… made the fresh sense that the early Christians grasped (207).”

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 5. The prologue introduces Jesus, the Word of God incarnate, who tabernacles
among his people. John 1:14 reads, “And the Word became flesh and dwelt
(ἐσκήνωσεν) among us, and we have seen his glory, glory as of the only Son
from the Father, full of grace and truth.” The Greek verb σκηνόω means “to
have one’s tent” or “to have my tabernacle.” While the general usage of the
verb indicates a dwelling place, the specific religious usage denotes an
allusion to God’s dwelling place among the Israelites in the Old Testament
tabernacle.188 The Apostle John wants to communicate that, in the past, God
had manifested his presence among the people in the tabernacle or temple; but
now, God’s covenantal presence is found in the person of Jesus Christ. The
coming of Christ and the Spirit fulfills the Old Testament promise that God
would dwell with mankind and, indeed, that Christ would make his dwelling
within believing mankind.
a. The apostle John extends this temple imagery through the references to
glory. The Old Testament is clear that God manifested his presence
through His glory.189 The glory that is beheld in Christ is the glory of
the Father, revealed through the one-of-a-kind son that made the
Father known.190 Just as the student of the Bible exegetes passages for
understanding them, so also the Son has “exegeted” the Father; he has
“made him known” (John 1:18). The Greek root is ἐξηγέομαι, which
speaks of exegesis, narration, declaration, or disclosure.191 The Son
has narrated, declared, and disclosed the Father to the covenant people,
which was his intent (John 17:6).192
b. The Jewish tradition concerning personified Wisdom developed from
Solomon (Proverbs), through Second Temple Judaism, and into the
New Testament. Antecedent to Solomon, the Pentateuch teaches that
Torah is the manifest wisdom of God, the communication of divine
attributes, and the disclosure of divine character. The Torah also
revealed the will of God concerning his people. Thus, within the Old
Testament period of redemptive history, the Law was a provisional

188
http://biblehub.com/greek/4637.htm (accessed 01 August 2022 @ 2:15 pm). Note also the allusion
to the Old Testament passage in Exod 25:8-9; 33:7.
189
On this point, refer to Exod 33:22; Num 14:10; Deut 5:22 and also to the glory (Hebrew: ‫)כבֹוד‬
ָּ of
God filling the temple in 1 Kgs 8:11 (cf. 2 Chron 5:14) and Ezek 43.
190
Once again, we have an allusion to the Old Testament. Isaac is called the one-of-a-kind (Greek:
μονογενής) son of Abraham in Heb 11:17, which further connects Jesus to the fulfillment of the Old Testament
promises. See point 3.C.10.b below for more details.
191
http://biblehub.com/greek/1834.htm (accessed 01 August 2022 @ 2:20 pm).
192
In John 17:6, the Greek word is φανερόω (“to make visible, clear… to manifest”) in continuity with
the theme of “life and light” from the prologue (John 1:4). To give life = to reveal the Father in terms of covenantal
knowledge, relationship (John 17:3). To give light = to manifest the Father in a visible, clear manner. Where the
first creation was established with a spoken light, the new creation is established with the gift of spiritual
illumination (to see the Father in the Son).

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 means of grace, in which God revealed himself. The first clear
encounter with personified Wisdom comes in Proverbs 8. There
Solomon reflects on the work of creation and places these words on
the lips of Wisdom: “The LORD fathered me at the beginning of his
work, the first of his acts of old… when he established the heavens, I
was there… when he marked out the foundations of the earth, then I
was beside him, like a master workman” (Prov 8:22-30).
c. Second Temple Jewish writings developed three themes out of the
Proverbs material:
• Wisdom as firstborn/supreme over all creation.
• Wisdom as agent of God in creation.
• Wisdom on quest to find dwelling among the creation.193
Wisdom, as related to the creation, is described as coming forth from
the mouth of God, for in the ancient world, wisdom was the expression
of a wise man. Wisdom came out of the mouth of a wise man as he
demonstrated his wisdom by what he said. Thus, the Genesis account
indicates that, when God spoke—“Let there be light!”—there is an
introduction of Wisdom, in which the act of speaking necessitated His
presence.
Summary: The Fourth Gospel presents Jesus as the true manifestation of the Wisdom of
God: (1) Jesus is not created, as Wisdom had been; (2) Jesus is not merely an agent of
creation, as Wisdom had been, but the Almighty Creator; and (3) Jesus has not sought a
home among creation in vain, but has accomplished the goal perfectly in the
incarnation.194 Therefore, John does not present Jesus as the fulfillment of the Wisdom
tradition in Second Temple Jewish writing; he hijacks the story and usurps its authority in
presenting Spirit-inspired correctives.

193
Pate, Story of Israel, 163-5 refers to the apocryphal works Wisdom of Solomon (7:22; 9:1-2, 10, 17),
Sirach (24:11), 1 Enoch (42:1-2), and Baruch (3:36—4:1) to develop a theology of personified wisdom in Second
Temple Judaism. These texts also suggest a “Revealer” theology and point to a figure who descends from heaven to
disclose the divine will, and ascends back to heaven upon completion of this mission (cf. John 3:13).
194
Pate, Story of Israel, 164. All three of these corrections are found in the prologue (John 1:1-18).
The first is found in the somewhat enigmatic phrasing of 1:3, “All things were made through him, and without him
was not anything made that was made.” The second correction is found in 1:4, “In him was life, and the life was the
light of men.” It would be insufficient to suggest that God used the Word as a man uses a lifeless pencil. We must
recognize that “life” was also in the Son (see John 5:21, 26 and the connection to divine authority and identity). The
third correction comes in 1:14, “The Word became flesh and dwelt among us” and confronts 1 Enoch. Wisdom was
no longer found in Torah (contra Baruch); Wisdom was no longer found in the temple (contra Sirach); and Wisdom
found a home among creation (contra 1 Enoch).

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 “I AM” Statements & Descriptions of Wisdom
Description “Word” “Wisdom”
Proverbs 9:5; Sirach 15:3;
Bread & Water John 6:35; 7:37-38
24:21; Wisdom of Solomon 11:4
Wisdom of Solomon 7:26-30;
Light (of the World) John 8:12
18:3-4
Proverbs 8:34; Wisdom of
The Door John 10:7-9
Solomon 7:25
The (Good) Shepherd John 10:7-15 Wisdom of Solomon 7:25 (?)
Proverbs 3:18; 8:35; Wisdom of
The Life (who gives life) John 11:25-26
Solomon 8:13
Proverbs 3:17; Baruch 3:20, 27-
The Way John 14:6
28
Pate, Story of Israel, 166

6. The Trinitarian Theology of the Fourth Gospel (see chart below)

The Trinity in the Fourth Gospel195
Action Father Son Spirit
Give Life 5:21, 26; 6:33; 17:3 5:21-26,40; 6:33; 17:3 3:6, 8; 6:63
13:19, 26, 36-38; 14:3,
Proclaim the Future 1:33 29; 16:1-4, 16-28, 32; 16:13
20:18
14:20, 23; 15:4-7;
Indwell Believers 14:23 14:17
17:23, 26
Instruct Believers 6:45; 7:16-17; 8:28 7:14; 8:2,20; 13:13-14 14:26
Testify to Jesus 5:32, 37; 6:27; 8:18 8:12-14, 18 15:26
5:22-23; 8:50, 54; 1:14; 2:11; 13:31-32;
Glorify Jesus 16:14
13:31-32; 17:1, 22 17:5, 24
Actions/Qualities Common to the Father & Son
Action Father Son
2:16; 9:3-4; 11:40; 12:28; 13:31-32; 14:13; 17:1, 4-
Glorify the Father 4:23; 12:28; 13:31-32
5
Give the Spirit 3:34; 14:16 4:10-14; 7:37-39; 20:22
Send the Spirit 14:26 15:26; 16:7
Actions/Qualities Common to the Son & Spirit
Action Son Spirit
Given by the Father 3:16 4:10-14; 14:16
3:17; 4:34; 5:23-24, 36; 6:29, 57; 7:28-29,
33; 8:16, 26, 29, 42; 9:4; 10:36; 11:42;
Sent by the Father 14:26; 15:26
12:44-45; 13:20; 15:21; 17:3, 8, 18, 23,
25; 20:21
Speak Not from Himself 5:19, 30; 6:38; 7:16; 12:49-50 16:13
Speak Only what is Heard 3:32, 34; 5:30; 8:26, 40; 12:50; 15:15 16:13

195
ESV Study Bible (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2008), 2055.

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 3:19-20; 4:16, 18; 5:27; 8:7, 34, 40; 11:40;
Convict (of Sin) 16:7-11
12:7-8; 13:8
Be Received 1:12 (cf. 1:10-11) 7:39 (cf. 14:17)
Disclose what Belongs to God 1:18 16:13-14

7. Believing/Receiving Christ: essentially serves as the bookends of the gospel,

for John writes so that the reader might “believe that Jesus is the Christ, the
Son of God, and that by believing you may have life in his name” (20:31).
Following the purpose statement of the gospel, the Apostle John employs
several different metaphors for believing in Christ.
Tangible Images of Believing in the Fourth Gospel
Image References
Drinking Living Water 4:10-14; 7:37-38
Eating the Bread of Life 6:35, 47-48, 50-51, 53-58
Eating Jesus’ Flesh; Drinking His Blood 6:53-56
Walking in (Possessing) the Light 8:12; 12:35-36
Abiding (Remaining) in Jesus & His Word 6:56; 8:31; 15:7

B. Creation to New Creation: In the Beginning (1:1)

1. Theological Commentary on the Initial Creation
2. Transitional Statement on New Creation
3. Indication that the seven signs will contribute to an understanding of
inaugurated new creation.
4. Indication that the seven covenantal “I am” statements will further advance an
understanding of inaugurated new creation.
5. Transitional Statement on the role of Torah, now the role of Jesus, who comes
from the Father’s side/bosom: “the Greek word κόλπος (1:18) can also have the
sense of “lap,” inviting comparison with the rabbinic picture of the Torah
being on God’s lap before the creation of the world.”196
C. Logos Christology in the Prologue: Ἐν ἀρχῇ ἦν ὁ λόγος…
1. High Christology v. Low Christology: False Comparison197
2. In the beginning = creation, New Creation…
3. In the beginning was the Word: “The clause ‘was the Logos’ views God’s
creative utterance as a reified projection from himself and thus clarifies that a

196
Rainbow, Johannine Theology, 78.
197
Rainbow, Johannine Theology, 148 says, “John’s Christology ‘from above’ is not higher than the
Christologies of other New Testament writers; it is presented with especial clarity. The Synoptists can hardly be said
to sketch Christology ‘from below,’ given key statements in their opening chapters (Matt 1:20-23; Mark 1:1-3, 8, 11;
Luke 1:32-33, 35). On the Christology of the Synoptic Gospels, see Simon J. Gathercole, The Preexistent Son:
Recovering the Christologies of Matthew, Mark, and Luke (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2006).” The point of the
comparison is where the Synoptic Gospels begin their narratives—with humble origins—and where the Fourth
Gospel begins its narrative—with the exalted Logos in the cosmic, heavenly realm of pre-existence.

119
 second hypostasis or subject of the Godhead was there.”198
4. With God… Was God: initially, John speaks of ontology (what the Logos was,
not what the Logos did). There is interpersonal relationship in the Godhead,
but there is a singular divine essence. The transcendence of the Logos is
emphasized over the created order. Most of the NT speaks of function apart
from metaphysical existence (John’s prologue is rare, speaking of Christ’s pre-
existence).
5. Through Him all things were made… the Logos is not part of the creation, as
is very clear from John’s explicit wording (1:3). Thus, the Fourth Gospel’s
prologue speaks of Jesus’s divinity.
6. In Him was life… the life of the creation, spoken by God the Father, and—
with the Father—the source of the Holy Spirit. Note Gen 2:7 and the spiration
of the Spirit as the inception/source of Adam’s existence; see the
corresponding spiration of the Spirit as the inception/source of new creation
(John 20:22).
7. The Light shines in the darkness (see footnote 77 above)… the prologue
anticipates future conflict in the ministry of Christ.
8. John the Baptist [see below, Character Portrait] in 1:6-8. John 1:1-5 deals
with the pre-existence of the Word; hereafter, John transitions to the earthly,
incarnational ministry of Christ… beginning with John the Baptist (as with
Synoptic Gospels).
9. The Creator Rejected by the Creation (1:9-11): states the fact and establishes
the pattern that foreshadows the rejection of Messiah in the rest of the Gospel.
However, chapter 12 deals with the reason for such rejection. The true
(ἀληθινός) light was coming into the world.
a. Note: Jesus is the true light (eschatological, as opposed to
provisional); the provisional light appears to be John the Baptist, who
is a representative figure. He stands for the prophetic testimony of the
OT, including the divine self-disclosure through Torah (metaphors:
bread, water, light, life).
b. Eschatological Sustenance: note similar wording in John 6:32 (“true
bread”) with juxtaposition (God gave; Moses did not give… God gave
bread of heaven; God gives true (bread of heaven [i.e.: Jesus himself]).
True = ἀληθινόν.
c. Eschatological Israel (Covenant Inclusion): note similar wording in
John 15:1 (“true vine”). True = ἀληθινή.
d. John 1:9, “Light to every man” = without exception (every individual),
or without distinction (Jew & Gentile)? The NT normally speaks of
the latter, over-and-against the ethnic particularity of OT salvation,

198
Rainbow, Johannine Theology, 149 continues, “The relevant verses are Gen 1:3, 6, 9, 11, 14, 20, 24,
26; cf. 1:22, 28. John’s use of the phrase ‘in the beginning’ indicates that he has God’s spoken word from Genesis 1
primarily in mind when he speaks of the Logos.” In addition, “‘And the Logos was God [θεὸς ἦν]’ specifies that it
was the unique divine essence that existed as the Logos. The lack of a definite article with θεός makes it ‘qualitative,
emphasizing nature.’”

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 covenant inclusion, and Patriarchal lineage. Light as Wisdom? Or,
perhaps we should consider “light” as revelatory, so that the “light” of
creation is general revelation and the “true light” of new creation is
special revelation in Christ.199
e. The world (darkness) did not recognize the Logos (light); 1:5, 10. The
light shines on every man, dividing mankind into sons of light and
children of darkness.
10. Born of God (1:12-13): anticipates the conversation with Nicodemus; sinful
man must be born again (from above).200 Receive Christ = believe in his
name, which denotes relationship to Christ, not merely old covenant status
(1:12).
a. To be born of God is to be born according to the will of God (not of
man/flesh/bloods). The contrast is between Spirit and flesh.
b. Isaac is paradigmatic here (possible textual echo suggests this
linkage)… as Abraham’s “fleshly” will led to the birth of Ishmael (son
of perdition), whereas the will of God led to the birth of Isaac (son of
promise). The human will contrived only frustration, relying on
human propositions to resolve an impossible situation. Therefore, note
that Abraham’s will was active in bringing about a son of perdition
while God’s will was active in bringing about a son of promise. The
language in John 1:13 may suggest a theological echo, rather than a
textual echo. For those steeped in Torah, such a link is discernible.
c. Children of God = Born of God = Sons of Promise (who receive,
believe, trust in Christ)
11. The Word became flesh (see 3.A.4.a) = Tabernacle/Temple imagery. The
glory is eschatological, as opposed to the provisional glory of the OT. We
must speak in terms of “Transfigured Continuity,” so that the glory of God in
the OT is real and good, manifest in provisional manner and therefore
pointing to Christ who is the eschatological fulfillment, and greater glory, true
temple, and ultimate reality which OT signposts anticipated.
12. Refer to John 1:16-18; cf. 3:13, two passages invoking Moses’ ascension on
Sinai to receive divine revelation and clarifies the different modes of
covenantal grace in God’s self-disclosure.
a. Provisional grace is evident in Torah, divine self-revelation given
through Moses. Eschatological grace is evident in Christ, the
embodiment of divine self-revelation. One grace was “given,” while

199
Carson, Gospel According to John, 98 refers to “Augustine’s famous illustration of a town with only
one teacher. Though not all the citizens are the teacher’s students, he is nevertheless the teacher for everyone. So
Christ is the only true light God has given to the world, and therefore the light for every man.” Carson lands on two
conclusions: (1) that light is potential light for everyone; and (2) that light shines and divides, so that God is
revealed to those with eyes to see and hidden from those who are blinded by darkness.
200
In this vein Dryden, Hermeneutic of Wisdom, 44 comments, “Wisdom begins not in a self-sufficient
act of the will but in reception of the eschatological new birth” and “the new birth comes completely from the
creative, fatherly act of God. Any synergistic formula is completely excluded.”

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 the other grace was “embodied.” Both are from God, but the latter
revelation is eschatological (as 1:18 indicates). Moses was qualified to
mediate divine revelation, but had only seen the back parts of God.
Jesus is eminently qualified to embody divine revelation because he
has seen God (and is “of the divine essence”).
b. Thus, John promotes continuity (not contrast) with Old Testament
theology in showing that Torah, while provisional, was the gracious
self-revelation of God.
13. Provision grace has been supplanted by eschatological grace, as God’s final
and complete self-revelation is embodied in Jesus Christ. (Side note = I prefer
to label the covenants in light of their personal referent: the Adamic Covenant,
the Noahic Covenant, the Abrahamic Covenant, the Davidic Covenant,… and
the Messianic Covenant; cf. Isa 42:6)

Session 9: Seven Signs in the Gospel of John

A. The Function of the Messianic Signs
1. Parabolic Significance
a. The miracles of Jesus in the Gospel of Mark function as short parables;
they illumine spiritual truths to the elect (those to whom the Spirit had
given the light of true understanding).
b. In the Gospel of John, the signs function in the same manner. Indeed,
the “signs” of the Fourth Gospel are miracles, but in the literary
context they serve as contributory causes of faith. The “signs” operate
as street signs, store signs, or restaurant signs: the “sign” acts like a
pointer, a map, or a directional assistant and leads to something else.
In the Gospel of John, the “signs” are a pointer to Jesus and his
messianic identity, but their meaning must be illumined by the Spirit.
c. Signs do not always lead to genuine faith, but rather serve the narrative
the way parables do in the Synoptic Gospels: namely, they were
intended to communicate only to those whom God had chosen in
Christ to receive the Kingdom.
d. Thus, in all four gospels, we see the different responses to Jesus—to
his miracles and parables in the Synoptic Gospels and his “signs” in
the Gospel of John—as an indication of those to whom the divine self-
disclosure is intended and those to whom it remains hidden.201
e. In all four Gospels, the defenders of Second Temple Judaism, the
Pharisees, were part of those who remained blind to the work of God
in their midst. They could hear the parables, see the miracles, and

201
This is similar to the point made in footnote #94 above: namely, that (1) light is potential light for
everyone; and especially that (2) light shines and divides, so that God is revealed to those with eyes to see and
hidden from those who are blinded by darkness. See Gen 1:4, “God saw that the light was good, and he separated
the light from the darkness” and the purposive dividing function of light shining in darkness. What was physical
and material in the initial creation becomes spiritual and moral in the new creation.

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 witness the signs, but did not have hearts to receive, ears to hear, or
eyes to truly see who Jesus was/is. This thought is presented
powerfully in the sign of the man born blind:
• He is like the disciples in the Synoptic Gospels who are
gradually healed from spiritual blindness. The blind man
grows in his awareness of who Jesus is at the same time as the
Pharisees are more blinded, more hardened, more resolute in
their declaration that Jesus is “not from God” (John 9:16).
They label Christ a “sinner” and they “do not know where he
comes from” and therefore remain “blind” and remain in their
sin.
• But in fact, the blind man sees Jesus.202 First he does “not
know” (9:12) and then believes Jesus to be “a prophet” (9:17)
who is “from God” (9:33) and finally “sees” Jesus (9:37) and
calls him “Lord” (9:38). The irony of the text is that those who
should have seen Jesus did not, while those that were not able
to see Jesus are given “the right to become children of God”
(1:12-13).203
2. New Creational Significance: the signs in the Fourth Gospel will advance and
develop the “New Creation” theme. They are presented within the larger,
integrated narrative framework of new birth-to-resurrection.
3. Eschatological Dimension: the signs are pointers to Christ, the creator and
sustainer of all things. As such, the signs will possess inaugurated and
consummated elements of eschatological new creation.
4. Messianic Signposts: the signs find their literary-thematic/theological climax
in the resurrection of Christ, which is the inception of new creation.
5. Superabundant Provision: each of the signs contains a “Wow!” factor that
anticipates extravagant provision in the consummated Kingdom of God.
B. The Messianic Banquet: the First Sign at a Wedding in Cana (2:1-11)
1. Eschatological Expectations of the Messianic Banquet: John 2:1-11 as the
inaugurated fulfillment of Isa 25:6-9.
a. The imagery speaks of a banquet with rich food and aged wine, taking
place on Mount Zion. Significantly, the passage speaks of the
cessation of death (25:8; cf. Rev 21:4), the wiping away of all tears
(25:8; cf. Rev 21:4), and the phrase “let us be glad and rejoice in his

202
Note Exod 33:20-23, in which Moses sees the Lord, as a parallel passage here. Part of the forward-
looking aspect of the Deuteronomic blessing is the Beatific Vision: seeing God through immediate disclosure.
203
The connection between John 1:12-13 and 12:37-43 illustrates the moral inability of men to make
affirmative decisions when presented with the gospel message (or the divine self-disclosure of God in Christ). This
theme is powerfully present in the Bread of Life Discourse (6:35-37, 44, 65) and, in terms of ongoing salvation—the
process of sanctification—the same theme surfaces yet again in the Vine & Branches Discourse (15:4-5, 16). We
never outgrow out need of grace; we never become more than mere sinners saved and sustained by the grace of God.
Note: the presence of the “Tree of Life” in the New Creation (Rev 22:2) symbolizes this soteriological truth.

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 salvation” (25:9; cf. Rev 19:6-9).
b. The Isaiah text promises the LORD “will swallow up on this mountain
the covering that is cast over all peoples, the veil that is spread over all
nations; [and] will swallow up death forever.”
c. Swallow the Veil: a textual echo is discernible in two NT passages.
• The first passage is Matt 27:51-54, where the veil of the
Temple was torn to indicate that the Holy of Holies—the place
of the presence of God—was now accessible in Christ. The
Temple, built on Mount Moriah (cf. Gen 22:14; 2 Chron 3:1),
was the body of Jesus, the place of God’s divine provision: a
sacrificial Lamb for the forgiveness of sins (John 1:29, 36).
• The second passage is 2 Cor 3:14—4:6, where the apostle Paul
speaks of an epistemic veil (the veil of judgment) over the
minds of Jews, concerning the Old Covenant—the inability to
discern Christ in Torah—and removed in Christ, by the Spirit.
Paul also speaks of a general veil over unbelieving humanity,
the result—not the cause—of their spiritual condition, as
“those who are perishing” (4:3).
d. Swallow Death: the defeat of the final enemy, which is death.
• If God swallows the veil, he eliminates the barrier that causes
disbelief in the ethnic peoples of the nations (Gentiles).
• Likewise, if God swallows the veil, he eliminates the barrier
that prevents Jews from seeing Messiah in the Torah and
turning to Christ in faith (cf. John 5:46-47).
• If God swallows up death forever, he does so by substitutionary
atonement—in which Christ tastes death for God’s people (Heb
2:9)—and, through forgiveness of sins, releases believers from
the power of the second death (Rev 20:6).
• Inaugurated New Creation: no more spiritual death as believers
have been born again (transformed in Christ).
• Consummated New Creation: no more physical death (Rev
21:4) as believers have been glorified (conformed to Christ).
2. New Testament Theology speaks in concert with John’s Gospel, that the death
and resurrection of Christ, followed by the outpouring of the Spirit, bring
about the inaugurated conditions that Isa 25:6-9 anticipated.
3. “On the third day” (2:1)… John assumes that readers are familiar with (at
least) the Gospel of Mark. John evokes the resurrection of Christ, particularly
to those readers who approach his gospel retrospectively through multiple
readings.204 This phrase—along with “wine” and “master of the feast”
(Greek: ἀρχιτρίκλινος)—direct us to Isa 25:6-9.

204
See Richard B. Hays, Reading Backwards: Figural Christology and the Fourfold Gospel Witness
(Waco, TX: Baylor University Press, 2014), 21 who says, “The discernment of a figural correspondence is
necessarily retrospective.” Hays points out that the resurrection of Christ is the hermeneutical key for interpreting
not only John’s Gospel, but the whole of the Old Testament as well.

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 4. Ritual Purification (2:6): when the Gospel of John brings together the Greek
word καθαρισμός (“purification”) in 2:6; 3:25-30, and then connects the concepts
of baptism, cleansing, bride & bridegroom, and a wedding at Cana of Galilee,
we are not witnessing accidental intertextual linkage. We are witnessing
Spirit-inspiration.
5. Six Stone Water Jars (6 x 30 = 180 gallons): the sign, as with all the signs in
the Fourth Gospel, emphasizes superabundance as the limitless extent of
divine provision. If we take “wine” to symbolize the blood of Christ as the
“blood of the covenant,” (presupposing familiarity with Mark 14:23-24), then
we may speak of superabundant provision of cleansing from sin. Indeed, the
apostle John teaches such truth (4:13-14; 5:24; 6:58).
6. Eschatological Dimension: here, the new creation is born in the midst of the
old creation, as ritual purification is changed from the water of OT cleansing
to the wine of NT cleansing.
a. Inaugurated Eschatology in John’s Gospel means that the Messianic
Banquet is inaugurated as part of the New Creation fulfilled in the
midst of the old creation.
b. Consummated Eschatology in Johannine Theology: the inaugurated
fulfillment comes to a point of consummation (Rev 19:6-9).
7. Irony in the Wedding at Cana: the master of the feast says more than he
knows, “Everyone serves the good wine first, and when people have drunk
freely, then the poor wine. But you have kept the good wine until now” (2:10).
Remember our two-level narrative (story & discourse levels)… this statement
is true on both levels. On the surface, we expect the master’s surprise. Social
and economic factors played a part in the progressive distribution of wine at
normal wedding celebrations. Below the surface, we understand what John
intends us to hear—namely, that the Kingdom of God unveils the best gifts in
the eschatological “now” (the eschatological “day” of salvation). The day has
come, inaugurated in Christ, meaning the best purification has come; the best
provision has come; the clearest and best revelatory self-disclosure of God, in
Christ, has come. Indeed, our God, you have kept the best gifts until now!
8. The Result of the First Sign: Faith in Christ (Inaugurated New Creation)205
a. In the Fourth Gospel, we notice a progressive presentation of faithful
discipleship (from 2:11 to 21:18-19). As we will see later, the final
chapter describes fully developed discipleship as the death of self-will,
with Peter as example.
b. At this point, faith is real but incomplete; it believes revelation already

205
Rainbow, Johannine Theology, 197 lists seven signs: Water to Wine, Healing the Son, Healing at
Bethesda, Feeding Five Thousand, Walking on Water, Healing at Siloam, Resurrection of Lazarus. He writes, “Of
these the first two, the middle one, and the last two John calls “signs” (he uses the word in John 2:11; 4:54; 6:14;
9:16; 11:47; 12:18). Within the pages of the Gospel there are occasional references to Jesus’ ‘signs’ in the plural,
indicating that John has selected a few out of many (John 2:23; 3:2; 6:2, 14, 26; 7:31; 9:16; 11:47; 12:37). At the
end he says that Jesus did many other signs that are not written in this book (John 20:30). Each of the sign accounts
has been carefully crafted by John to bring out the contribution it makes to his overarching theme of Jesus as the life
and light of human beings (John 1:4).” Life + Light = New Creation

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 given, but had not yet received full revelation (see John 20:8-9 as
complete belief). Jesus indicates something of the correspondence
between self-revelation and faith by saying his “hour” had not yet
come (2:4); in John’s Gospel, Jesus’s “hour” refers to the cross (see
7:30; 8:20; 12:23, 27; 13:1; 17:1). At this early point in Jesus’s
ministry, faith could attach itself to any number of misconceptions
concerning Messiah. Thus, Jesus reveals himself in enigmatic,
mysterious, and impenetrable signs… and even still, such revelation in
signs is done quietly, privately, and only for the sake of the disciples.
Ultimate revelation at Calvary will result in properly grounded faith.
c. Moreover, John uses πιστεύειν to describe faith that receives various
divine revelation through progressive stages of impartation, from its
beginning (2:11) to its fullest assurance (2:23-24). Sometimes faith
does not yet recognize Jesus as the Messiah, but as a prophet very like
the Messiah (7:31); thus, faith is preserved, strengthened, increased,
and raised to the level it ought to reach (cf. 1 John 5:13).
d. As such, faith does not grow from infancy to maturity; instead, faith
develops—becomes complete (Greek: τέλειος), reaching its appointed
end—as it receives fuller, progressively unveiled, divine revelation.
e. The Fourth Gospel looks ahead to Jesus’s death and resurrection and,
therefore, finds complete faith centered on both.
f. The disciples “follow” Jesus (Greek: ἀκολουθέω in 1:37), as incomplete
as their early discipleship was, whereas the crowds merely “walk
around” with Jesus (Greek: περιπατέω in 6:66).
C. The Miraculous Healing: the Second Sign (4:43-54)
1. Revise the Narrative Context
a. The apostle John carefully observes and records the times of the
Jewish feasts; the historicity of the Fourth Gospel is clearer than the
Synoptic Gospels. Thus, in 2:13, he indicates that after the wedding
celebration in Cana of Galilee, Jesus had gone up to Jerusalem for the
Passover. There Jesus cleansed the temple for the first (only?) time.
Scholars suggest that John arranged his material thematically opposed
to the authors of the Synoptic Gospels in placing a singular temple
cleansing early in his writing. This, they contend, serves the purpose
of the author in highlighting Jesus as the true replacement of the
temple and its cultic practices.
b. Another reason for an earlier cleansing is the existence of two separate
occurrences: one earlier incident as recorded by the Apostle John and a
later incident reflected in the Synoptic Gospels. Though there are
obvious connections between the two, the account in John indicates a
certain agreement on the part of many who observed Jesus’ actions
(2:23). That he cleansed the temple without a hint of the Pharisees’
conspiracy to arrest and kill him suggests that Jesus had not yet
established a reputation for himself in Judea. The Pharisees only
question his authority. The later cleansing reveals a deep-seated
disdain for Jesus and a violently angry Jewish leadership in Jerusalem

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 on account of his well-developed reputation. The second temple
cleansing served as the last step in exhausting the patience of the
Pharisees.
c. Jesus then talks with a leader of the Pharisees, a man named
Nicodemus, before embarking on the tiring journey back to Galilee. It
was under divine compulsion that he arrived at Jacob’s Well to speak
with the Samaritan woman. Following a brief two-day stay in
Samaria, the author tells us Jesus arrived once more in Cana of
Galilee, where the wedding miracle had taken place (4:43-46). John
says, “Jesus had testified that a prophet has no honor in his own
hometown,” and for this reason, the Jews welcomed him back to
Galilee. The connection between 4:43 and 4:44 is in the word “so,”
which carries the same connotation as “therefore.” Jesus had no honor
in his home area; therefore, the Galileans welcomed him.
d. Remember a previous point: to believe in or honor Jesus because of his
usefulness is blasphemy. The pilgrims in Jerusalem believe in Jesus
blasphemously and are rejected by Christ; he walks away from them.
The citizens of Galilee welcome Jesus blasphemously and do not
honor him; they seek only the miraculous; in essence, they actually
reject him.
2. The Second Sign: Healing the Royal Official’s Son
a. This royal official was probably a nobleman under the service of
Herod Antipas who, though not officially a king, was considered one
nevertheless (Mark 6:14).
b. The official is not to be confused with the Gentile centurion of the
Synoptic Gospels (Matthew 8; Luke 7), for there is no indication that
he is a Gentile and, in contrast with the centurion, this royal official
insists that Jesus physically come down to his house for the healing of
his son (not his servant, as with the centurion). The text suggests this
royal official is seeking Jesus out of sheer desperation, on account of
the miracles, and not because of any degree of faith.
c. He stands as a representative of the larger Galilean population, as
Jesus indicates in saying, “Unless you [all] see signs and wonders, you
[all] will not believe” (4:48).
3. Gracious Provision of Signs: the Lord is infinitely gracious; if the people
needed signs to believe, he would offer signs. The Fourth Gospel does not
treat signs, in themselves, negatively. However, the royal official did not rest
his faith on the miraculous, but on the “word” of Jesus (4:50).
4. Inaugurated New Creation (Inception of Faith): the official accepts the word
of Jesus and leaves for his home. Meeting his servants along the way, he is
told that his son had been healed at about the seventh hour (1:00pm), the very
same time that Jesus had announced the miracle: “Go, your son will live.”
a. Two-Level Narrative: the words, “your son will live,” serve in a
double-edged fashion.
b. Story-Level: on the story level, they indicate the son’s physical healing
by the power of Jesus.

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 c. Discourse-Level: on the discourse level, they indicate the father’s
spiritual birth by the grace of Jesus… leading to household salvation.
The Son grants life to those he wills to save (5:21). The disciples,
along with all who believe, receive grace upon grace in the person of
Christ. This was now the second sign that Jesus had done (4:54),
meaning John is selective in choosing from among the many signs
Jesus had done in Jerusalem (2:23).
5. The Messianic Significance
a. Superabundance: the son was at the point of death, meaning Jesus has
healed in extravagant manner (like the 180 gallons of wine).
b. Jesus healed from a significant geographical distance, simultaneously
announcing and enacting, “your son will live.”
c. Inaugurated Eschatology: Jesus healed with a word; he speaks healing
into existence where only sickness had prevailed = creation
undertones, suggesting inaugurated New Creation.206
d. Inaugurated Eschatology: the hallmark characteristic of inaugurated
new creation is new birth = the official’s entire family.
e. Consummated Eschatology: each sign finds its ultimate coherence in
the resurrection of Christ. Here in Cana, the son is at the “point of
death” (4:47). Here in Cana, the son is revived by divine power
extrinsic to himself. There at Calvary, the Son had died. There at
Calvary, the Son is resurrected by divine power intrinsic to himself
(2:19; 10:17-18), for in Him was life.
D. Healing at the Pool of Bethesda: the Third Sign (5:1-17)
1. Revise the Narrative Context: the preceding context reveals a somewhat mild
skepticism, reservation, and even hesitation concerning the person and work
of Jesus. The following context will shift to an escalating opposition and
intentional rejection of Him, a shift evident in chapters 5—12. In 5:1, we read
that Jesus had again gone up to Jerusalem because there was another,
unidentified, feast of the Jews. The general description of the feast is
probably linked more to the geographical transition – how and why Jesus had
returned to Jerusalem from Galilee – than to the significance of the feast.
Elsewhere in the Gospel, the miracle or “I AM” statement of Jesus directly
relates to the feast itself. But here, the author is not specific because the sign
stands alone on its own merit.
2. The Historical/Geographical Context: the apostle John displays a cursory
knowledge of Jerusalem that confirms his Jewish heritage. There was a pool,
called the Bethesda Pool in Aramaic, near the Sheep Gate of the city. The

206
Part of the evidence that Jesus’s signs point to new creation is found in John 5:17; 10:37-38. The
Father is working, even after the creation-completing Sabbath rest. He is creating and sustaining life. And Jesus is
doing the works of the Father, only now in the New Covenantal and New Creational contexts; only now, within the
new “in the beginning” that John’s Gospel proclaims. To his Pharisaic opponents, Jesus says, “You do not have his
[the Father’s] word abiding in you, for you do not believe the one whom he has sent” (5:38).

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 name of the pool means “house of outpouring” or “house of mercy” and
suggests this was a special place of healing. Archaeological evidence
confirms the presence of five pillars, such that two pools of water were
separated by a dividing partition. Thus, the text of John 5:2 offers a clear
indication of the author’s cursory knowledge of the Jewish Temple.
3. The Thematic Context: the “water” theme floods the context: in the first sign
(2:1-11), Jesus transforms the Old Covenant rites of purification according to
the arrival of the New Covenant; further, at Jacob’s well in Sychar (4:1-26),
water provided by the great Patriarch Jacob could not ultimately quench thirst
while Jesus offers living water (a reference to the Spirit; 7:37-39) as an
everlasting satisfaction to parched souls.
a. In the context of chapter 5, then, we are told that the waters of the pool
were stirred up and became medicinal at the time of their disturbance.
The popular belief, though perhaps not the belief of the Apostle John,
is included in the textual variant of verse 3: “From time to time, an
angel of the Lord would come down and stir up the waters. The first
one into the pool after each such disturbance would be cured of
whatever disease he had” (ESV, NIV text note).
b. There is uncertainty about this verse’s inclusion within the original
manuscripts of John’s Gospel, but the waters were somehow stirred, as
demonstrated by the clearer text of John 5:7.
4. The Textual Backdrop of Third Sign
a. Superabundance: the paralyzed man had suffered for thirty-eight years,
which was presumably most of his life.
b. Jesus was aware of his condition upon arrival, for he “knew what was
in a man” (2:25). He did not need diligent inquiry to properly
diagnose the problem; divine insight brought true discernment.
c. The man held the prevailing belief that the first one into the pool upon
its stirring would be healed. And Jesus, despite the fact that it was the
Sabbath, healed the man with his powerful word. The Creator’s
authoritative voice will sound in the final day when the dead are raised
and judgment is upheld (5:28-29).
d. Inaugurated Eschatology: the man is strong enough to pick up and
carry his mat, suggesting that 38 years of pain and misery were
instantly reversed. No physical therapy was needed. Atrophied
muscles were rebuilt at once. It looked like a newly created man.
e. Inaugurated Eschatology: the forthcoming discourse illuminates two-
stage eschatology related to the voice of Christ and the impartation of
life. The (spiritually) dead will hear his voice and live (be born again).
The (physical body) will heed his call and live (bodily resurrection).
The discourse suggests the man’s healing was a figural anticipation of
bodily resurrection. Further, the Sabbath context says it anticipates the
resurrection of Jesus (which occurs on the “first day of the week” and
is the first-fruits of new creation.
f. Consummated Eschatology: perhaps the paralyzed man prefigures our
experience of the kingdom. Each will carry some life-long burden,

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 some ailment, some remnant of the Fall (Gen 3). But at the sounding
of the Son of Man’s voice, all will be restored immediately and
completely. It will seem to us that we had never been burdened at all.
5. Controversy & Liturgical Context: we’ve been speaking of Jesus’s divine self-
disclosure and revelation of the Father within liturgical contexts. The
Passover, for example, provides a theologically freighted atmosphere in which
actions take on added significance. Here at the Bethesda Pool, the Sabbath
creates controversy in this text.
a. The first indication that the Jews had shifted from curious hesitation to
furious persecution in their treatment of Jesus, similar to the Synoptic
Gospels, where Jesus is explicitly identified as the “Lord of the
Sabbath” (Matt 12:8; Mark 2:28; Luke 6:5). As such, he is working
even as the Father continues his work.
b. The opposition of the Jews grows after Jesus’ admission, for in it he
had made himself equal with the Father. There was a pool at Bethesda
(“house of mercy”) and Jesus had rightly followed the Law by
showing compassion and love (Lev 19:18) while the Jews had violated
their own Law by elevating tradition above compassion.
E. Feeding the Five Thousand: the Fourth Sign (6:1-15)
1. Liturgical Context for Divine Self-Disclosure (6:4)
a. The context of the Father’s revelation in Christ is significant.
b. Passover: the most important event in the OT, with the most significant
resonances to NT salvation, redemption, and deliverance in Christ.
2. Miracles & Crowds (2:23): a large crowd was following Jesus “because they
saw the signs that he was doing on the sick” (6:2).
a. The word “sign” (Greek: σημεῖον) refers to the healing at Bethesda and
is John’s way of identifying the Messianic signs he designates as
contributing to the New Creation and Resurrection themes. The word
in 6:2 is “signs” (plural) and indicates, yet again, that John had been
particularly selective in his narrative (20:30-31).
b. The word “seeing” (Greek: θεωρέω) refers to an inquisitive, curious
crowd that wants to “find out” about Jesus through “seeing” what he is
doing. In the Synoptic Gospels, we find that Jesus’s miracles attract,
while Jesus’s teaching divides (i.e.: Mark 5:21, 6:1-6, as Matt 13:47-50
anticipates). The Bread of Life sign and discourse demonstrate an
inaugurated fulfillment of the eschatological “parable of the net.”
3. Inaugurated New Creation as New Exodus: during the Passover, Jesus ascends
a mountain and feeds the multitude of Jews with bread from heaven. The OT
allusions/echoes are clear:
a. Jesus as prophet is superior to Moses: the prophetic office dealt with
divine revelation, representing God before the people with words of
wisdom, warning, and exhortation. Recall our discussion on
provisional grace v. eschatological grace (John 1:16-18).
b. Jesus as provider is superior to Moses: Jesus is the embodied self-
revelation of God and the embodied eschatological provision of God.
c. In the New Exodus, God (in Jesus) would provide the eschatological

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 Passover lamb, the final means of escaping divine judgment, and the
provision of eternally sustaining manna.
4. Seeing Signs v. Trusting Christ: in the Bread of Life Discourse, John will
press the question, “Were they really there because they believed his word, or
were the crowds present because Jesus was useful to them?” The particular
problem of the Galilean citizens was the seeking of signs and a resulting false
belief; but, as we had seen in the healing of the royal official’s son, Jesus
would continue to perform the miraculous as a testimony of his unique
identity and authority. And in this miracle, the disciples are taught perhaps
more significantly than the crowds in attendance. Upon sizing up the number
of people present on the mountainside, the disciples quickly discern that their
hunger will not be possible to satisfy; the disciples contribute a small portion
of faith. They had been asked to minister to the crowd, but their resources
were sadly insufficient.
5. Superabundant Provision: in the wilderness—wherein was much grass, much
open space (6:10)—the anticipated “Prophet like Moses” took a small lunch
from a young boy and multiplied it to feed a hungry multitude. The presence
of 5,000 men (6:10) suggests up to 20,000 people were fed. As with the
superabundant provision of wine in Cana, the plenteous multiplication of food
in the wilderness anticipates the messianic banquet. After the meal, the
disciples gather twelve baskets of left-over food. There is an abundant supply
especially for each of them.
a. We may reflect on the provision of twelve baskets and recognize that
Jesus will be everything we need as we minster to the people in our
God-given spheres of influence. We will never be lacking in light of
an infinite supply. We can give and give and still find strength upon
strength, grace upon grace, and rest for our souls.
b. There is nothing in the physical or spiritual realm that will prevent
Jesus from supplying all our needs in Him. In this sense, he is indeed
a very useful person; but those of faith do not approach Jesus on this
basis, but because he has provided them with the new birth, leading to
belief in his word.
6. Divine Perception: Jesus perceives that the people desire to make him king.
He diagnosed the situation at the Bethesda pool; he discerns the intent of
human hearts in the wilderness (6:15; cf. 2:23-25).
a. The Useful King: imagine if the ancient Hebrews within the walls of
Jerusalem during the Assyrian siege had Jesus as king. They could
have withstood the siege indefinitely with the miraculous provision of
bread, fish, and wine. They would have been nearly unconquerable.
b. Where Hezekiah could only defend the city with armies and provide
for the city with an underground water source, King Jesus would have
ensured the safety of Jerusalem with bread and fish, with living water
and wine, with healing and instruction.
c. But Jesus walks away from the crowds. Just as he had left the
onlookers at the Passover in Jerusalem—not entrusting himself to
them—so also does he now withdraw from the blasphemous

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 intentions of the wilderness multitude. The disciples left Jesus on the
mountainside and attempted to navigate familiar waters alone. Note
the “water” theme.
d. “Bread of Life” Discourse: in the following discourse, Jesus develops
links with consummated eschatology and messianic significance
(resurrection).
F. Healing a Blind Man: the Fifth Messianic Sign
1. Parabolic Significance: the One who declares, “I am the light of the world”
(8:12) gives light to a man born blind (9:1). The parabolic significance of the
sign is found in the correspondence between the outward and inward realities.
Jesus heals a man who is physically blind, just as he heals those who are
spiritually blind (both elements are true of the blind man in John 9).
a. Duality: the two realities advance the duality theme (not dualism,
because here the inner v. outer man is contrasted, but not opposed).
b. Two-Level Narrative: the two dimensions of transformation illumine
and illustrate external, visible aspects of John’s theological
correspondence that highlight internal, invisible aspects corresponding
to new creation. When Jesus physically heals the blind, the new
creation has come (Isa 35:5); likewise, when Jesus spiritually heals the
inwardly blind, new creation has come (John 3:3).
2. New Creational Significance: the signs in the Fourth Gospel will advance and
develop the “New Creation” theme. They are presented within the larger,
integrated narrative framework of new birth-to-resurrection. In the above
points, we have seen how new creation relates to parabolic nature of signs.
3. Eschatological Dimension: the signs are pointers to Christ, the creator and
sustainer of all things. As such, the signs will possess inaugurated and
consummated elements of eschatological new creation.
a. Physical healing, as part of inaugurated new creation, points forward
to its consummation. Physical healing for one man anticipates
physical healing for all believers.
b. Spiritual healing, as part of inaugurated new creation, points inward to
the passing from death to life (by which believers avoid the
eschatological judgment… and also the second death). Spiritual
restoration is the hallmark of inaugurated new creation, while physical
restoration is (mostly, not exclusively) reserved for its consummation.
4. Messianic Signposts: the signs find their literary-thematic/theological climax
in the resurrection of Christ, which is the inception of new creation. The
“light” that illumines a blind man becomes the “epistemic illumination” of the
Spirit—following the resurrection of Christ—that clarifies the significance of
all signs and “I am” statements (both aspects allow people to “see/understand”
the identity of Christ).
5. Superabundant Provision: each of the signs contains a “Wow!” factor that
anticipates extravagant provision in the consummated Kingdom of God.
a. The man was born blind. The specific physical condition of one
individual speaks to the general spiritual condition of corporate
humanity (parabolic significance). Further, Jesus’s provision is not

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 simply the overturning of a temporary condition. It reverses an
irreversible situation; it solves and unsolvable problem; it restores,
despite a permanent condition.
b. All men are born blind. The effect of original sin follows the progeny
of Adam throughout all generations. Those inheriting the curse of the
Adamic Covenant have an irreversible sin problem; they cannot solve
it of themselves. However, those inheriting the blessing of the
Messianic Covenant are fully restored by forgiveness of sin; an
external source of life must reinvigorate them.
6. Textual Features and Interpretation of the “Born Blind” Sign (John 9:1-41)
a. The Greatest Commandment: between the fourth and fifth signs, a
woman who had been caught in adultery is forgiven; she is not
condemned. The Law of Moses is interpreted according to the greater
commandment to love God, and to love one’s neighbor as oneself.
b. Representative Characters: arriving at the scene of the fifth sign
miracle, the compassion of Jesus is once again revealed. Between the
Feast of Tabernacles and the Feast of Dedication, in Jerusalem, Jesus
and the disciples encounter a man who had been blind from birth.
There can be little doubt concerning the symbolic implication here: the
man represents all humanity. That he had been physically blind since
birth signals that all men are spiritually blind from birth. They do not
have light or life (cf. John 1:4).
c. Rabbinic Motto: all blindness (affliction, pain, and sorrow) is due to
the general presence of sin in our world. John sees the opposition of
God v. World as an ethical dualism (not a spatial duality). The
disciples heard Jesus say that sin causes suffering (5:14); their
worldview followed the first century rabbinic motto: “There is no
death without sin, and there is no suffering without iniquity.”207
d. Personal Sin & Personal Suffering: Jesus corrects the rabbinic
tradition, saying that it was not personal sin in this case, nor was it the
sins of the man’s parents that caused his blindness. Not all personal
suffering is due to personal sin. There is no convenient formula that
reduces all sin and suffering to mere cause-and-effect.
e. Divine Purposes: the Lord Jesus is more concerned with purposes than
causes. This concern is instructive: perhaps we should be less
concerned with the often indiscernible answer to the question, “Why?”
The immutable purposes of God may be summarized according to the
“glory principle” of 1 Cor 15:28. In every event, God will be glorified
as “all in all.” Thus, Jesus perceives an opportunity for the glory of
God to be displayed in him.
f. Brief Application: the next time we are sick, or in pain, or in
psychological or emotional turmoil, we can remember the word

207
NIV Study Bible (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2002), 1647. See study notes on John 9:2.

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 “purpose.” There will be a divine purpose—nothing less than the
revealed glory of God—in the hardship we face. In addition, we are
taught that suffering is a gracious gift of God.208
g. Encroaching Darkness: the time of Jesus’s ministry is growing short;
the night is coming. In just a few chapters, the farewell discourse will
commence and the wheels of Jesus’s passion will be set in motion.
• Light of the World, Working in the Day: there is an appointed
time, called “day,” in which the work of God would be done.
The mission of Jesus would be accomplished during this “day.”
• Light of the World, by Darkness Slain (?): the night was
coming when darkness would surround the Lord and the “Light
of the world” would seemingly be extinguished. But the death
of Christ is the will of God, not the victory of darkness (Isa
53:10). The coming darkness means a pressing intentionality
in the ministry of Jesus; he must complete the work for which
he was sent before he bore the sins of the world.
• First Person Plural: “we” in John 9:4 = the disciples are
involved; they must work while it is “day.” When Jesus went
to the cross, the darkness would overcome them (not Him; cf.
John 1:5). In the resurrection of Christ, the light would win
decisive victory over darkness. But here, the powerlessness of
the disciples (between Calvary and Pentecost) is anticipated.
7. Textual Symbolism: the blind man is humanity’s representative. His physical
blindness highlights our spiritual blindness; and, though the restoration of his
physical sight is instantaneous, the provision of spiritual sight is progressive.
a. The Progressive Nature of Faith: the Fourth Gospel speaks of
incomplete faith based on incomplete revelation. Faith is not a
quantifiable substance that multiplies or accumulates (like money in a
bank account, water in a bucket, or snow upon a wintery landscape).
No, faith is instead the human response to the gradual manifestation
of divine light/revelation. It is stimulated by the Spirit, and it
believes what God says. Faith moves from “partial” to “complete” as
God’s self-disclosure unfolds in progressive revelation.
b. The Progressive Nature of Revelation: to demonstrate, the Apostle
John links the statement of 9:5—“I am the light of the world”—with
the following miracle of 9:6. What Jesus had just declared would
now be visible on two levels: physical and spiritual. Note the
progressive understanding of the blind man throughout.
8. Transformation & Purification: Jesus uses a mixture of unclean things (mud
and saliva) to restore the blind man. See the healing of the leper in Matt 8:1-
4, wherein the Lord Jesus is not defiled by the uncleanness surrounding him.
His superlative holiness transforms uncleanness, as the “Water to Wine” sign

208
On this point, note the use of the Greek word ἐχαρίσθη (“grace gift”) in Phil 1:29.

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 in Cana foreshadowed. Therefore, while the use of mud and saliva may mean
other things, it undoubtedly means in this context that Jesus is divine; he has
the power and authority to transform that which is unclean. The eyes of the
man are opened after his washing at the Pool of Siloam (“Siloam” means
“sent”). See John 20:21 and the correspondence of Jesus’s being sent with the
disciples’ commissioning (Spirit at baptism; Spirit from Jesus).
9. Shiloah, Shiloh, & Siloam
a. See Isa 8:6, “waters of Shiloah… flow gently and rejoice” over the
people of Israel, symbolizing the faithful and gentle care of God for
his covenant people. In the OT, these waters were rejected—God
himself was rejected—and gentle waters became torrential floodwaters
of divine judgment (the Assyrian army, Isa 8:7; cf. Jer 2:13). The
rejection of God was sometimes external (turning to other gods) and
other times internal (turning to self). As the Jews in Isaiah’s day
rejected Yahweh, so also the Jews in John’s day rejected Jesus.
b. See Gen 49:10 and similar cognate “Shiloh” with reference to the
coming Messiah.
c. Remember, the rituals of the Feast of Tabernacles required water from
the Pool of Siloam. The ceremony looked back to the provision of
God in the Arabian Desert, and looked forward to the outpouring of
God’s Spirit. Second Temple Judaism still searched for the light of life
and spiritual purification; the Blind Man found these in the person of
Jesus Christ.
d. Washing in the Pool of Siloam is symbolic of the believer’s spiritual
cleansing in Christ.
10. The Tribunal of the Pharisees (9:13-34)
a. Center Stage: the Blind Man takes center stage in the remaining
narrative, but the real discussion in which he is involved concerns the
identity of Jesus: a “man” (9:11), a “prophet” (9:17; not yet affirmed
as Messianic Prophet of the Mosaic Law), and “from God” (9:33).
b. Sabbath Infraction: see John 5:9 and thematic development, Jesus is
transforming Sabbath requirements amidst growing opposition. In
Synoptic Gospel terminology, he is “Lord of the Sabbath” (Matt 12:8;
Mark 2:23-28).
c. Literary Irony (9:24-34): the second round of questioning turns the
tables on the Pharisees; they are now on trial! Note the sarcastic
question in 9:27 (cf. 7:50-52 and the sarcastic tone against Nicodemus,
striking a similar note).
d. Fear of the Jews (9:22; cf. 12:42-43; 16:2): the blind man’s parents are
reluctant to testify in a pro-Jesus manner, as later Jews were similarly
reluctant on account of possible excommunication (the Greek word
ἀποσυνάγωγος is used only in John’s Gospel). Later, Jesus announces,
“They will put you out of the synagogue; in fact, a time is coming

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 when anyone who kills you will think he is offering a service to God”
(John 16:2).209 Jesus anticipates a time when such persecution is
systemic and widespread, though it is only sporadic and localized
during his public ministry.
11. The Abusive Shepherds of Israel: the longer narrative employs literary
symbolism involving abusive shepherds and vulnerable sheep. The abusive
treatment of the Pharisees toward the healed man anticipates the “Good
Shepherd” statement of Jesus.
a. The Pharisees move from a first, to a second round of questioning. In
this second round, they directly refer to Christ as a “sinner” (a
Sabbath-breaker). When the (formerly) blind man sarcastically takes
their repeated inquiry as a desire to become Jesus’ disciples, the
Pharisees are enraged. They represent true disciples; they remain the
only true disciples of Moses within Israel. They are above receiving
theological instruction; they are the ones with true spiritual authority.
b. The Pharisees revile the healed man and forcefully “cast him out” of
the temple (9:34, Greek: ἐκβάλλω; cf. Mark 1:12; Gen 3:24, LXX).
12. The Parabolic Significance of the Sign (9:35-41)
a. Textual Climax (John 9:35-41): Jesus re-enters the narrative, leading to
the textual climax. The blind man had never seen Jesus; he had
departed to wash in the Pool of Siloam and had returned to his
neighborhood with sight. But Jesus had no longer been in the area. So
this is the first encounter with Jesus after the restoration of his sight.
He had been given eyes to see; he would now be given eyes to see.
• “Do you believe in the Son of Man?” The question probes for
initial faith that is, as yet, incomplete. Jesus had been very
blunt with the Samaritan woman. Would he be equally blunt in
Jerusalem?
• Quiet Self-Disclosure: to an individual, in private conversation,
Jesus is plain yet again: “You have seen him, and it is he who is
speaking to you” (9:37). The word of Jesus creates faith; the
healed man believes and worships (Greek: προσκυνέω).
b. Inaugurated Judgment (9:39): Jesus says, “For judgment I came into
this world.” He is not contradicting the message of John 3:17, “God
did not send his Son into the world to condemn the world.” The world
stood condemned already (John 3:18) because the wrath of God
remained on unbelievers (3:36). Jesus came into the world to enact

209
See Carson, Gospel According to John, 286. The scene is a classic example in liberal scholarship of
a “two-level” reading that finds the Johannine Community behind the text. We have emphatically rejected this line
of thinking, but the concept is not without its difficulties. Had the Jews of Jesus’s day already decided—winter of
33 AD—to put his followers out of the synagogue? Or had the Jews of John’s day—mid 90s AD—determined this
course of action against “Christians” was necessary? The first possibility strains credulity; the second is decidedly
anachronistic. Perhaps the answer is found in Luke 4:14-30, where Jesus—at the inception of his public ministry—
is expelled from a Nazareth synagogue. Is this scene paradigmatic, so that two or three years later it was true in
Jerusalem, not only of Jesus, but his followers too?

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 inaugurated judgment, to announce the eschatological verdict (3:19).
In short, Jesus came to unveil the pre-temporal division of humanity;
he came to secure the salvation of the elect and to concretize the
condemnation of the lost (9:39; cf. 12:37-41).
13. Textual Irony (9:40-41): the irony of the narrative scene, anticipated in the
trial of the healed man, is now fully revealed. Those who admit their need (“if
you were blind”) and turn from self, are saved (“you would be ‘not guilty’”).
But those who persist in self-sufficiency (“you claim you can see”) are truly
condemned (“your guilt remains”). The guilt of original sin rests on all
people. Jesus did not deny this in 9:41, but when the Pharisees say, “we see,”
they are claiming to be true “disciples of Moses” (9:28), true Israel, and true
recipients of divine revelation (9:29). This cannot be true, for if they had
believed provisional revelation, they would have “seen” God’s eschatological
self-revelation in Christ (1:16-18; 5:45-47).
G. Resurrection of Lazarus: the Sixth Sign (John 11:1-44)210
1. Background Issues: the first and last (?) of Jesus’s signs (beginning with a
wedding feast in chapter 2 and now culminating in a banquet in chapter 12:3).
a. The transition from the Book of Signs to the Upper Room Discourse
hangs on the word δεῖπνον (supper; 12:2; 13:2).
b. Because Jesus is anointed for burial (12:7), we are not witnessing the
consummated wedding supper of the Lamb, but inaugurated
eschatology, initiated by the death, burial, and resurrection of Christ.
2. Jerusalem-Based Author: Lazarus? John the Elder?
a. Some scholars maintain that Lazarus is the Beloved Disciple and
author of the Fourth Gospel (revisit introduction, authorship issues).
b. Bauckham notes the multiple scenes of the Fourth Gospel that take
place in/around Jerusalem (as opposed to the Galilean ministry,
followed by the singular/final march toward Jerusalem in the Synoptic
Gospels). Observing geography, Bauckham suggests an author who
was a non-itinerate, Jerusalem-based disciple of Jesus.211
c. Geography or Theology: rather than denying apostolic authorship of
the Fourth Gospel on issues of geography, we note John’s fondness of
the Prophet Isaiah.
If John were to compose a spiritual gospel, urging fellow Jews to
walk in the light of the LORD, inviting them to God’s eschatological
temple in Jerusalem, so that they might learn His ways…
If John were to compose such a gospel, in which embodied Torah,
Wisdom and Word of God together went forth to instruct, to judge, to

210
Rainbow, Johannine Theology, 54 believes that the resurrection of Lazarus is the seventh sign.
211
Bauckham, Testimony of the Beloved Disciple, 134 says, “If we accept the now quite widely held
view that the beloved disciple himself was a Jerusalem resident, his personal knowledge of those four disciples
[Nicodemus, Lazarus, Martha, and Mary] makes very good sense.”

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 promote peace and attract the nations…
If John were to compose such a gospel, in light of inaugurated
eschatology and new creation, within the latter days of God’s final
self-revelation…
If all these things were true, John’s theological gaze must fall on
Jerusalem (and nowhere else)… because of the Prophet Isaiah.
2
It shall come to pass in the latter days
that the mountain of the house of the LORD
shall be established as the highest of the mountains,
and shall be lifted up above the hills;
and all the nations shall flow to it,
3
and many peoples shall come, and say:
“Come, let us go up to the mountain of the LORD,
to the house of the God of Jacob,
that he may teach us his ways
and that we may walk in his paths.”
For out of Zion shall go forth the law [Torah],
and the word of the LORD from Jerusalem.
4
He shall judge between the nations,
and shall decide disputes for many peoples;
and they shall beat their swords into plowshares,
and their spears into pruning hooks;
nation shall not lift up sword against nation,
neither shall they learn war anymore.
5
O house of Jacob,
come, let us walk
in the light of the LORD. (Isa 2:2-5, emphasis added)212
d. Summary Statement: students of Scripture are given a couple of
options: either (1) the Fourth Gospel focuses on Jerusalem because of
its author’s geographical home base, or (2) the Fourth Gospel focuses
on Jerusalem because of theological necessity, given the prophetic
heralding of themes in Isa 2:2-5.
3. Parabolic Significance: by now, we see that parabolic significance relates each
sign to some element of new creation. We will conclude below that the
powerful voice of Christ creates life and obedience in the dead man. The
same voice that spoke “Let there be light!” is audible again, “Lazarus, come
out!” The dead man lives… and he obeys. Both his life and his obedience are
borrowed realities; he does not live of his own life (he is not self-existent), nor
does he obey of his own will (he responds to an irresistible compulsion).
4. New Creation (Inaugurated & Consummated): the prologue gloriously

212
Wilkin, Early Christian Thought, 55 refers to patristic theologian Clement of Alexandria (c. 160 AD)
and says, “The time has come for the Greeks to hear a new song. ‘Let us,’ [Clement] writes, ‘bring down from the
heavens truth with wisdom in all its splendor and the sacred choir of the prophets, to the holy mount of God.’ Let
men ‘abandon Helicon and Cithaeron [two mountains in Greece, sites of ancient cults to the gods] and take up a
dwelling place in Zion, ‘For out of Zion shall go forth the law, and the word of the Lord from Jerusalem.’ For
Clement, the word that came forth from Jerusalem, the ‘heavenly word,’ was the divine Logos who had become
flesh in the person of Christ.”

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 declares, “In Him was life, and the life was the light of men” (1:4).
a. The resurrection of Lazarus is the climax of the Book of Signs and the
most significant foretaste of inaugurated new creation. The
resurrection of Lazarus pictures new birth and spiritual resurrection
(inaugurated new creation); it also anticipates bodily resurrection at
the last day (consummated new creation). Jesus provides physical and
spiritual life as the source of old and new creation.
b. Life in the Son: the Pool of Bethesda sign also contributes, “Just as the
Father raises the dead and gives them life, even so the Son gives life”
and “as the Father has life in himself, so he has granted the Son to
have life in himself” (5:21, 26).
5. Messianic Significance: the resurrection of Lazarus anticipates the self-
resurrection of Messiah, the clearest and most significant sign of new creation
in the Fourth Gospel. Jesus says, “I am the good shepherd. The good
shepherd lays down his life for the sheep” and “I lay down my life that I may
take it up again” for “no one takes it from me, but I lay it down of my own
accord.” He continues, “I have authority to lay it down and I have authority to
take it up again” (10:11, 17-18). Jesus’s authority will be evidenced in the
Lazarus sign, and later in the self-resurrection of the Son of Man. The idea of
resurrection connects past and present chapters.
6. Superabundant Provision: Lazarus had been dead four days (11:17, 39). Early
rabbinic belief held that the soul of the deceased hovered over the body for up
to three days; but at the point when the body evidenced decay, the soul would
depart. This decay defined the fourth day, marking the final cessation of life
and the irreversibility of death. By the fourth day, there would have been no
chance of loosening death’s grip on the body and soul.213 This belief preempts
the sense of amazement that previous Messianic signs awakened.
H. The Self-Resurrection of Jesus: the seventh sign. Students discuss in small groups
how each previous sign points to Jesus’s self-resurrection and inaugurated new
creation.
1. Water to Wine
2. Healing the Son
3. Healing the Invalid
4. Feeding Five Thousand
5. Healing the Blind
6. Resurrection of Lazarus
7. Jesus’s Self-Resurrection as the final messianic sign.214

213
Carson, Gospel According to John, 411. Jesus’s body remained in the tomb for only three days; it
did not see decay, in order to fulfill Ps 16:10. See also Acts 2:27-31; 13:25-37 and the sermons of Peter and Paul.
214
Bauckham, Testimony of the Beloved Disciple, 209 says, “The Gospel, up to chapter 20, narrates
seven signs, which are identifiable as the seven events of which the Gospel itself actually uses the word σημεῖον
(2:11; 4:54; 6:2; 6:14, 26; 9:16; 12:18; 2:18–19). These include the resurrection, which (contrary to a common
assertion) the Gospel does call a sign (2:18–19). These seven signs manifest Jesus’ glory so that people may believe
in him.” Our conclusion is consistent with this set of textual observations.

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 The Seven Messianic Signs in the Fourth Gospel
Messianic Sign Textual Reference
1. At the wedding in Cana, Jesus changes water into wine. 2:1-11
2. At Capernaum, Jesus heals the official’s son. 4:46-54
3. At the Bethesda Pool, Jesus heals an invalid on the Sabbath. 5:1-15
4. Near the Sea of Galilee, Jesus feeds the multitude of people. 6:1-13
5. On the Sabbath, Jesus heals the man born blind. 9:1-7
6. In the village of Bethany, Jesus raises Lazarus from the dead. 11:1-44
7. On the First Day, the Self-Resurrection of Messiah. 2:18-19; 10:17-18

8. The Eschatological Temple: the Fourth Gospel speaks of Jesus as the true,
eschatological Temple (2:18-22), asserts that living water—the Holy Spirit—
would flow out from Jesus himself (7:37-38), and explicitly teaches that Jesus
would impart the Holy Spirit (20:22). In doing so, the apostle John relies on
the OT prophet Ezekiel (Ezek 47:1-12).
a. Living Water flows from the side of the temple: the word for “side”
(Hebrew: ‫ ָּכ ֵתף‬katheph) can refer, when used in the context of human
beings or animals, to the shoulder or shoulder blade (47:2).
b. Exodus: since Jesus is the Passover Lamb, blood should flow from his
body. This blood is to be applied to the doorposts of human hearts.
c. Ezekiel: since Jesus is the True Temple, water should flow out from
him. Jesus is the source of eschatological water, the Holy Spirit
himself. The water is to bring new life, eternal life, the divine life of
Christ himself, wherever it flows.
d. Thus, when Jesus was crucified, what flowed out from under his right
shoulder? Blood and Water (John 19:34).
9. Eschatological Temple & Inaugurated Eschatology (Ezek 47:1-12)
a. According to Ezek 47:1-12, water flows out from the Temple and into
the Dead Sea at the very end of history. As it flows, it makes
everything alive.
b. At the beginning of the end, fishermen will stand at the shore of the
Dead Sea and catch all kinds of fish in their nets.
c. At the beginning, a single fisherman would stand on the shore of the
Sea of Galilee. This is the point of inception, the point of inaugurated
eschatology. This is where the fresh water—flowing forth to bring
life in its wake—has its glorious fountainhead.
d. John 21:4, “Early in the morning, Jesus stood on the shore, but the
disciples did not realize it was him.”
10. Hebrew Gematria: Hebrew letters have numerical significance. If it were the
English alphabet, we might expect: A = 1; B = 2; C = 3… and so forth.
a. Bauckham says that these two places in Ezek 47:10 (Engedi and
Eneglaim)—when added together, according to the Hebrew text of the

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 OT—have a specific numerical value: 153.215
b. John 21:11, “Simon Peter climbed aboard and dragged the net ashore.
It was full of large fish, 153 in number.”
c. Bauckham also says, “John’s Gospel does not have two endings, but a
two-stage ending, the two parts of which (20:30-31; 21:24-25) frame
an epilogue (21:1–23).”216

Session 10: Seven “I AM” and “I am” Statements of Christ in the Gospel of John
A. Theological Function of “Sign & Discourse” Scenes in the Fourth Gospel
1. This is the first of three “sign & discourse” scenes (or pericopes) in the Fourth
Gospel (bread of life, resurrection and life).
2. The sign typically reveals something of who Jesus is covenantally (that is,
who Jesus is in-and-for the covenant people united to him by the Spirit).
3. The discourse typically reveals something of who Jesus is metaphysically
(that is, who Jesus is in-and-for himself, unveiling his divine essence).
4. In only two scenes of the Fourth Gospel do we find “I am” + “sign” +
“discourse” = Bread of Life; Resurrection of Lazarus. This “meta-narrative”
level observation leads to an obvious conclusion: these are two extremely
important parts of the story.
B. Seven Absolute “I AM” Statements
1. Seven Absolute “I AM” Statements in John’s Gospel
a. Divine Self-Disclosure: in John’s language we find a preliminary
distinction between “God the Father, viewed as concrete (ὁ θεός) and
the quality that constitutes his essence (θεός).”217
b. God the Father shares with God the Son a singular divine essence,
which Jewish monotheism would conceptually uphold, but practically
reject. The Jews accuse Jesus of making himself God (John 10:33, “ὅτι
σὺ ἄνθρωπος ὢν ποιεῖς σεαυτὸν θεόν.”) Note the anarthrous θεόν in the
verse, where the Jews assert their worldview (Theological Dualism)
against the belief that Jesus, a mere human, could be divine.
c. Human Response(s)
• The human response to divine self-disclosure is normally
rejection. The underlying reason for such rejection is revealed
through John’s use of Isa 6:9-10. God’s judgment upon

215
Bauckham, Testimony of the Beloved Disciple, 212-14.
216
Bauckham, Testimony of the Beloved Disciple, 211.
217
Rainbow, Johannine Theology, 97. Rainbow shows that the anarthrous use of θεός in the New
Testament refers to the divine nature, so that John 1:1 reveals that the Father and Son share this divine nature and yet
remain distinct persons. We are, of course, choosing anachronistic language developed at the councils of Nicaea
(325 AD), Constantinople (381 AD), and Chalcedon (451 AD) to describe the Fourth Gospel’s Trinitarian theology.
But the seminal concepts are present in John’s Gospel, which became an absolutely essential tool in developing and
articulating Trinitarian orthodoxy through ecclesial and conciliar confessions.

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 humanity means that, left to themselves, human beings cannot
accept the things of God (for they are spiritually—“of the
Spirit”—discerned; 1 Cor 2:14). This cognitive/spiritual
inability is articulated in John 6:44, 65 (no one comes to Jesus
apart from the Father’s effectual calling/drawing, which is by
the Spirit).
• Where humans respond positively to divine self-revelation
(John 6:68-69; 12:42-43), we understand the underlying reason
to be Spirit-regeneration, or new birth. As Jesus tells
Nicodemus, “No one can see the kingdom of God unless he is
born again” (3:3, NIV). The word “see” is theological
freighted.
d. Similarity with Old Testament Theology: in the Hebrew Bible, the
meaning of God’s name (YHWH) is closely related to “I AM” (see
Exod 3:14; 6:2; Deut 32:39; Isa 43:25; 48:12; 51:12). In the Septuagint
(LXX), most of these passages are translated with the Greek “ἐγώ εἰμι.”
• Exod 3:14, “God said to Moses, ‘I am who I am.’ And he said,
‘Say this to the people of Israel, I AM has sent me to you.’”
• Exod 6:2, “And God said to Moses, ‘I am the LORD.’”
• Deut 32:39a, “See now that I, even I, am he, and there is no
god beside me.”
• Isa 48:12, “Listen to me, O Jacob, and Israel, whom I called: I
am He, I am the first, and I am the last.”
e. Thus, many interpreters believe that Jesus, in John’s Gospel, is making
divine claims in most (all?) of the “I AM” statements.218
2. The Absolute “I AM” Statements (John 8:12-58): some translations (NIV)
insert a phrase—for ease in reading—that does not belong to the original
Greek text. They render, “If you do not believe that I am [the one I claim to
be], you will indeed die in your sins.” The significance of the Greek ἐγώ εἰμι
escalates through the text. The Pharisees, bewildered, skeptical, and agitated
inquire, “Who are you?”219
a. Savior: in one sense, the claim has already been made. The one
standing before them is the person upon whom the pendulum of
salvation swings; Jesus is the one who must be believed. Failure to do
so results in eternal death (in your sins).
b. From the Beginning: the Greek text of John 8:25 is fascinating, “…
εἶπεν αὐτοῖς ὁ Ἰησοῦς, Τὴν ἀρχὴν ὅ τι καὶ λαλῶ ὑμῖν.” To interpret literally
would render the text: Jesus said to them, “From the beginning; that

218
Note the connection between Isa 42:8-9 and John 14:29. The advance disclosure of future things
demonstrates the uniqueness of God and confirms the divine nature of Jesus.
219
In the Synoptic Gospels, the disciples ask this question. See Matt 8:27; Mark 4:41; Luke 8:25. In
the Fourth Gospel, the reader has been informed of Jesus’s true, pre-existent and incarnational identity. From a
literary standpoint, the reader stands in the story with Jesus, opposing the Pharisees, who remain blind to the truth.

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 which I also say to you.” Jesus essentially tells the Pharisees, “I am
from the beginning” (8:25; cf. 1:1).
c. The Eternal, Pre-Existent Logos: the apostle John presses further:
Jesus is the eternal Logos (Ἐν ἀρχῇ ἦν ὁ λόγος), which John (and Jesus)
had been proclaiming from the beginning (of the Gospel). Jesus is the
divine Logos (καὶ θεὸς ἦν ὁ λόγος).
d. The Son of Man: the apostle John clarifies yet again, “When you have
lifted up [Greek: ὑψόω] the Son of Man, then you will know that I
am…” (8:28, cf. 3:14; 12:32). The success of Jesus’s self-testimony
by saying that many believed (they “put their faith in him,” 8:30).
e. The Messianic Servant of Isaiah: lifting up (Greek: ὑψόω) of the Son of
Man is the glorification of Christ that occurs on the cross of Calvary;
when his glory is revealed through the cross, then will Jesus draw the
peoples of the world to himself in faith (12:32; Isa 52:13).
3. The Jews in opposition to Jesus might well be “Abraham’s descendants”
(8:37), but they are not “Abraham’s children” (8:39). Jesus rightly
demonstrates that the Pharisees are illegitimate children and demon possessed.
This group of Jews accuses Jesus of the very same things. He is a Samaritan
(racial slur)—he is a half-breed, born out of wedlock, whose mother they
know (Mary) but whose father they do not. And he is demon-possessed.
a. This is how desperate the situation has become. Those walking in
darkness are consumed in darkness. They refuse to turn to the “light
of the world” and thereby “have the light of life” (8:12).
b. Jesus offers freedom, but the offspring of Abraham are not currently
enslaved (8:33). Again, the bitter irony is that they remain in spiritual
exile, blind to the return of Yahweh to Zion, alienated from God, and
illegitimate offspring (seed, Greek: σπέρμα) of Abraham.
4. Absolute “I AM” in John 8:58 (cf. Exod 3:13-14): whatever doubts existed
concerning the interpretation of the phrase ἐγώ εἰμι are quieted.
a. The text of John 8:58 echoes the Prophet Isaiah:
• Isa 43:3 says, “I am the LORD your God, the Holy One of
Israel, your Savior.”
• Isa 43:11 says, “I, I am the LORD, and besides me there is no
savior.”
• Isa 43:12-13 follows, “I have revealed and saved and
proclaimed—I, and not some foreign god among you. You are
my witnesses, declares the LORD, that I am God. Yes, and
from ancient of days I am.”
• Isa 43:25 says, “I, I am he who blots out your transgressions
for my own sake, and I will not remember your sins.”
• The powerful, pre-incarnate Word of God spoke through the
prophet Isaiah in the eighth century BC, and spoke again in the
text of John 8:58.
5. The transcendent God was alive before Abraham, alive in eternity with God,
alive as the Ancient of Days. Of Jesus’s divine self-awareness, there can be
no doubt.

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 The “I AM” Statements in the Fourth Gospel
Statement References
Seven Absolute “I AM” (Greek: ἐγώ εἰμι) 4:26; 6:20; 8:24, 28, 58; 13:19; 18:5 (6, 8)
-- Seven Salvific/Covenantal “I am” Statements --
1. I am the Bread of Life 6:35, 48, 51
2. I am the Light of the World 8:12; 9:5
3. I am the Door of the Sheep 10:7, 9
4. I am the Good Shepherd 10:11, 14
5. I am the Resurrection & the Life 11:25
6. I am the Way, the Truth, and the Life 14:6
7. I am the True Vine 15:1

C. Seven Salvific “I am” Statements

1. Seven Signs in John’s Gospel: note, we dealt with the structural value above
and will now discuss the theological value. Seven signs offer a perfectly
complete indication of the extravagant, super-abundant provision of God’s
eschatological kingdom, now inaugurated in Jesus’s ministry.
2. Seven Covenantal “I am” Statements in John’s Gospel
a. Divine Salvation Disclosed (who Jesus is toward God’s people in
saving covenant with them).
b. Mixed Human Response(s): belief (11:27) and confusion (14:5-6).
D. Bread of Life
1. Messianic Fulfillment
a. Jesus is the true bread that came down from heaven; he is the
Prophet—foretold to Moses (Deut 18:18)—and the fulfillment of the
Passover (the liturgical context of John 6).
b. Jesus had already been called the Lamb of God, a title evoking images
of Israel’s sacrificial system and the substitutionary paschal lamb, with
Passover marking the beginning of the Exodus from Egypt.
c. Jesus is the fulfillment of the Messianic Covenant (John 6:45; cf. Isa
54:10-13, “Covenant of Peace.”) See also Jer 31:34; Ezek 36:27.
2. Provisional Sustenance: Manna was God’s provision for Israel in the
wilderness; the people arrived safely at Sinai to receive the Law.
3. Eschatological Sustenance: Jesus now, according to a spiritual journey to
freedom, had given God’s people grace and truth. In a spiritual wilderness,
Jesus would be “bread from heaven” and “living water” to sustain weary
travelers. Jesus would beckon the covenant community to eternal rest.
4. Eucharistic Text (John 6:53-58): the discourses in 6:35-40; 6:43-51 are
undoubtedly related more to OT fulfillment than anything else. Jesus will be
the inauguration and means (sacrificial lamb), the eschatological leader (new
Moses), and the divine provision (bread of heaven) of the New Exodus.
However, the discourse in 6:53-58 has long caused division among scholars
regarding its Eucharistic undertones.
a. Original Audience: in the OT, the Hebrew people in Egypt are
instructed, “Then they shall take some of the blood and put it on the

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 two doorposts and the lintel of the houses in which they eat it. They
shall eat the flesh that night, roasted on the fire; with unleavened bread
and bitter herbs they shall eat it” (Exod 12:7-8, emphasis added). In
John 6:53, Jesus speaks of “eating his flesh.” The liturgical contexts
of the Bread of Life discourse and the crucifixion of Christ testify that
Passover resonances are intended; certainly the original hearers could
have perceived the connection.220
b. Retrospective, Christian Reader: the Fourth Gospel is meant to be fully
understood (two-level narrative: on the discourse level, deeper than the
story level) in a retrospective, second reading in light of the death and
resurrection of Christ.221
c. Sacraments in the Fourth Gospel: the spiritual reality behind the
physical token.222
5. Stumbling Stone, Rock of Offense (1 Pet 2:8): the gathering in the Capernaum
synagogue remarks, “This is a hard teaching (lit. Greek: λόγος); who can
accept (lit. Greek: ἀκούω) it?”223 But Jesus indicates that his words are to be
understood in the same manner that his flesh and blood are to be appropriated:

220
Rainbow, Johannine Theology, 396 writes, “To eat Jesus, then, is to put faith in his person,
specifically in his coming act of dying. Eating Jesus’ flesh and drinking his blood means renouncing the immediate
hope of an earthly king… who could fill people’s stomachs free of charge (John 6:15, 26), to embrace as God’s
appointee a messiah who would save in another way by giving himself up in death (John 6:51, 71). It was this idea
that gave offense to many of Jesus’ own disciples (John 6:60-61, 66). The Jews in the synagogue on that occasion
could not possibly have taken Jesus to be referring to a sacramental meal that lay in the future, though in the context
of the Passover season (John 6:4) they might have understood Jesus to be offering himself in place of the Passover
sacrifice.” This is Calvin’s argument too: the Capernaum Jews could not have discerned the Eucharist—or Lord’s
Supper—which had not yet been established. Upon retrospective examination of the text, however, such imagery
and interpretation are unavoidable.
221
Rainbow, Johannine Theology, 396 continues, “Christian readers familiar with the words of
institution inevitably hear echoes of them in John 6:53-58. True, Jesus speaks in John of eating his “flesh” (σάρξ),
rather than his “body” (σῶμα), and uses a less common verb for eating (τρώγειν). These vocabulary choices set apart
the account in John. Moreover, John’s paragraph has Jesus talk about his death in terms of a meal (‘My flesh is food
indeed’ [John 6:55]), which is the grammatical converse of his words in the other Gospels, where Jesus interprets
elements of the meal with reference to his coming death (‘This [bread] is my body’). Still, the separation of flesh
from blood, the appropriation of the one to eating and the other to drinking, and the very order remind Christians of
the Eucharist.”
222
Rainbow, Johannine Theology, 396-97 indicates, “John does in John 6:53-58 what he did in John
3:5. He orients readers’ thoughts to the spiritual essence rather than the outer mode of each sacrament. In John 3,
Jesus points to the regenerating work of the Holy Spirit, and in John 6, to the life-giving value of his atoning death,
as requisite for salvation. John clothes each statement in words that evoke the ordinary sacramental means by which
God grants the gift to the believer: a water bath and a repast of bread and, by implication, of wine. So naturally does
John employ the sign for the mystery signified, that he must view them as a unity. Only if the reality is given in the
symbol does it work for John to put the symbol for the reality in a statement about the latter. But that the reality
subsists in the symbol is an unstated assumption, not the main point of the passage. Could we corner John with our
dogmatic question whether there is a real presence of Christ in the sacrament, almost certainly he would say yes. But
our concern was not his, and he does not set out to answer it. He directs us to the immolated victim whose death
brings us life.”
223
The Greek of John 6:60 is, “Σκληρός ἐστιν ὁ λόγος [instruction; like “Torah”] οὗτος· τίς δύναται αὐτοῦ
ἀκούειν [hear].” Echoes of Exod 19:8; 24:3 reverberate. See also John 12:38-40.

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 spiritually (by the Spirit). The literal meaning of his words are useless—
actually offensive (Greek: σκανδαλίζω in 6:61; cf. 1 Pet 2:8)—because the flesh
counts for nothing (6:63).
a. The flesh does not give life (flesh gives birth to flesh; 3:6a), but the
Spirit gives life (the Spirit gives birth to spirit; 3:6b).
b. The words of Jesus are saturated with life, resulting from the full and
immeasurable outpouring of the Spirit upon him (3:34). Because Jesus
bears the Spirit, he speaks the very words of God. It is for this reason
that he can say, “The words that I have spoken to you are spirit and
life” (6:63).
6. Christ Imparts the Spirit: the importance of the word of Christ is found in its
power to impart both the Spirit and spiritual life (resurrection life, new birth,
eternal life). The signs of Messiah, as illumined by the Spirit, elicit faith in
the disciples, both past (2:11) and present (20:30-31). But the apostle John
consistently pursues the former (word) over and above the latter (sign).
a. The Declaration of Peter (John 6:68-69; cf. Matt 16:13-20; Mark 8:27-
30): Peter rejects abandoning Christ, for Jesus has “the words of
eternal life” (6:68); and Jesus is the “Holy One of God” (6:69).224
b. The true “Bread from Heaven” was the Word incarnate; the word of
Jesus was to be heard, understood, grasped, digested, absorbed,
appropriated, believed, and received spiritually. So while the many
who sought a useful, belly-filling King turn back and fail to follow
Jesus to the end, the disciples endure with Jesus, persevere in the truth
with Him, and follow Him to the last of their days. Blasphemous
belief leads to falling away; the new birth leads to perseverance.
7. General Revision: we have mentioned these ideas above, but must address
them here.
a. Covenantal Nomism in John 6:25-29
b. Provisional Good v. Eschatological Good (6:47-51, 58)
c. Divine Determinism in John 6:37, 44
d. Consummated Eschatology: Final Resurrection (6:39-40, 44, 54)
e. Eschatological Prophet (6:45; cf. 12:49; Deut 18:18b, “I will put my
words in his mouth; he shall speak to them all that I command him.”)
f. Christ as Revealer (6:46; cf. 1:18)
g. Central Theme = Union with Christ (6:53-58)
8. The “Sign & Discourse” Scenes + Salvific “I am” Statements: this is one of
two scenes in the Fourth Gospel containing “I am” + “sign” + “discourse”
(within a liturgical context) to indicate its astounding theological magnitude.

224
The Prophet Isaiah refers to YHWH as the “Holy One of Israel” (28x). In the Johannine context of a
New Exodus, echoes of Isa 43:1-3 become palpable—But now thus says the Lord, he who created you, O Jacob, he
who formed you, O Israel: “Fear not, for I have redeemed you; I have called you by name, you are mine. 2 When you
pass through the waters, I will be with you; and through the rivers, they shall not overwhelm you; when you walk
through fire you shall not be burned, and the flame shall not consume you. 3 For I am the Lord your God, the Holy
One of Israel, your Savior.”

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E. Light of the World
1. Feast of Tabernacles: the first seven days of the celebration were marked by
water rituals and light ceremonies.
a. In the water rituals, the High Priest would lead a procession from the
Pool of Siloam, the source of the water filling their jars, to the Temple.
There the shofar (a ram’s horn, used like a trumpet) would blast three
times and the water from Siloam was offered to God with the morning
sacrifices and drink offering (wine). The water and the wine were first
poured into their respective silver bowls and then before the Lord. It
was both a time of remembering (the provision of water in the
wilderness) and of anticipating. In Jewish thought, the Feast of
Tabernacles looked forward to the outpouring of God’s Spirit (see Joel
2:28-32) in the eschatological last days.
b. In the light ceremonies, four large lamps were lit in the temple’s court
of women while pilgrims attending the feast lit torches of their own,
singing and dancing into the night. This probably happened on each
night of the feast, just as the water rituals happened every morning.
The illumined choir from the temple filled Jerusalem with its glow and
gladness. And it is in this context that Jesus declares, “I am the light
of the world” (8:12; 9:5; cf. 1:4-5).225 The announcement of Jesus at
the feast is clear: he is the fulfillment of all that the Feast of
Tabernacles remembered and anticipated.
2. Anticipatory Note: the majesty of John’s literary skill does not stop there. The
claim of Jesus—I am the light of the world—is validated by the fifth (or sixth)
Messianic Sign.
a. The “Light of the world” brings “light” to a man consumed by
irreversible darkness. The High Priest had just visited the Pool of
Siloam and used its waters to celebrate historical and eschatological
salvation.
b. In John 9:7, the blind man visits the same pool and is saved from
debilitating physical (and later, spiritual) blindness. The man, assumed
to have been born blind because of sin, has his eyes gradually opened
to the truth of Christ’s identity. He cannot see. He must depend on
Jesus to open his eyes, and they are physically opened at once. He
celebrates his sight at the Pool of Siloam.
c. However, his spiritual perception is cured progressively. He ultimately
celebrates his spiritual sight at the Temple, in the presence of Jesus
himself. After this ultimate point of recognition, the man worships
Christ (9:13-41).
d. Character Juxtaposition (Contrast): the contrast is established between
the supposedly sinful man and the supposedly righteous Pharisees who
claim to see and yet are blind. Jesus pronounces their condition: “If

225
For these historical details, see Carson, Gospel According to John, 320-27; 337-38.

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 you were blind, you would not be guilty of sin; but now that you claim
you can see, your guilt remains” (9:41, NIV).
• Inaugurated Judgment: the verdict he had spoken of in the
Nicodemus narrative is pronounced. Jesus has the authority to
provide life (salvation) and to pronounce judgment (guilt).
And this light-giving Lord restores the physical and spiritual
sight of a commoner while he announces a guilty verdict on
Israel’s teachers.
• More than this, the Light-giver performs this miracle between
the last day of the Feast of Tabernacles and the upcoming Feast
of Dedication (10:22ff).
3. The Feast of Dedication: this festival marked the re-dedication of the Temple
by Judas Maccabeus in December 165 BC after it had been profaned by
Antiochus IV “Epiphanes” two years earlier (167 BC).
a. Hanukkah, Feast of Light: the three names of the singular festival… it
was celebrated personally in the homes of pious Jews who lit lamps to
commemorate the illumination of God who had appeared to and saved
the Hebrew people from their enemies. Light was employed to
celebrate revelation and salvation. Not only does Jesus declare, “I am
the light of the world” to affirm the fulfillment of the Feast of
Tabernacles, but to apply the truth commemorated in the Feast of
Dedication to himself as well.
b. The Light of the world theme is the literary link between a final eighth
day of festal singing under temple lights and an eight-day Feast of
Lights. As beautiful as this connection is, it did not come without ugly
opposition. The text of John 8 advances the theme of Jesus’s own
testimony creating faith; but it does so in a rather startling way, for it is
also confounding to those who remain in spiritual exile.
4. The Pharisees challenge the testimony of Jesus because he is his own witness.
In light of Jesus’ own words in 5:31, this seems like a fair challenge. There
Jesus had said to, perhaps, the same group of Jews, “If I testify about myself,
my testimony is not valid” (NIV). Undoubtedly, the Pharisees believe they
have trapped Jesus in his own words.
a. Chapter Five: the point was to emphasize God’s testimony (in
harmony with, but superior to, that of John the Baptist).
b. Chapter Eight: the point here is that Jesus knows who he is (God) and
can testify with equal authority as the Father. Jesus stands with the
Father, judges correctly with the Father. Therefore, because he is
“from above” and “not of this world” he can testify about himself with
divine authority.
F. Door of Sheep & Good Shepherd
1. Introduction & Transition: the Shepherds of Israel were guilty of devouring
sheep under their care. Likewise, the newly healed man had been thoroughly
mistreated, expelled from the temple by the religious authorities. The so-
called “shepherds” of Israel had abused this tender lamb. But the Good
Shepherd would personally care for each of His own. The link between

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 chapters 9 and 10 is found in the subtle commentary on Jewish leadership.
2. The OT Background: see previous reference to Ezek 34:1-10; 11-16, 23-31.
a. Shepherds of Israel: they were guilty of caring only for themselves,
neglecting the flock of God under their care, leaving the weak and
injured to their own devices, ignoring the cries of the lost ones, ruling
over them with harsh and brutal tactics, and ultimately devouring the
sheep entirely. As a result, they were attacked and scattered (Assyrian
and Babylonian captivity).
b. But God would save his sheep, not only from physical captivity, but
from spiritual exile as well.
• The Sovereign LORD says, “I myself will search for my
sheep… I will rescue them… I will bring them out from the
nations [and] into their own land… I will pasture them… I will
tend them… I will search for the lost and bring back the strays;
I will shepherd the flock with justice” (34:11-16).
• Again the Sovereign LORD says, “I myself will judge… I will
save my flock… I will place over them one shepherd, my
servant David; he will tend them; I the LORD will be their God
and my servant David will be prince among them” (34:20-24).
3. Literary Context: Jesus says, “I am the Good Shepherd,” in the context of
Pharisaic Judaism and its failure to tend the flock of God.
a. The literary-theological context of John 10:11 is as powerful as Mark
11:20, with Jesus cursing the fig tree after cleansing the temple. Both
are clear judgments upon the religious environment in Jerusalem.
b. The Door of the Sheep: Jesus identifies himself as the “door of the
sheep,” the true gateway to the Kingdom. Those who come to Jesus
for life, light, bread, water, and healing would be satisfied eternally. In
Christ, they would find entrance into the Kingdom.
c. If they had, they would have recognized his voice and followed him,
for all true sheep hear and follow the voice of the Good Shepherd.226
4. Christocentric Conclusion: Jesus is the eschatological David.
a. Messianic Expectation: the Davidic expectations of Second Temple
Judaism were focused on a militant warrior, not a self-sacrificial
shepherd.
b. Owner v. Worker: the Jews were merely hired hands who cared
nothing for the sheep. Jesus, the “great Shepherd of the sheep” (Heb
13:20), would establish the eternal covenant between God and his
flock. Jesus (owner) v. Jews (workers).
5. Theological/Doctrinal Truth: a note must be included concerning the
sovereign election of God, the specific atonement of the Son, and the eternal

226
Robert L. Wilkin, The Spirit of Early Christian Thought: Seeing the Face of God (New Haven, CT:
Yale University Press, 2003), 55 says, “Generation after generation, this Word of God, the Divine Logos, had spoken
to God’s people in the words of Moses, in the oracles of the prophets, in the exhortations of the proverbs, and finally
in the writings of the apostles, particularly the gospels.” This is an implicit patristic commentary on John 5:46.

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 security of the elect… themes advanced in these salvific “I am” statements.
a. Feast of Dedication: Jesus teaches that the Father gives the sheep to
Christ (sovereign election, 10:29) who in turn lays down his life
specifically for the sheep (particular atonement, 10:15) such that the
sheep “follow” Christ and have “eternal life” and “never perish”
because no one “will snatch them out of [Christ’s] hand” or the
“Father’s hand” (preservation of the saints, 10:27-30).
b. Good Works of Christ: Jesus says these are “good works from the
Father,” which create belief and substantiate the essential unity
between Father and Son. “I and the Father are one” (10:30).
c. Process of Salvation: outlined in John 10, the process of salvation—
from beginning to end—is the plan of the Father, accomplished by the
Son, and applied by the Spirit.
d. The Jews are outraged. Again, they pick up stones to stone Jesus
(10:31; cf. 8:59).227
G. Resurrection & Life
1. Love Story: the apostle John shows how the Good Shepherd cares for his
sheep so tenderly; this is a love story.
a. The loving act of Mary—anointing Jesus for burial—that John 11:2
recounts, has not happened yet. It was memorable enough to
announce it beforehand. It was also a prime example of how love
defined this relationship.
b. The one who you love is sick (11:3): makes explicit what is otherwise
somewhat implicit from previous details.
c. Jesus loved Martha, and her sister, and Lazarus (11:5).
d. The Jews interpret Jesus’s weeping as an expression of love (11:36).
2. The Pharisees sought to kill the author of life; they sought to extinguish the

227
Rainbow, Johannine Theology, 152 says, “In the dialogue of John 8 Jesus, to substantiate Jesus’
claim to be ‘the light of the world’ and ‘of life’ (John 8:12), appeals to the witness of his Father (John 8:18), adding
that his origin is ‘from above’ and is ‘not of this world’ (John 8:23). When he warns his audience that they will die in
their sins unless they believe ‘that I am” (John 8:24), they demand an explanation of who he is (John 8:25a). His
terse adverbial reply—‘originally’ or ‘basically’ (τὴν ἀρχήν [John 8:25b])—defines the sense in which he meant ‘I
am.’ Whether he is claiming pretemporal existence or self-existence makes little difference, since one implies the
other. This, the first in a series of crests of the “I am” predication (John 8:24, 28, 58), is so cryptic that it leaves his
interlocutors puzzled, or else so unexpectedly bold that they brush him off on first hearing. But as Jesus hammers on
his unique relationship with God the Father (John 8:28-29, 38, 40, 42, 49, 50, 54-55) and throws in a promise to
preserve from death anyone who keeps Jesus’ word (John 8:51), his meaning becomes unmistakable and obnoxious.
The climax comes in his claim to be before Abraham (John 8:56-59), using the present tense ‘I am’ (John 8:58) to
echo the incomparable ‘I am’ of Yahweh (Exod 3:14; Deut 32:39; Isa 41:4; 43:10, 13, 25; 46:4; 48:12; 51:12; 52:6).
His import is not lost on his hearers, who immediately take up stones.”

Rainbow continues, “Later, in response to Jesus’ statement ‘I and the Father are one [thing] [ἕν ἐσμεν],’
some Jews made ready again to stone him, charging him with blasphemy, ‘because you, being a man, make yourself
God [ποιεῖς σεαυτὸν θεόν]’ (John 10:30-33). He countered on the ground that God himself can address creatures who
judge in his name as ‘gods’ (Ps 82:6). How much more appropriate, then, it is to regard as ‘Son of God’ the one
whom the Father has consecrated and sent into the world to do the Father’s works, in whom the Father is, and he in
the Father. Again they tried to arrest him (John 8:34-39).”

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 light of the world; they sought to subdue the resurrection and the life.
3. The Consolation of Israel: the many family visitors are not the ultimate source
of Mary and Martha’s consolation; Jesus is coming and, upon his arrival,
Martha leaves the guests and goes out to meet Jesus on the road.
4. Rival Devotion (?): despite the potential for seeing Mary’s devotion to the
Lord as superior to Martha’s (as in Luke 10:38-42), there is little doubt in the
present passage that both of the sisters dearly loved Jesus.
5. Fruitfulness of Prayer: if Jesus had not intentionally delayed (11:6), he would
have healed Lazarus. Martha remains confident of the intimate connection
between Jesus and His Father; she recognizes the “unprecedented fruitfulness
of his prayers” to be the result of this relationship.228
6. Two-Level Narrative: Jesus’s response to Martha carries a double meaning.
a. Story Level: on the one hand, the general resurrection—on the last
day, at the consummation of human history—is the great consolation
of all believers. On this level, Jesus says nothing that would
contradict Orthodox Judaism. Death would not be the final
experience of the faithful; they would rise to newness of life at the
end of days. On this level, Martha interprets the words of Jesus in
light of her Jewish worldview.
b. Discourse Level: on the other hand, Jesus has been insisting on the
resurrection of the dead throughout the gospel, subverting Orthodox
Judaism by claiming sole authority to raise the dead on the last day
(John 5:21, 25-29 and 6:39-40). On this level, Jesus indicates that
inaugurated eschatology brings certain “future kingdom” realities to
bear on the present.
c. Authority or Identity: Jesus presses further; he does not simply have
authority to do the work of resurrection. Indeed, he is the resurrection
and the life. The signs unveil Messiah’s identity for those gifted with
eyes to see. He gives “bread from heaven” because he is the “bread
of life.” He gives the light of life because he is the “light of the
world.” Now, he gives resurrection life to His people because he is
the “resurrection and the life.”
7. The Kingdom of God is Present in Christ: the claim identifies Jesus as the
centerpiece of the Kingdom of God. The general resurrection would occur at
the great Day of the Lord; the consummated Kingdom would mean final
transformation and ultimate blessedness. Jesus says the resurrection power of
the “not yet” Kingdom would be revealed now (see hint in 4:23)… Jesus has
authority to give eschatological life and power, even in the present. He is the
one in whom the Kingdom of God present.
a. The profound comfort of future resurrection is anticipated in the
immediate resurrection of Lazarus. Carson writes, “Resurrection and

228
Carson, Gospel According to John, 412.

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 life refer to two complementary things.”229
b. Jesus had no sooner declared, “I am the resurrection and the life” than
an explanation of what he meant was offered.
• To clarify the first part of the phrase—“I am the
resurrection”—Jesus adds, “Whoever believes in me, though
he die, yet shall he live” (11:25). Belief… physical death… yet
eternal life. Believers have been born again (spiritual birth).
Jesus affirms his power to raise up His people on the last day.
• To clarify the second part of the phrase—“I am the life”—Jesus
adds, “And everyone who lives and believes in me shall never
die” (11:26). Belief = eternal life (lives, believes in Christ) =
the spiritual resurrection (already occurred) = this “life” will
never end; the believer will never die (spiritually).
• When believers are united to Christ (John 6:53-58), they
inherit, in Him, the divine quality of life (eternal life). They
are alive spiritually; this will never change. And, even though
they die physically, their union with Christ means bodily
resurrection on the last day. Union with Christ is the
centerpiece of biblical soteriology, and the center of the
chiastic structure in the Book of Signs (John 2—12).
• The “already” inaugurated kingdom means believers already
have eternal life (regeneration); the “not yet” consummated
kingdom means believers do not yet have resurrection life
(bodily resurrection).
• Physical death will cause no interruption to spiritual life.
8. Substance of Belief: Jesus asks Martha, “Do you believe this?” What is the
substance of belief?
a. It is unlikely the question means: “Do you believe that Lazarus
can/will be raised from the dead?”
b. Instead, the question more likely means: “Do you believe that I am the
one who grants eternal life and bodily resurrection… (the beginning
and end of new creation)?” Or, in other words, “Do you believe that I
am the resurrection and the life?”
c. Martha’s answer makes sense according to this second meaning. She
answers, “Yes Lord; I believe that you are the Christ, the Son of God.”
This is the substance of complete faith, the quality of faith the Fourth
Gospel approves (20:31).
9. Parabolic Function (Revisited): as with previous signs, the resurrection of
Lazarus becomes a kind of enacted parable.
a. It is a demonstration of Jesus’s power, by which he selectively unveils
his identity, an identity that Martha has just acknowledged. Somehow,
she understands that Messiah sovereignly controls “life,” from new

229
Carson, Gospel According to John, 413.

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 birth—by the outpouring of the Spirit—to bodily resurrection on the
final day. Messiah is Lord of new creation, from first to last… the
almighty Alpha and Omega. “In him was life, and the life was the
light of men” (1:4).
b. Two Points of Clarification: in Jesus’s parables, the surface action
reveals some underlying symbolism or spiritual significance. Thus,
we should clarify in two ways: (1) Christ is not granting Lazarus
eternal life here; Christ provides for new life that the Spirit applies
(3:5-8)… and (2), Christ is not granting Lazarus resurrection life
either; it is reserved for the eschatological future. But the resurrection
of Lazarus is a picture (or parable) of both realities. Whoever believes
in Christ, though he may die, he shall live again. And whoever
believes in Christ, having eternal life, shall never die.230
H. Way, Truth, & Life
1. The Sixth Salvific “I am” Statement
2. Messiah Prepares the Covenant People: Jesus is concerned that his new
messianic community be prepared for the task that is to follow; the disciples
are to be the “light of the world” in Jesus’s physical absence.
a. What they do not yet know is that He will be with them, by His Spirit,
whom he promises to send. But this will be a difficult transition to
make. Their faith will be shaken. Peter will deny Christ three times in
the shattering of his faith. And, understandably, the others wonder, in
light of the rock’s shattering faith (see Matthew 16:18), if their own
will stand. Therefore the group is troubled.
b. Jesus is moving resolutely to the cross, to suffering, to shame, to
horrifying agony and crucifixion; he, too, is troubled (12:27; 13:21).
But the disciples are troubled for different reasons; they are moving
toward an uncertain future full of doubt, confusion, and the departure
of their Master.
c. In spite of his own spiritual anguish, the Lord is strong in comforting
his troubled friends. He will be the steady “Rock” of their faith; he
will not abandon them to the grave. Instead, he will guide them to the
Father. He would be for them “the Way, the Truth, and the Life.”
3. Comfort in Distress: our section opens in 14:1 with the gentle encouragement,
“Let not your hearts be troubled.” There is good cause for trouble, but there is
also no good cause for trouble. In one sense, Jesus is leaving; in another
sense, Jesus is not leaving them.
a. Righteous men (14:1): they have already believed (Greek: πιστεύετε) in
God; now they have also believed in Christ (2:11). These were pious

230
John Piper preaches two profound sermons on the resurrection of Lazarus. The first was preached
on 10 September 2011 (https://www.desiringgod.org/messages/this-illness-is-for-the-glory-of-god) and the second
was preached a week later, on 17 September 2011 (https://www.desiringgod.org/messages/jesus-is-the-resurrection-
and-the-life). Both links were accessed on 11 August 2022 @ 11:00pm.

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 Jews, after all, and had grown up with certainty of God’s existence and
deliverance in their monotheistic traditions.
b. They had known of God’s work in bringing the Hebrews out of
Egyptian slavery. They believed in something like a New Exodus
coming about in the work of Christ.
c. Both Greek words in 14:1 are identical. The disciples had truly
believed in God—and we are given no reason to doubt it—and they
had also believed in Christ. If the text hints at a deeper faith, it does so
to prompt a complete faith post-resurrection.
4. Prepare a Place: Jesus is going to the cross to prepare a place for his disciples
in the Kingdom of God. He is then going to the Father to prepare the
heavenly place for them.
a. Ceremonial Cleansing: recall the first sign in Cana of Galilee and how
the issue of cleansing spilled over into a contentious debate (John the
Baptist; 3:25-30). The text moves from cleansing, to baptism, to the
Messianic Bridegroom.
b. Jesus had just cleansed the disciples in a ritual sense by washing their
feet; he would go to the cross to cleanse them in an ontological and
spiritual sense by washing away their sins. This would prepare them
for entrance into the Messianic banquet at the end of the age (Rev
19:6-9).
c. Jesus had “dwelled” among the disciples; the disciples would “dwell”
with Jesus. He had come to their home turf (as it were), and now,
because of his work at Calvary, they would be welcomed on his.
d. Thus, Jesus’s work in going to prepare a place for believers is not
heavenly carpentry work; he is not assembling rooms with beds,
bureaus, and a charming décor, as if the place needed to be made.
Heaven exists before Jesus prepares them for it. He is about to open
the very doors of heaven to them. They can rejoice because they will
be with Jesus forever. The preparation is new creation… Jesus is
making all things new (Rev 21:5).
5. Loyal, Courageous Thomas: the loyal and courageous disciple (11:16; 20:24),
is uncertain about the way to the Father. Jesus replies that He is the Way to
the Father precisely because he is the Truth of God – having revealed the
Father faithfully and completely, exegeting Him as one who is the Only
Begotten of God (see 1:14) – and precisely because he is the Life of God – the
one in whom there is divine, eternal, and saving life (see 1:4; 11:25). Two
comments will assist our exegesis:
a. Jesus is the way to the Father because he is the final revelation of the
Father, embodying the divine self-disclosure as the Word made flesh.
No one would claim to know God based on a previous revelation (Old
Testament) and reject Christ at the same time. Jesus is the way to the
Father; no one comes to the Father except through the Son. Thus,
knowing God from OT (provisional) revelation necessitates knowing
Christ, the (eschatological) revelation to which the Scriptures pointed.
b. Jesus is the way to the Father because he is the “resurrection and the

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 life.” He does not merely blaze a trail that others must follow, as a
cosmic park ranger or enlightened teacher; he is the way because he is
the life. In order to commune with the Father, one must have the life
of God. This is the gift that Jesus imparts to believers when he sends
the Holy Spirit (note: the immediate context deals with this very
promise).
c. Jesus will die so that divine life is available to His people; and he will
send the Spirit so that divine life is within His people. The exclusive
claim of the author here is that Christianity is the only true religion and
not merely one among many. This spoke powerfully against the
syncretistic Roman environment in which this gospel was first
encountered.
6. Truth of Christ, Life of Christ, & Way of Christ: the truth of Christ must be
received; the life of Christ must be inherited by Spirit-union with Him; the
way of Christ is to be followed.
a. Nicodemus & Pontius Pilate (18:37-38) are the main characters within
the narrative context for whom truth matters deeply.
b. The Jewish crowds at Passover are the main characters for whom life
matters supremely (6:28-34).
c. The disciples are the main characters to whom the “way” of Christ is
utterly crucial. They have followed Jesus; they wish to follow him
still. On this point, we note that Jesus is more than moral exemplar
(the enlightened guru or ethical instructor). He is the way to the
Father… and the way is marked with suffering and rejection, even
death. His teaching must be obeyed, but his patterned life must also be
imitated. Further, we note that Jesus is the “way” because he inherits
the kingdom. As believers, then, we share in the Son’s inheritance (the
firstborn son, the elder brother; cf. Rom 8:17; Col 1:18; Rev 1:17-18).
We do not receive an inheritance; rather, we participate in the Son’s
inheritance.
7. Divine Self-Disclosure: the faith of the disciples is moving toward
completion, but they would like to see the Father (as in a physical
manifestation) so that they might truly believe. In the OT, Moses requested a
similar manifestation; the prophet Isaiah was granted a partial vision of God,
and most would assume it was the Father. But John says it was Christ (12:41),
perhaps instructing us as to the nature of God’s appearances in the OT. Were
they theophanies? Or Christophanies?
a. Jesus agrees with the OT that a direct encounter with the Father is
impossible.
b. And yet, Jesus makes a stunning claim: “Whoever has seen me has
seen the Father.” He answers Philip’s concern by asking, “Do you still
not know me?” If Jesus had merely intended to show the Father, he
might have asked, “Do you still not know him?”
c. Instead, Jesus perfectly revealed the Father; no limitations hindered
this salvific, divine self-disclosure for the saints. Sin and judgment
kept the crowds from seeing God, in Christ (cf. 2 Cor 4:6).

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8. Unity of Father & Son: because the Father and Son are perfectly one,
believers may ask anything of the Father in the name of the Son, and it will be
done according to the glorification of the Son. Two questions linger:
Question #1: What are the ‘greater works’ that people of faith accomplish
(14:12)?
Question #2: Why are not all prayers offered ‘in Jesus’ name’ answered
positively?
a. Greater Works: the “greater works” of believers cannot be works done
with greater authority; there is no authority that usurps that of Jesus.
These works cannot be done in a greater manner (according to the
superabundance of each messianic sign). Works cannot be done in a
more spectacular or more supernatural manner. The multiplication of
bread and fish and the raising of Lazarus are beyond human
manipulation.
b. Greater = Clearer: these works must be greater in clarity. They are
clearer works because Jesus is going to the Father. The revelation of
the Son of Man in glory on the cross will open eyes, soften hearts, and
loosen ears to see, feel, and hear the words of God on the lips of His
people. Jesus’s works done before his death and resurrection were
distinctly hidden, veiled from the crowds and beyond their perception.
As such, Jesus was met with confusion and rejection. The signs and
works of Christ fulfilled their purpose through inaugurated judgment
(as we have seen throughout). For believers, such signs fulfilled their
purpose in limited ways, for Jesus had not yet been glorified.
c. Greater = Eschatological: these works are greater because they belong
to the eschatological age of the Spirit.
d. Greater = Inaugurated Reign: these works would be greater because of
prayer. Jesus, now reigning, grants his people power and the Spirit
would provide divine enablement for the Kingdom of God to
implement Jesus’s final victory, overcoming the world.
e. In Jesus’s Name: the prayers of the saints, we note that the Son is no
longer limited by his humanity to grant requests and provide strength
to His people. He no longer operates under the dominion of darkness,
the “night” that prevailed before he conquered sin, death, the devil,
and the forces of evil on the cross. He is glorified with the Father and
is reigning triumphantly over the world. Therefore, those who ask him
for power to do his will (whether through obedience, signs, or other
works) are asking the Almighty King.
f. In Jesus’s Name: all prayers that are offered in the name of Christ. As
such, they are offered through Christ and in accord with all that his
name stands for, not as a magical incantation or self-exalting slogan.
Prayers are answered by the Son in order to bring glory to the Father.
• Governing Principle: all prayers are answered according to the
Son’s mission (his purpose or his will).
• Governing Purpose: all prayers are answered in order to glorify
the Father.

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 Summary: Carson concludes, “During his ministry on earth, the Son’s consistent aim, and
his achievement, was to bring glory to his Father. That was, no less, the Son’s purpose in
completing his mission by going to the cross – which was simultaneously the means by
which the Son would be supremely glorified. Now, in the splendor of his exaltation, the
Son’s purpose does not change: he enables his own to do ‘greater things’ in order that he
may bring glory to the Father.”231
I. True Vine
1. The Seventh Salvific “I am” Statement
2. Jesus was leaving; the disciples worried. But Jesus would send the Holy
Spirit (14:15-18; 15:26; 16:19, 22-23 = inaugurated Parousia (?). As such, the
disciples would be filled with abounding joy and true peace; Jesus would
never leave them, and would be with them to the end of the age.
3. More than this, the followers of Jesus would be divinely enabled to follow the
commands of Christ; by this could they demonstrate their love for him and
devotion to his ongoing mission (see Ezek 36:27).
a. Without the Spirit, this kind of obedience and devotion would have
been impossible. So as the Apostle John transitions to the second part
of the Farewell Discourse, he makes the connection between the gift of
the Holy Spirit and the ability to remain in the true vine, Jesus Christ.
b. It would be precisely because of the Spirit’s presence in their lives that
the command—“Abide in me”—could be fulfilled. Thus, along with
the next salvific “I am” statement of Jesus comes with a threefold
command. Jesus says, “I am the true vine” and then commands:
“abide in me” (15:4), “abide in my love” (15:9), and “love one another
as I have loved you” (15:12). All these will be possible and, in a very
real sense already accomplished, because Jesus was returning to the
Father in order to send the Holy Spirit.
4. Vine Imagery in the New Testament speaks of Israel in terms of transfigured
continuity.232 In the Old Testament, the vineyard represented Israel as less
fruitful than she ought to have been. Now, in the Fourth Gospel, the vine
refers to Jesus himself.
a. The Messiah is the true (and singular) remnant of Israel; he is faithful
to Torah (as the embodiment of Torah) and a light to the Gentiles. By
saying, “I am the true vine,” Jesus is revealed to be the true Israel of
God (OT allusions to John 15:1-17 are noteworthy).233
b. Israel, as the Old Covenant people of God represented by vine
imagery, had failed to produce fruit in keeping with righteousness.

231
Carson, Gospel According to John, 497.
232
See Matt 21:33-41; Mark 12:1-9; and Luke 20:9-16; cf. Matt 20:1-16; 21:28-32; Luke 13:6-9.
233
The OT passages are numerous: Ps 80:9-16; Isa 5:1-7; 27:2; Jer 2:21; 12:10; Ezek 15:1-8; 17:1-21;
19:10-14; Hos 10:1-2. Note that Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel are prominent as the most eschatological OT
prophets, anticipating and mirroring the inaugurated eschatology of the Fourth Gospel.

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 Undoubtedly, this was due to the condition of their hearts, which had
not been circumcised. They had not been transformed by the Law
(neither could they be transformed by the Law). Transformation
would be the only way to ensure fruitfulness.
5. The True Vine: people no longer enter into covenant relationship with God
through ethnic heritage or national identity. Instead, people approach the
Father through the Son. Jesus has replaced the temple (as the one in whom
God meets with his people), and the sacrificial system (as the Lamb of God
who takes away the sins of the world), along with its ritual purification (as the
one in whom true cleansing takes place). His eschatological grace supersedes
the provisional grace of the Mosaic Covenant and Jewish Festivals. In Christ,
the signposts of Israel are transfigured (invested with greater, final, and
eschatological glory). Ps 80:7-8, 14-19 looks forward to a time upon which
the apostle John now reflects.
6. Several features of this verse apply to the Gospel of John.
a. OT Israel, the vine transplanted from the sands of Egypt to the soil of
Canaan, was an apostate people that turned away from the name of the
Lord. They forsook the living God.
b. The True Vine is the “son” or “branch” of the Lord, established by/for
God’s sovereign purposes. Jesus says, “I am the true vine, and my
Father is the vinedresser” (15:1). God had established his Son to
replace unfaithful Israel; in the Son, the divine face shines upon
humanity with salvific light. The “son” or “branch” is identified as the
“Son of Man,” which is a favorite title of Jesus in the Fourth Gospel.
c. The Restoration of Israel: when the Son of Man is established, the
people of God would faithfully call on His name. They would be
saved. Vine imagery shows Jesus as True Israel; his followers are
incorporated into Israel—grafted into the vine/tree—as faithful,
fruitful people because of the indwelling, abiding Spirit of God. The
works of the Father (pruning 15:2), the Son (cleansing, 15:3), and the
Spirit (fruitfulness, 15:5) are portrayed.
d. True Followers: the true followers of Christ are contrasted with self-
deceived apostates. The Father prunes all branches, either for greater
fruit-bearing (true followers of Christ) or total separation from the vine
(self-deceived Jewish apostates).
7. Faith of Hellenistic Jews: many in this group had come to faith through the
ministry of the Apostle Paul and others. Finding no home among Hebraic
Jews (in the synagogue) or Gentile neighbors (in pagan temples)—yet still
wishing for some sense of belonging—they turned back, either reverting to
legalistic Judaism or converting to syncretistic paganism.
a. These who turned away from Christ had been cut off, not merely
pruned. The “Christ-vine” extended back to Abraham; if one failed to
receive Christ, he had been cut off of the singular covenant vine. This
one never belonged to Christ, was never numbered among his
followers.
b. Branches, then, are not those closest to Christ (as if spatial proximity

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 determined authentic faith), but are those fruitful in Christ (fruit =
obedience, which shows union with Christ; 15:8-17). Fruitfulness is
also abiding (obey by abiding in Christ; abide in Christ in order to
obey, be fruitful).
8. Painful Pruning for Purification: the Father’s work in believers’ lives has
redemptive purpose, as the Greek text of John 15:2-3 testifies. Word play =
the Father “prunes” or “trims” (Greek: καθαίρει) the fruitful branches in 15:2
while Jesus says in 15:3 that “you are clean” (Greek: καθαροί) because the
“word” had already taken hold of them; they had already believed. Thus,
pruning is not rejection, casting off, or preparation for the fire (as in Matt
7:19); it is sanctifying work.
9. Bearing Fruit & Perseverance: the saints “bear much fruit” according to the
will of God. Such fruit is dependent upon its existence in the vine, manifested
outwardly in its obedience to Christ’s commands. Those who remain in Christ
have the word of Christ remaining in them; they offer prayers to the Father
that are answered according to his glory and perform works to prove their true
faith in the Son. Believers abide in Christ. Unbelievers do not abide in
Christ; they have no personal faith and are cut off by the Father. Again, it is
helpful to consider this teaching in light of the ancient context and a
Hellenistic Jewish audience.

-- POINTS of APPLICATION (Gospels & Acts) --

Application: Creative Principles for Applying Biblical Texts234

A. Seven Ways Seven Ways Biblical Texts Generate Applications:
1. Moral Rules
2. Ethical Ideals
3. Doctrinal Statements
4. Redemptive Acts (Narrative)
5. Exemplary Acts (Narrative)
6. Symbols: Typology & Recapitulation in Revelation
7. Songs/Prayers
B. The Contexts of the Biblical Text
1. Literary Context: the world of the text.
2. Historical Context: the world behind the text.
3. Covenantal Context: the bridge between contexts, linking the original readers
of New Covenant texts to the modern reader.
a. Positional Correspondence = Spirit-Union with Christ: as believers,

234
This section will be especially indebted to the principles in Daniel M. Doriani, Putting the Truth to
Work: The Theory and Practice of Biblical Application (Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R Publishing, 2001). Specific points of
application will be student-generated, so that an appropriately contextual bridge may be constructed to connect the
text of Scripture with the modern Ethiopian context.

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 ancient and modern readers share this reality.
b. Epistemic Correspondence = Knowing Christ: as believers illumined
by the Spirit, ancient and modern readers share this reality, too.
c. Ethical Correspondence = Conformity to Christ: as believers being
transformed by the Spirit, ancient and modern readers share this
reality.
d. Teleological Correspondence = Holy City as Eternal Home: as
believers walking the pre-determined path (Eph 2:10; Heb 12:1), we
march unto Zion as ancient and modern citizens who share in the
reality of God’s Kingdom (Heb 11:40; 12:28).
e. Note the universality of Abrahamic & Davidic contexts in Rom 4:1-8,
23-24.
4. Contemporary Context: the world in front of the text.235
C. Story Immersion for Worldview Transformation
1. We must transcend our times; we must reenter the story of Scripture.236
2. Doriani writes, “While we interpret Scripture, Scripture interprets us. We
scrutinize the text, and the text scrutinizes us, exposing our beliefs,
experiences, and secrets. We might say Scripture applies itself to us. If we
achieve sufficient awareness of this process, it will generate applications
almost spontaneously, for the applications we sense usually touch matters that
are common to humanity. We see our world afresh through the lens of
Scripture, and verbalize our vision. As we learn more of God through
Scripture, we are impelled to declare his name, speaking from compulsion as
much as calculation.”237
3. Doriani continues, “Failing to encounter the otherness of Scripture, we miss
the difference between the world in which we do live and the world in which
we could live.”238
D. Ordained Reality in Apocalyptic/Prophetic Literature
1. Doriani writes, “To overstate slightly, Jesus did not do things because they
were predicted; they were predicted because God ordained that he do them.

235
The value of studying Historical Theology and/or the reception history of a particular text (or biblical
book) is evident here. Much correspondence exists between writers of Scripture (battling works-righteousness in
Second Temple Judaism), the Patristic Era (battling Pelagianism), the Reformation Era (battling semi-Pelagianism),
and the Modern Era (battling self-righteous human effort in the ascent to God). Further, doctrinal deviation begins
with originality. Doriani, Putting the Truth to Work, 90 says, “The quest for righteousness elevates our capacity to
locate the burden of a passage.” I would add, it is the common, mutual quest that links ancient and modern readers.
236
Doriani, Putting the Truth to Work, 31 writes, “Hermeneutics is the theory behind interpretation. It
provides strategies for a partial transcendence of our times and a reentry into the world of Scripture.”
237
Doriani, Putting the Truth to Work, 35. There is significant merit in what Doriani writes and implies
here. As believers, we approach the biblical text with a trusting (fiduciary) disposition and open hands, seeking
what God would tell us. We allow Scripture to exegete us, confront us, and prescribe and apply doctrine to us and
our lives.
238
Doriani, Putting the Truth to Work, 46.

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 The prediction did not cause the action as much as the future action caused the
prediction. Predetermined by God outside time, the action was presented by
God to the mind of the prophet before its time, so that when the time arrived,
the action would be recognized as the will of God.”239
2. The future creates certain actions in the past or present: God ordained that
Christ should say/do various things; they were predicted because the Son
would do what God ordained. The future action caused the past prediction;
the future prompts past and present actions.
3. Typology as Ordained Recapitulation of Reality: Jesus, the Son of David, the
true Israel, recapitulates the suffering and vindication of his OT types.
E. Propositional & Narrative Truth
1. Propositional Truth: stating biblical truth in application as general principles
to be followed. Example: avoid small compromises, for they will lead to large
scale apostasy.
2. Narrative Truth: stating biblical truth in application from a specific character’s
experience(s). Example: Solomon ruins his life and kingdom through
rejection of Torah (Deut 17:14-17). The story plays out accordingly.
F. Four Types of Spiritual or Ethical Questions for Application (Do, Be, Go, See)240
1. Questions of Duty (Do): What should I do? What is my responsibility in light
of a given text? Beware the Self-Indulgence of Virtue: if the action is not
done by the Spirit, for the glory of God, it is self-indulgence. The progression
moves from “I’ve been virtuous” to “I am virtuous.” Christian duty says,
“God has worked; to Him be the glory.” For, “from Him, through Him, and to
Him are all things” (Rom 11:36).
2. Questions of Moral Character (Be): What kind of person should I become?
What about my moral character does the given text confront?
3. Questions of Goals (Go): What should I pursue? How should my life goals be
transformed in light of a given text?
4. Questions of Worldview (See): What should I discern about life? How does
the given text call for the conformity of my worldview commitments? What
are the competing values of the world?
a. The nature of the τέλος determines time and energy spent. God
determines human actions not as a nudge from behind, but as a
beckoning forth from beyond.
b. From God's perspective, everything is predetermined. He has chosen
the times, seasons, and actions of people who freely play their part, as
musicians in the orchestra freely adhere to the score.
c. For people, determinism is evident retrospectively (I have seen God's
will in this/that righteous decision. This cannot be just “any” decision,

239
Doriani, Putting the Truth to Work, 67.
240
Summarized from Doriani, Putting the Truth to Work, 121.

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 but those that fall within the parameters of the Law, according to God's
righteousness and character). Then, the call of God beckons us
forward into blessedness that causes us to yield our wills to His.
G. Modernity & Christianity: how culture engages religion/spirituality241
1. Modernity has made Christianity Rational: thus, less mythological (you
understand the world and solve problems rationally.
2. Modernity has made Christianity Relative: cultural pluralism undermines
exclusive claims.
3. Modernity has made Christianity Private: structural pluralism makes religion
part of the private sector, not the public sphere.
H. Six Phases in Dramatic Narrative242
1. Setting (in the literary and historical contexts).
2. Character(s) Development (how the people in the story behave, think...).
Narratives develop characters by:243
a. Test: character is on trial.
b. Quest: pursuit of a goal is evaluated.
c. Choice: discernment is revealed as characters decide among competing
options.
3. Rising Conflict
4. Climax (Abraham lifts his hand over Isaac, David rushes toward Goliath...);
look for meaning here.
5. Resolution (God provides, God wins victory...).
6. Following Action/Interpretation.
I. Application of Biblical Law to “Do, Be, Go, See”
1. The Law Applies Identically: this relates to ideals.
2. The Law Applies Analogously: this relates to rules.
3. The Law Applies Typologically: commands that have been cut off, as no
longer relevant to the covenantal context, are to be applied typologically.
Example: animal sacrifice in light of the sacrifice of Christ; self-sacrifice as
worship (Rom 12:1) and praise as sacrifice (Heb 13:15). Look for creation
norms (identical application) and then for commands within their context in
redemptive history (analogous application).
4. The Three Uses of the Law:244
a. Restrains Sin

241
Doriani, Putting the Truth to Work, 157. Doriani is citing James Davison Hunter, American
Evangelicalism: Conservative Religion and the Quandary of Modernity (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University
Press, 1983), 9–17.
242
Doriani, Putting the Truth to Work, 206.
243
Doriani, Putting the Truth to Work, 222.
244
Doriani, Putting the Truth to Work, 319ff.

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 b. Leads to Christ
c. Provides Moral Guidance
5. The Three Aspects of the Law
a. Moral = permanently binding, as the character of God is revealed in its
key principles of love, justice, mercy, and faithfulness. Permanent
Law grounded in the character of God. However, when we say
“binding,” we do not mean covenantally binding. Moral aspects of the
Law relate to God’s character, in which people imitate him, but are not
determinative of inclusion within the covenant. Covenant inclusion is
by Spirit-union with Christ.
b. Civil = for Israel, in Canaan, and a spelling out of the Ten
Commandments (in specific, culturally relevant ways).
c. Ceremonial = regulations for worship, priesthood, tabernacle,
sacrifices that prefigure—and are fulfilled—in Christ.

Benedictions: we end our study with the beautiful benediction found in the Epistle of Jude:
And now, “to him who is able to keep you from falling and to present you before his glorious
presence without fault and with great joy—to the only God our Savior be glory, majesty, power
and authority, through Jesus Christ our Lord, before all ages, now and forevermore! Amen.”
(Jude 1:24-25, NIV)
We also conclude our study with the anticipation of eternal blessing, final glorification, and a call
for the imminent return of the Lord Jesus:
Behold, I am coming soon! My reward is with me, and I will give to everyone according to what
he has done. I am the Alpha and the Omega, the First and the Last, the Beginning and the End.
Blessed are those who wash their robes, that they may have the right to the tree of life and may go
through the gates into the city. I, Jesus, have sent my angel to give you this testimony for the
churches. I am the Root and the Offspring of David, and the bright Morning Star. The Spirit and
the bride say, “Come!” And let him who hears say, “Come!” Whoever is thirsty, let him come;
and whoever wishes, let him take the free gift of the water of life. He who testifies to these things
says, “Yes, I am coming soon.” Amen. Come, Lord Jesus! (Rev 22:12-20, NIV)

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Alexander, T. Desmond. The City of God and the Goal of Creation. Wheaton, IL: Crossway,
2018.

________. From Eden to the New Jerusalem. Grand Rapids: Kregel Publishing, 2008.

Allison, Gregg R. Historical Theology: An Introduction to Christian Doctrine. Grand Rapids:

Zondervan, 2011.

Bailey, Kenneth E. Jesus through Middle Eastern Eyes: Cultural Studies in the Gospels.
Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2008.

Bartholomew, Craig G., and Michael W. Goheen, The Drama of Scripture: Finding Our Place in
the Biblical Story. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2004.

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