Short Papers in Geology

and Hydrology
Articles 1-59
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1963

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 475-B

Scientific notes and summaries of investigations prepared

by members of the Conservation, Geologic, and Water
Resources Divisions

- -

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON : 1963

 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
STEWART L. UDALL, Secretary

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
Thomas B. Nolan, Director

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office

Washington 25, D.C.
 FOREWORD
This collection of 59 articles is one of a series to be released in 1963 as chaptam of Pro-
fessional Paper 475. The articles report on scientific and economic results of current work
by members of the Geologic, Water Resources, and Conservation Divisions of the United
States Geological Survey. Some of the papers present the results of completed parts of con-
tinuing investigations; others announce new discoveries or preliminary results of investiga-
tions that will be discussed in greater detail in reports to be published in the future. Still
others are scientific notes of limited scope, and short papers on methods and techniques.
Chapter A of this series will be published later in the year, and will present a synopsis
of results of work done during the present fiscal year.

THOMASB. NOLAN,
Director.
 CONTENTS
Page
i11

GEOLOGIC STUDIES
Geochemistry, mineralogy, and petrology
1. Significance of Ols/Ols and Cla/Cl2 ratios in hydrothermally dolomitized limestones and manganese carbonate re-
placement ores of the Drum Mountains. Juab C o ~ n t y ,Utah, by T. S. Lovering, J. H. Mecarthy, and
Irving F r i e d m n - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
2. Thortveitite associated with fluorite, Ravalli County, Mont., by R. L. Parker and R. G. Havens-------------..---
3. Beryllium in the tin deposits of Irish Creek, Va., by F. G. Lesure, T. H. Kiilsgaard, C.E. Brown, and M. E. Mrose--
4. Beryllium and fluorine in mineralized tuff, Spor Mountain, Jusb County, Utah, by W. R. Griffitts and L. F. Rader, Jr-
5. Beryllium and fluorine content of some silicic volcanic glasses from Western United States, by W. R. Griffitts and
H. A. P o w e r s - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
6. Some new data on the arsenic content of basalt, by A. J. Bartel, E. J. Fennelly, Claude Huffman, Jr., and L. F.
Rader, J r ............................................................................ ------------------
7. Preliminary relations in the system Na2B40,-Ca&Oll-H~0, by B. B. Hanshaw- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8. Variation in minor-element content of desert varnish, by H. W. Lakin, C. B. Hunt, D. F. Davidson, and Uteana Oda-
9. Relation of iou-exchange capacity to mineral composition and grain size of weathered crystalline rocks a t the Georgia
Nuclear Lrtboratory, Dawson County, Ga., by J. W. Stewart- .............................................
10. Cordierite-bearing mineral assemblages in Precambrian rocks, Central City quadrangl -,Colorado, by P. K. Sims
and D. J. Gable--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
11. Bedded barite deposits of the Shoshone Range, Nev., by K. B. Ketner--- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12. Accretionary lapilli in rocks of the Carolina slate belt, Stanly County, N. C., by H. W. Sundelius- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
13. Composition and origin of silioeous mudstone in the Carlin and Pine Valley quadrangles, Nevada, by K. B. Ketner
and J. F. Smith, Jr-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
14. Tuffaceous sandstones in the Triassic Chinle Formation, Colorado Plateau, by R. A. Cadigan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15. Petrographic characteristics of some welded tuffs of the Piapi Canyon Formation, Nevada Test Site, Nev., by J. T.
O1Connor-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Geochronology
16. Potassium-argon and lead-alpha ages for stratigraphically bracketed plutonic rocks in the Talkeetna Mountains,
Alaska, by Arthur Grantz, Herman Thomas, T. W. Stern, and N. B. Sheffey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17. Radium migration and its effect on the apparent age of uranium deposits a t Ambrosia Lake, N. Mex., by H. C.
- - - - - - - - - - -
Granger--- - - - - - - - _- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Geophysics
18. Gravity survey of the Gold Meadows stock, Nevada Test Site, Nye County, Nev., by D. L. Healey and C. H . Miller--
19. Depiction of soil-covered structures by infrared aerial photography, by W. A. Fischer ----- - - - --------------- ----
20. T'WO nomograph~for computation of standard equations in earth-resistivity interpretation, by J. H.Scott--- - - - - - -
Stratigraphy and structural geology
21. New Cambrian, Ordovician, and Silurian formations in the Independence quadrangle, Inyo County, Calif., by D. C.
-- - - - - - - - -
Ross - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
22. The Livingston Group of south-central Montana, by A. E. Roberta. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23. Age of certain post-Madison rocks in southwestern Montana and western Wyoming, by J. T. Dutro, Jr., and W. J.
Sando----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
24. Emendation of the Kelvin Formation and Morrison(?) Formation near Salt Lake City, Utah, by M. D. Crittenden, Jr-
25. Apache Creek Sandstone Member of the Pierre Shale of southeastern Colorado, by G. R. Scott and W. A. Cobban-
26. Stratigraphic section at Island Beach State Park, N.J., by P. R. Seaber and John Vecchioli- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - -
27. Aerial reconnaissance of the outer Shumagin Islands, Alaska, by Arthur Grantz--- -- - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
28. Structural influence on development of linear topographic features, southern Baranof Island, southeastern Alaska,
-
by D. A. Brew, R. A. Loney, J. S. Pomeroy, and L. J. P. Muffler - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
29. Geology of the Guhnica-Guayanilla Bay area, southwestern Puerto Rico, by I. G. Grossman---- - - - - - - - - - - -- - --- -
Paleontology and paleoecology
30. Caradocian (Middle Ordovician) fossiliferous rocks near Ashland, Maine, by R. B. Neuman - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
31. Miocene vertebrates from Middle Park, Colo., by G. A. Izett and G. E. Lewis- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
32. Paleoecology of the Permian Phosphoria Formation and related rocks, by E. L. Yochelson- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
VI CONTENTS

Geomorphology, glacial geology, and glaciology Page

33. Quaternary events along the unglaciated lower Ohio River v a e y , by L.L. Ray ---. - -- ---- - ----- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - B125
34. Earst topography in the Gros Ventre Mountains, northwestern Wyoming, by W. R. Keefer..-- - -------- - - - - - - - - - 129
35. Eruptions of water and sand resulting from an earthquake near Concepci6n, Chile, by Kenneth Segerstrom, Lorenzo
Casertano, and Carlos Gdli 0-- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
36. Paradise debris flow a t Mount Rainier, Wash., by D. R. C r a n d e l l - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 135
3.7. Preliminary report on glaciology and glacial geology of the Thiel Mountains, Antarctica, by B. G. Andemen------- 140
38. Influence of snow cover on frost penetration, by D. B. Krinsley - - _ - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -144 -

39. Origin and nature of the probable skeletal fuzz on the Moon, by C. R. Warren . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Maiine geology
40. Pillow structures of submarine basalts east of Hawaii, by J. G. Moore and R. K. Reed ......................... .. 153
Economic geology
41. estimate^ of world bauxite reserves and potential resources, by S. H. Patterson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Analytical techniques
42. Lead reference sample for isotopic abundance ratios, by M. H. Delevaux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
43. Synthesis of liebigite, by Robert Meyrowitz, D. R. ROSS,and A. D. Weeks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
44. Separation of tellurium from iron and gold using tributyl phosphate and ether, by C. E. Thompson and H. W. Lakin-.. 164
45. Determination of traces of boron in halite and anhydritic halite rocks, by F. S. Grimaldi and F. 0. Simon--------- 166
46. Determining density and porosity of tuff containing zeolites, by D. D. Dickey and E. F. Monk - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 169
HYDROLOGIC STUDIES
Engineering hydrology
47. Land subsidence in the Arvin-Maricopa area, San Joaquin Valley, Calif., by B. E. Lofgren. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
48. Waterpower investigations of lakes in Alaska, by Arthur Johnson- - - - - -- -- ---- ------ - -- - - -----I- - - - - - - -- ---- - 176
Ground wahr
49. Ground water in the Nahud outlier of the Nubian Series, Kordofan Province, Sudan, by H. G. Rodis and Wilson
Iskander-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 179
50. Contamination of ground water by sea-water intrusion along Puget Sound, Wash., an area having abundant precipita-
tion, by G. E. K i m m e l - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 182
51. Influence of land-surface conditions on ground-water temperatures in southwestern Suffolk County, Long Island,
N.Y., by E. J. Pluhowski and I. H. Xantrowitz. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
52. Seasonal changes in the chemical quality of shallow ground water in northwestern Alaska, by A. J. Feulner and R. G.
S c h u p p - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- 189
Analytical hydrology
53. Changes in ground-water movement and bank storage caused by flood waves in surface streams, by H. H. Cooper,
Jr., and M. I. R o r a b a u g h - - - - - - - - - - - _ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 192
54. Preparation of type curves for calculating T/Sof a wedge-shaped aquifer, by I. S. Papadopulos - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 196
55. Effect of the injection scheme on the spread of tracers in ground-water reservoirs, by Akio Ogata- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 199
Experimental hydrology
56. Effect of base-level changes on bedding development in a laboratory flume, by A. V. Jopling---- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 203
57. Factors influencing the survival of Eschetichia coli in detergent solutions, by C. H. Wayman, J. B. Robertson, and
H. G. P a g e - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 205
58. Effect of detergents on the viscosity of water containing bacteria and clay in suspension by C. H.Wayman, H. G.
Page, and J. B. R o b e r t s o n - - - - - - - - - - - _ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 209
59. Adsorption of the surfactant ABS" on montmorillonite, by C. H. Wayman, J. B. Robertson, and H. G. Page------ 213
INDEXES

Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -- - 219
Article 16

ROTASSIUM-ARGON AND LEAD-ALPHA AGES

FOR STRATIGRAPHICALLY BRACKETED PLUTONIC ROCKS
IN THE TALKEETNA MOUNTAINS, ALASKA

ByARTHUR GRANTZ; HERMAN THOMAS, T. W. STERN, and NOLA B. SHEFFEY,

Menlo Park, Calif.; Washington, D.C.

Abstract.-A tie between radioactivity and stratigraphic mentary and volcanic rocks. It contains ammonites
time scales resulted from dating the Kosina batholith. Two (identified by R. Mr. Imlay, written communications,
radiogenic methods indicate the batholith is 160-165 million 1961 and 1962) which are representative of parts of
years old; geologic mapping suggests emplacement between
Toarcian (Early) and Oxfordian (Late Jurassic) time, and the Sinemurian, Pliensbachian, and Toarcian (includ-
perhaps close to the Early-Middle Jurassic boundary. ing upper Toarcian) Stages of the Early Jurassic.
Pectens of the genus WeyZa from the Talkeetna (iden-
Six potassium-argon ages of biotite and four Iead- tified by S. W. Muller, oral communications, 1961 and
alpha ages of zircon, determined for a stratigraphi- 1962) belong to species which range through these same
cally bracketed pluton in the eastern Talkeetna stages. Three of the fossil localities are between 1
Mountains of south-central Alaska, indicate that the and 2 miles from the batholith (fig. 16.1). Locality A
pluton is about 160-165 million years old. The plu- (USGS Mes. loc. 28659), in hornfelsed beds intruded
ton intrudes rocks of Sinemurian to Toarcian (Early by an apophysis of the batholith, contains Weyla and
Jurassic) age and was the source of many boulders in is therefore of Early Jurassic age; locality B (USGS
conglomerate of Oxfordian (Late Jurassic) age. The Mes. locs. 25938, 28660, 28661, 28662, and 28663), in
geologic record further indicates that emplacement may beds within three-quarters of a mile of another apophy-
have begun very early in Middle Jurassic time. The sis, contains the ammonites CmciZobiceras (two spe-
data thus suggest a tie between the Toarcian-Oxfordian cies), Acanthopleurocerm, and Rdstockiceras, and the
interval (and perhaps the Early-Middle Jurassic pecten Weyla duf renoyi d7Orbigny-an association
boundary) on the stratigraphic time scale and about which is of early Pliensbachian age; locality C (USGS
160-165 million years on the radioactivity time scale. Mes. loc. 26722) contains CrucBobiceras of late Sine-
murian to earliest Pliensbachian age.
GEOLOGIC ENVIRONMENT The Naknek Formation, deposited in the Matanuska
The dated rocks are from the Oshetna River drain- geosyncline from early Oxfordian to late Kimmeridg-
age of the eastern Talkeetna Mountains. Half of them ian or early Portlandian time, contains abundant
are from the plutonic rocks shown in the northwest fresh-appearing plutonic clasts which we think orig-
part of figure 16.1-rocks which occupy a large area in inated in the Kosina batholith. These clasts occur in
the drainage of Kosina Creek to the north of the area conglomerate beds at the base of the formation and a t
of figure 16.1 and for convenience are called the Kosina several higher levels. The beds contain cobbles and
batholith. The other half are from boulders in the boulders, and some attain a thickness of 1,000 t o 1,500
Naknek Formation near the Little Oshetna River (see feet; yet, within a few miles south of .their northem-
table 16.1 and fig. 16.1). most outcrops, they lens out into siltstone and shale.
The Talkeetna Formation, which is intruded by the The boulders of plutonic rock that were dated came
Kosina batholith, is widespread in the southern Tal- from about 400 feet above the base of such a conglom-
keetna Mountains and consists of a thickness of erate at the bottom of the Naknek Formation (fig.
perhaps 2 miles or more of re dominantly marine sedi- 16.1). This conglomerate lenses out southward into
ART. 16 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-B, PAGBS B56-B59. 1968.
B56
 GRANTZ, THOMAS, STERN, AND SHEFFEY
30'
EXPLANATION

Surficial deposits Talkeetna Formation

Volcanic and sedimentary m k s
A . L . . . ~ . of Ear111
cludes Jurassic masses
satellitic age. In-
of
pluconic rocks

Volcanic and sedimentary

rocks of Cretaceous and /----
Tertiary age Contact
Dashed where a p ~ o z i m a t e l y
located

c--

N a h e k Formation of Fault
Late Jurassic w e Dashed where appmzimately
Jns, silbtnw and she& located
Jnc, conqlomemte abmre
b
a
s of fomurtion
Jnbc,conglomerate at
-
. formation
b e of
Sample locality

El
Sedimentary rocks of +"
Middle and Late Jur- Early Jurassic fmal locality
aaslc age

Kosina batholith of
Jurassic age

Geology In north t h ~ r dafter Capps

11940, pl 21. a n d 0 J Ferr~ansand
5 SMILES J R W ~ l l ~ a m( wsr i t t e n communt-
l a . n s ? I catlon, 1 9 5 4 1 , tn south part after
Grantz ( 1 9 6 0 )

FIGURE
16.1.-Generalized geologic map of Oshetna River area, Alagka, showing location of samples dated by K-Ar and
P b a methods, a6d fossil localities.

TABLE
16.1.-8ource of dated samples

No. on flg. 16.1 and

tables 16.2 and 16.3
Field No.
I Rock type Source
! Locality

59AQzM26 .--.--.-.---
la and Ib ------.---.--
I
Kodna batholith, 4,000 It from its southeast con- Talkeetna Mountains (A-3) quad-
Quartz diorite-granodioritetetetetetetete
kCt. rangle 1st 6Z012'50" N., long 145'06'-
.Qranodiorite.---------..--------
tact. 1 35'l W).
Kosina batholith, 2,5W ft fromits sautheast con- Talkeetna Mountains (B-2) quad-
rangle lat 62°21'17" N.. long 147'49'-
,nrr w'

I
i" 7 , .

Ctranodiorite. - - - - - - - - - - -
Kosina
- . - batholith.
- - - - - 3,000 it from its southeast con- Talkeetna Mountains (B-2) quad-
tact. rangle 1st 62°21'22" N., long 147'49'-
lat1 I.
Quartz diorite-granodiorite--:---. Rounded boulders from conglomerate unit Talkretna Mountains (A-2) quad-
Qra~odiontequartzmonzonlte. (Jnbc on fig. 16.1) at base of Naknek Forma- rmgle lat 62°08'52" N.. long 147'44'-
Quartz dionte. tion (Late Jurassic). Boulders collected 4(YJ w'.
about 400 f t above base of the con~lomeratea t
place where it is about 1 500 ft 'thick. Size
of boulders in outcrop fa&: I, 2X4M ft; 11,
1 x 2 ft; 111, 1 x 2 It.

siltstone containing Cardiocerm martini Reeside of tion, 1062), who also made a reconnaissance study of
early Oxfordian age and Buchiu concentrica (Sower- the area, has stated that in its central part the batholith
by) of late Oxfordian and early Icimmeridgian age is a composite body consisting of granodiorite (with
(R. W. Imlay, written communication, 1953). biotite the predominant ferromagnesian mineral) as
A reconnaissance study of the Kosina batholith was well as of rocks that are more mafic and more salic than
made by Chapin (1918, p. 4 2 4 3 and pl. 2), who re- granodiorite. These include quartz monzonite contain-
ported that the intrusive body is dominantly quartz ing both muscovite and biotite, amphibolite paragneiss,
diorite. However, G. D. Eberlein (oral communica- and tactite. I n the recent study only the southeast
B58 GEOCHRONOLOGY

margin of the batholith was visited. This area is richer Bathonian age and beneath beds of early Callovian age.
in hornblende than the central part and is composed However, more significant than these is the unconform-
mainly of hornblende-biotite granodiorite, much of ity between the Talkeetna Formation and the lower
which borders on quartz diorite, some on quartz mon- Bajocian rocks at the base of the section deposited in
zonite. (The modal classification of granitic rocks the Matanuska geosyncline. The tectonic event marked
adopted is that of Moore, 1959, p. 198, which is modi- by this unconformity ended widespread Early Jurassic
fied from Johannsen, 1931.) Quartz diorite and di- (Talkeetna Formation) deposition , which had been
orite are also present. The approximate composition characterized by volcanism in the Talkeetna Mountains
of the granodiorite is quartz, 25-30 percent; plagioclase area. Within the domain of this deposition, a prove-
(mainly sodic andesine), 35-50 percent; orthoclase nance area was created a t this time in the Talkeetna
(largely interstitial or intergrown with quartz), 5-15 Mountains, and a nonvolcanic geosyncline (Matanuska)
percent; biotite (partly altered to chlorite), 10-15 per- was created in the area to the south. The Kosina bath-
cent; and hornblende, 10 percent. The modes cited olith may have been intruded at about the Toarcian-
here and below are based on point counts mainly by Bajocian time boundary (Early-Middle Jurassic), be-
W. L. Griffin and M. C. Blake, of the U.S. Geological cause the unconformity a t this boundary represents the
Survey. Minor accessories include opaque minerals, major tectonic event of the region in the Toarcian-
apatite, zircon, and sphene. Oxfordian interval.
The three boulders of plutonic rock from the Naknek
Formation that were dated are hornblende-biotite RADIOGENIC AGE DETERMlNATlONS
f l a n o d i o i h and quartz diorite- Their approximate The mean of 3 K-Ar dates (table 16.2) on 2 samples
composition is quartz, 15-30 ~ e r c e Q;t sodic andesine, of the ICosina batholith is 165 m.y., and the mean of 3
35-55 Percent; orthoclase, <5-15 percent; and biotite K-Ar dates on 3 boulders of plutonic rock from the
and hornblende, each about 10 percent. Opaque min- Naknek Formation is 158 m.y. The mean age of the
erals, apatite, sphene, and zircoll are minor accessories. 5 samples dated is 162 m.y. The mean of 3 Pb-= dates
The boulders are thus similar to the dominant rocks (table 16.3) of samples for which K-Ar dates are avail-
of the south margin of the Kosina batholith. The sim- able is 165 may. Each is the limits
ilarity suggests that the boulders came from the adja- of analytical error, with the correspmding K-Ar date.
cent batholith ; this idea is strengthened by the similar- One sample, for no K-Ar date could be obtained,
ity in radioactivity ages of the boulders and the south yielded a pb-a date of 125215 m.y, The dates
margin of the batholith. However, on the basis of our
present knowledge of the Icosina batholith and the
plutonic rocks in south-central Alaska generally, their
identity cannot be unequivocally established.
,Depos!ts of the Matanuska
GEOLOGIC AGE OF THE KOSlNA BATHOLITH geosyncl~ne

The Kosina htholith appears to have been emplaced

between Toarcian and Oxfordian time, but the field
Naknek Format~onfromwhlchthe
data do not pinpoint the time of intrusion. However,
possible times of emplacement are suggested by uncon-
Chlnltna Format~on
formities within the sedimentary section of the nearby ,tratl,raphlc ,,,,,,
Matanuska geosyncline (see fig. 16.2). The rocks of for emplacement of
southeast part of
the geosyncline, which are dominantly marine, crop out Kos~nabathollth
Tuxedn~Format~on
along the southern margin of the Talkeetna Mountains
Earllest depos~tsof the
and mere derived from the area immediately to the Matanuska geosyncl~ne
north. They rest unconformably upon the Talkeetna
Talkeetna Format~onIn
Formation and range in age from early Bajocian (Mid- the Talkeetna Mounta~ns
dle Jurassic) to Maestrichtian (Late Cretaceous).
Chapin (1918, p. 43) thought that emplacement of
the pluton occurred between deposition of the Chinitna
Formation (Callovian) and the unconformably over-
FIGURE
16.2.-Stages of the .Jurassic showing stratigraphic posi-
lying Nakllek (Oxfordian), and perhaps tion of the Naknek Formation and the plutonic boulders that
accompanied the uplift that ended Chinitna sedimenta- were dated, and the inferred time-stratigraphic limits of the
tion. Unconformities also occur beneath beds of late southeast margin of the Kosina batholith.
 I
GRANTZ, THOMAS, STERN, AND SHEFFEY B59
by the Geological Survey are reported here for the first The scatter in the K-Ar dates and the difference be-
time. tween dates l a and 1b may be related to the compara-
tively low K content of the biotites dated. This is due
TABLE
16.2-Potassium-argon ages of biotite from southeast mar- to the partial alteration of biotite to chlorite in the
gin of Kosina batholith and from boulders of similar lithology
i n the Naknek Formation samples dated; however, the K-Ar dates obtained are
LAge of sample l a from Evemden and others (1881 p. 88 ssm le KA431); all other thought to be approximately correct in spite of the
determinations by U.8. C+eolo$cal 8;rveyf
alteration.
age (mil-
The difference between the mean of the batholith
lions Of samples (165 m.y.) and the mean of the boulder samples
(158 m.y.) is also within the limits of accuracy and may
Samples from Kosina batholith have no special significance. However, the difference is
possibly due in some way to the cycle of erosion, trans-
la-----.-- 3.63 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 portation, and weathering to which the boulders were
l b -------- 3.39 4. 10 0.0394 0.00961 155
3--------- 5.60 6.76 .0710 .0105 170 subjected in Late Jurassic time, and to the long period
during which they remained buried in marine sedimen-
Samples of boulders from Naknek Formution
tary rocks. Alternatively, it might be due to differences
4 --------- 3.31 4.00 0.0393 0. 00982 160
in the cooling history between the part of the batholith
5 --------- 4.77 5.76 .0551 . 00956 155 sampled in outcrop and the part represented by the
6 --------- 2.00 2.42 .0236 . 00975 160 boulder samples. Nevertheless, it seems best at present
to consider all of the samples as one group with a mean
Decay constants:
Xe=0.589X 10-lo per yr. age of 162 (160-165) m.y. This age for the emplace-
Xe=4.76X 10-10 per r. ment of the southern margin of the Kosina batholith
Abundance ratio: ~*/k=
0.01 18 atomic percent.
establishes a tie between the radioactivity and the strati-
1 Determinations by P. Elmore and I. Barlow.
graphic time scales in the Toarcian-Oxfordian strati-
TABLE
16.3.-Lead-alpha ages of zircon from southeast margin of graphic interval. The age of the emplacement may
Kosina batholith and from boulders of similar lithology in the
Naknek Formation e'ven approximately date the Toarcian-Bajocian bound-
[Alpha-activity measurements by T. W. Stern; spectrographic analyses of lead by ary, and thus the boundary between Early and Middle
Nola B. Sheffeyl Jurassic.
No. on fig. 16.1
1 Alpha counts
per millimam
w r h ~ 1
Samples from Kosina batholith
Pb ( P P ~ )
1 Calculated age
(millions of
y=I1
REFERENCES
Capps, S. R., 1940, Geology d the Alaska Railroad region : U.S.
Geol. 'Survey Bull. 907, 201 p.
Chapin, Theodore, 1918, T h e Nelchina43usitna region, Alaska :
15 U.S. Geol. #SurveyBull. W, 6'7 p.
2------------------ 300 125f 15 Evernden, J. F., Curtis, G. H., Obrat-lovich, J., and KisCistler, R.,
1961, On the evaluation of glauconite and illite for dating
3-----,------------ 219 (13. 5, 15. 5) 165 f20
sedimentary rocks by tbe potassium-argon method:
(Geochim.e t Cosmochim. 'Acta, v. 23, p. 78-99.
Smnplea of boulders fmm Naknek Fornution
Grantz, A ~ t h u r ,1960, Geologic map of Talkeetna Mountains
(8-2) quadrangle, Alaska and the contiguous area to the
4------------------ 100 7. 2 180f 20 north and northwest: U.S. Geol. 'Survey Misc. Geol. Inv.
7. 9
6------------------ 130 (8. 2, 7. 6 ) 150f 15 Map 1313, scale 1 : 48,000.
Johannsen, Albert, 1931, A descriptive petrography d the
1 Pb-a ages (rounded to nearest 5 million years) were calculated from the equation: igneous rocks, v. 1 : Ohicago, Ill., Univ. Chicago Press,
t=F7 where t is the calculated age, in millions of years; Cis a constant based upon 342 P.
tbe ratio ThIU which was assumed to be 1in the zircon samples dated and has a Moore, J. G., 1959, The quartz diorite 'boundary line in the
value of 2 486;' ~ isb the lead content, in parts per million; and is the dpha counts
per r n i l ~ per
h hour. western United S h t e s : Pour. Geology, v. 67, p. 1B-ZI0.
Article 27

AERIAL RECONNAISSANCE O F THE OUTER SHUMAGIN ISLANDS, ALASKA

By ARTHUR GRANTZ, M e n l o Park, Calif.

Abstract.-The outer Shumagin Islands, which jut 65 miles

into the North Pacific from the western part of the Alaska
Peninsula, consist of slaty argillite and graymacke of late
Mesozoic age, and biotite granodiorite which has intruded them.

The outer islands of the Shumagin Islands group

form a geologically distinct island subgroup, composed
of slaty argillite, graywacke, and granodiorite, which
projects from 25 ';o 65 miles into the North Pacific from
the western part of the Alaska Peninsula (fig. 27.1).
This subgroup comprises the islands from Nagai sea-
ward (fig. 27.2), and extends from a point 45 miles
southeast of the Aleutian arc to a point 18 miles from
the outer edge of the continental shelf (arbitrarily
placed at the 100-fathom depth curve) and 75 miles
from the axis of the Aleutian Trench.
It is noteworthy that each major rock type in the
outer Shumagins was recorded in 1741 by Geurg Wil- li
II
0
1
100
,
200
1 .

I
300 MILES
1

I
helm Steller while serving as physician and naturalist
27.1-Index map of soutnwest Alaska.
FIGURE
on Bering's second voyage, the exploration which dis-
covered A1aska.l These and a few other geologic obser- unsurveyed" although he had noted Dall's observations
vations entered in Steller's journal of this voyage estab- in his text, and Atwood's map was used by Dutro and
lish that this noted botanist and zoologist made the Payne (1954) in compiling their geologic map of
first recorded geologic observations in Alaska. Grew- Alaska. The present article is based upon aerial re-
ingk (1850, p. 173 and pl. 2) noted that much clay slate connaissance .in the outer Shumagins from a light
("Thonschiefer") crops out on Nagai, and his map wheel-plane on June 12-14, 1962, supplemented by
showed this island to be underlain by metamorphic observations at three landing places and study of aerial
rocks. Dall (1882, repeated in Dall and Harris, 1892, photographs. R. V. Allen, of the U.S. Geological Sur-
p. 233, and Dall, 1896, p. 807-809) noted that the outer vey contributed samples and (or) data on bedrock a t
Shumagins were composed of granitic and metamorphic five gravity stations which he established in the outer
rocks, but he presented no geologic map. Atwood (1911, Shumagins in 1961.
pl. 6) mapped the outer Shumagins as "volcanic ( 1 ) - The oldest rocks in the outer Shumagins are the slaty
argillite and graywacke of Nagai, western Big Koniuji,
Steller's journal (in the translation by Stejneger in Golder, 1025,
.
P. 79) states of Nagai and the outer Shumagins . . "This island, as and the smaller islands which lie between them (fig.
well as all the others, consists only of high solid rocks covered with 27.2). These rocks also form large xenoliths and prob-
vegetation. The rock is mainly a coarse, gray and yellowish gray-
wacke (sic), in some places a gray sandstone; a black, thick slate ably roof pendants in the plutonic rocks on Nagai and
occurs also." Steller's observations were ptobably made near the low Big Roniuji. I n outcrops at Saddlers Mistake and
valley which transects Nagai Island 9 miles from its southern tip.
His gray sandstone and black slate are the medium gray graywacke Eagle Harbor, and in hand specimens from Pirate
and dark gray slaty argillite of Nagai Island. His graywacke a s Shake, the graywacke is medium or medium dark gray,
rendered in Stejneger's translation was apparently "Felsen Stein"
rather than the equivalent "Graufels" in the original journal (Golder. predominantly fine and medium grained, and thin to
1925, P. 79, footnote 164) and the phrase "coarse, gray and yellon,ish very thick bedded with argillite interbeds. Graded
~raswacke"is thought to record the light-gmy granitic rock which
crops out in the sea cliffs near Steller's probable landink place on
bedding, from medium sand at the base to silt at the top,
Nagai. is common but not conspicuous. Argillite chips of
ART. 27 IN U.S. GmOL. SURVEY PROF. P A P E R 475-B, PAGES B l W B 1 0 9 . 1963.

I
 1 6 0 ~ ~ 0 ' 159~30'
I I

Andronico I.

BIG KONlUJl I.

N b g (?I
SIMEONOF I.

0 5 10 M i l e s
1 I I
B l R D I,. GHERNABURA I.

EXPLANATION

Volcanic rocks of late

T e r t i a r y or Quaternary age
Big Koniuji I.

NAGAl I. L ~ t t l eKoniuji I.
Biotite granodiorite
of late Mesozoic or younger age 550 550
Pattern broken where i n t e r p r e t e d
from distant views or a e r i a l photo-
graphs SIMEONOF I.
0 10 M I L E S
u
160° CHERNABURA I.
A r g i l l i t e and graywacke
of late Mesozoic age SHUMAGIN ISLANDS

FIGUBE
27.2.-Reconnaissance geologic map of the outer Shumagin Islands.
El08 STRATIGRAPHY AND STRUCrURAL GEOLOGY

sand to cobble size are widespread in the graywacke tion of Johannsen, 1939) with hypidiomorphic-granular
and locally form conglomeratic accumulations. Sole texture. The fifth sample, from the southern part of
markings are not abundant but groove casts, and possi- Nagai, is biotite adamellite with similar color and
ble grazing marks, flute casts, and worm-tube fillings, texture except for coarse grains of late potash feldspar.
are found. The fine-grained tops of some graded beds The dark minerals in all samples are chiefly reddish-
contain small-scale current ripple marks. The argil- brown biotite, and minor magnetite and chlorite. Four
lite is dark and very dark gray, occurs in thin to very density determinations ranged from 2.63 to 2.67 and
thick beds, and in places contains thin layers of graded averaged 2.65. Modes of the four granodiorite sam-
silt with small-scale crossbedding. Limestone concre- ples, in volume percent, determined from stained sur-
iions, small iron sulfide concretions, and thin accumula- f aces follow :
tions of shells were found in a few beds. Range Average
The slaty argillite and graywacke are hard, dense, (percent) (percent)
and considerably deformed. The density of six samples Quartz .................................... 2431 28
Plagioclase ................................ 38-48 42
ranged from 2.69 to 2.74 and averaged 2.71. Diagenetic Potash feldspar----------------------------- 10-19 16
and low-grade metamorphic recrystallization have al- Dark minerals------------------------------ 13-17 15
most or entirely eliminated porosity from these rocks, -
and fracturing and veining are locally common, espe- 100
cially in the graywacke. Dips are moderate to very The adamellite sample contains, by volume, 32 percent
steep, and over most of Nagai are directed toward the quartz, 34 percent plagioclase, 26 percent potash feld-
northwest. Dips are equally steep but more variable spar, and 8 percent dark minerals. The uniform char-
in direction east of Nagai. Faults are numerous, and acter and the map distribution of these rocks suggest
both open and chevron folds were noted. As seen from that they are part of a batholith which extends over
the air and on two ground traverses, strong axial-plane half the area of the outer Shumagins. This batho-
cleavage appears to be absent, but slaty cleavage was lith is at least 20 miles in diameter and could be much
observed, especially near some faults and in argillite larger.
interbedded with thick graywacke beds. Tertiary sedimentary rocks also exist, according to
Fossils are not abundant in the slaty argillite and Dall (1896, p. 808-809), "On the western edge of
graywacke, but four collections were obtained by the Nagai . . . above the metamorphic schists and quartzites,
writer at Eagle Harbor, Nagai Island. These contain but they are greatly altered and consolidated and con-
fragments of the late Mesozoic mollusk Imcerams stitute a small area in comparison with underlying
(identified by D. L. Jonee) and a few rushlike plants. strata." These rocks were not recognized in the pres-
The indicated age and lithologic character of these ent aerial reconnaissance.
rocks suggest that they are part of the similar sequence The outer Shumagins differ markedly in geologic
of b t e Mesozoic age which underlies Kodiak Island character from the inner Shumagins, which expose
and the Renai-Chugach-St. Elias ~ o b n t a i nsystem. unmetamorphosed and in part poorly consolidated sedi-
;l;n the latter areas the group names Orca, Sunrise, mentary rocks of Tertiary nge overlain by pyroclastic
Valde~,and Yakutat have been variously applied to rocks and lavas of late Cenozoic age. The latter con-
them rocks, but until their stratigraphic classification stitute Andronica Island and The Haystacks and lie
is &ally established in these larger and better known within 4 miles of the northwest part of Nagai. The
a=, it seems best neither to apply the old nor to coin inner Shumagins are thus structurally much lower than
new names for the argillite and graywacke of the outer the outer Shumagins, and a flexure and(or) fault which
Shumagins. strikes northeast and is structurally down on the north-
Plutonic rocks form part of Nagai and most of Big west must lie between Nagai and The Haystacks. I f
Koinuji and the more easterly Shumagins. Their Tertiary rocks crop out on Nagai, as reported by Dall,
presence on Chernabura and Bird Islands is known only then part of this structure would cross the western part
from one gravity station and from photogeology. As , of this island.
seen from the air, the plutonic rocks intrude the argil- 1
lite and graywacke on Nagai and Big Koniuji Islands,
and their age is therefore no older than late Mesozoic.
' Pleistocene glaciers covered the outer Shumagins and
extended into areas now beneath the sea. The glaciers
which originated on the 1,000- to 1,900-foot mountains
Samples of the pluton collected at five localities of these islands carved cirques, tarns, and deep U-
on Nagai, the Koniuji, and Simeonof Islands were shaped valleys whose lower ends formed fiords. Post-
examined with a binocular microscope. Four are ligl~t- glacial marine erosion has produced wave-cut plat-
gray medium-grained biotite granodiorite (classifica- forms around these islands and, in places, hanging
 GRANTZ B1W
cirque valleys and cliffed headlands. An elevated plat- REFERENCES
form of low relief, also interpreted to be wave cut, Atwood, W. W., 1911, Geology and mineral resources of parts of
covers three-fourths of Simeonof Island and small areas the Alaska Peninsula : U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 467,137 p.
on Chernabura. Hasty reconnaissance suggests that Dall, W. H., 1882,Note on Alaska Tertiary deposits : Am. Jour.
the elevated surface was possibly formed by more than Sci., ser. 3,v. 24,p. 67-68.
one stand of the sea. I n one area on Simeonof Island 1896, Report on coal and lignite of Alaska: U.S. Geol.
survey 17th Ann. Rept., pt. 1,p. 763-908.
the planed-off bedrock surface stands 15 to 25 feet above
Dall, W. H., and Harris, G. D., 1892, Correlation papers, Neo-
sea level a t distances of approximately three-fourths cene : U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 84,349 p.
mile from the ancient, strandline. The cutting of this Dutro, J. T., Jr., and Payne, T. G., 1954,Geologic map of Alaska :
elevated platform may be older than the last period of U.S.Geol. Survey, scale 1 : 2,500,000.
glaciation in this area, for on Simeonof Island features Golder, F. A., 1925, Bering's voyages, v. 2, Steller's journal of
identified on aerial photographs as glacial deposits . the sea voyage from Kanlchatka to America and return on
(D. M. Hopkins and D. S. McCulloch, oral communi- the second expedition, 1741-1742, translated and in part
cation, 1962) appear to lie upon it. I t s elevation indi- annotated by Leonhard Stejneger : Am. Geog. Soc. Research
Ser. 2, 290 p.
cates that the area of the platform that is 15 to 25 feet
Grewingk, Constantin, 1850,Beitrag zur Kenntnis der orograph-
above sea level could be of Sangamon (last interglacial) ischen und geognostischen Beschaffenheit der nordwest-
age because Second Beach a t Nome, thought to be of Kiiste Amerikas mid den anliegenden inseln : Rum.-K.
this age, is 35 to 40 feet above present sea level (Hop- Mineralog. Gesell., Verhand., 1848-49, p. 76424, pl. 1-3,
kino and others, 1960, p. 53). However, because the tables 4-7. [Separately issued by Karl Kray, St. Peters-
platform lies in a tectonically active region, its eleva- burg, 18501
tion is not, sufficient to establish its age. The elevated Hopkins, D. M., MacNeil, F. S., and Leopold, E. B., 1960, The
coastal plain a t Nome, Alaska-A late Cenozoic type sec-
platform was not recognized on the Iioniujis o r Nagai; tion for the Bering Strait region: Internat. Geol. Cong.,
if its absence is not due to subsequent glacial or marine 21st, Copenhagen 1960,Rcpt., pt. 4,p. 46-57.
erosion, then these islands have been depressed rela- Johannsen, Albert, 1939, A ' descriptive petrography of the
tive to Simeonof and Chernabura in the time since the igneous rocks, 2d ed., v. 1: Chicago, Ill., Univ. Chicago
platform was cut. Press.
Article 98

STRUCTURAL INFLUENCE ON DEVELOPMENT OF LINEAR TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES,

SOUTHERN BARANOF ISLAND, SOUTHEASTERN ALASKA

By DAVID A. BREW, ROBERT A. LONEY, JOHN S. POMEROY, and L. J. PATRICK MUFFLER,

Menlo Park, Calif.

Abstract.-Joints, foliation, and faults influenced develop consists of four major igneous masses intruded into
ment of the iceeroded deep fiords and valleys. Northwest- amphibolite, schist, and gneiss derived from several
trending linear topographic features parallel the generalized
strike of the foliation, but are locally controlled by faults.
litl~ostratigraphicunits of probable Mesozoic age. The
Northeast-trending linear features parallel the generalized distribution of these several units is shown on a, forth-
strike of several joint sets, but are locally influenced by faults. coming preliminary map by Loney and others (1963b).
The rarely visited southern part of Baranof Island The geology of the island will be described in detail in
t~ later report.
displays some spectacularly rugged glacial topography,
including many small fiords and deep lake-filled valleys This study is based primarily on structural observa-
that are strikingly linear (fig. 28.1). tions made from shoreline exposures during reconnais-
These dominantly ice-eroded linear features are com- sance mapping. The pattern of fiords provides an
pared to the attitudes of joint sets, foliation, and faults, areally even distribution of observations. The data
which it is assumed influence the erodibility of the bed- from the intervening ridges are unevenly distributed
rock by providing surfaces along which the roclr will and were not incorporated in the study, although they
break or otherwise erode more easily. confirm the conclusions drawn from the shoreline data.
I n a largely hypothetical study Twenhofel and Sains- The field and analytical procedures used were as fol-
bury (1958) inferred fault control for almost all prom- lows : Structural observations were taken at about 1-mile
inent linear topographic features in southeastern Alas- intervals along all of the coastline shown on figure 28.1.
ka, but did not exclude the possibility that some of Separate pole diagrams of structures in the igneous
the features could be joint controlled. Peacock (1935) and in.the metamorphic rocks were prepared for each
concluded that .the pattern of fiords in British Colum- subarea, but because of the essential similarity of the
bia corresponds to the underlying pattern of folds, attitudes in both types of rock the pole diagrams were
fractures, and faults in the bedrock, but did not pre- combined to make the contour diagrams. Only the
sent detailed evidence. He emphasized (1935, p. 658) best developed joint set observed at each station was
the parallelism of joint sets and physiographic feature6 used in preparation of the joint diagrams. Joints dip-
and noted also that faulting was locally important. ping less than 35" were' excluded from the analysis
The present study differs from these previous ones in because they probably have relatively little effect on
that it is a detailed quantitative study of a much the orientation of the linear topographic features.
smaller area. Foliations measured in the metamorphic rocks include
Southern Baranof Island consists of metamorphic 1 schistosity and closely spaced shear surfaces; a few
rocks intruded by igneous masses believed to be satel- relict bedding attitudes from unfoliated less metamor-
litic to the Coast Range batholith on the mainland. phosed rocks are also included. Foliations measured
The northwestern part of the area shown on figure in the igneous rocks include schlieren and other mineral
28.1 is underlain by consistently northwest-striking lapering.
graywacke and argillite of the Sitka Graywacke of The data presented on figure 28.1 permit visual com-
Jurassic and Cretaceous age (Loney and others, 1963a). parison of the structural observations with the orienta-
TO the southeast this unit is intruded and thermally tion of the fiords, larger lakes, and principal streams
m e t m o r ~ h o s e dby two major granitic complexes. The I as taken from the Port Alexander 1:250,000 Alaska
llortheastern part of the area shown on the illustr at'1011 Topographic Series map. I11 comparing the structural
ART. 28 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-B, PAGES B110-B113. 1963.

BllO
 BREW, LONEY, POMEROY, AND MUFFLER Bill

28.1.-Map
FIGUBE of southern Baranof Island, southeastern Alaska, showing: fiords, lakes, streams, faults (dashed
where probable) ; and foliation and joint attitudes for each subarea indicated by Roman numeral. Poles to folia-
tion (F) and joints (J) shown in lower hemispheric equal-area projection; number of poles in parentheses. Solid
contours indicate 5 (omitted in diagrams of 30 poles or less), 10, 20, and 40 percent per 1percent of area. Dashed
contours indicate the limit of the 1-percent circle drawn about single points.
B112 STRATIGRAPHY AND STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

observations and the topographic orientation, the scat- features which diverge somewhat from the strike of
ter of both should be kept in mind. Rose diagrams the joints may be caused either by the modifying infiu-
showing the azimuth and length of fiords and valleys ence of foliation, by faults, by local joint sets, or by
in each subarea mere prepared for comparative pur- combinations with joint sets of lesser development that
poses but are not included here because of space limita- are not represented in the diagrams.
tions ;most of these diagrams show the expected bimodal
distribution. Divergencies and apparent inhomogene- FOLIATlON
ities result from the large size of the individual sub- The northwest-trending linear topographic features
areas. Although the similarity between the distribu- are generally shorter than the northeast-trending fea-
tion of linear topographic features and structural ele- tures and tend to be parallel to the generalized strike
ments is only approximate, the essential correspondence of the steeply dipping foliation which ranges from
is within the limits imposed by the large size of the N. 24" W. to N. 44" W. Foliation in the isoclinally
subareas and the scatter of the topographic and struc- folded Sitka Graywacke and its metamorphosed equiva-
tural data. lents consists in many places of pre-metamorphism
JOINTS
shear surfaces that locally form significant shear zones.
Well-developed and persistent, generally northeast- Because of the isoclinal folding, the foliatian and the
striking joint sets in both the igneous and metamorphic boundaries of the original lithostratigraphic units are
rocks appear to exercise the primary influence on the almost everywhere nearly parallel; it therefore is un-
northeast-trending linear topographic features. The likely that a topographic feature controlled by an origi-
influence of these sets is in places augmented or sur- nal unit would diverge appreciably from the strike of
passed by near-parallel major faults, but (as shown on the foliation.
fig. 28.1) only a few large northeast-striking fault zones The diagrams of subareas I, 11,and I11 on the west
were mapped on southern Baranof Island. side of Baranof Island show diffuse maximums repre-
The joint diagrams for subareas I-VZII on the west senting steeply dipping foliation that strikes between
side and southern tip of the island show a complex sys- N. 65" W. and N. 30" W. The foliation diagram for
tem of steep northeast-striking joint sets; a few sets subarea I1 is not shown because of extreme scatter,
of different strike are important in only 1or 2 subareas. probably due to the rotation of the foliated xenoliths
The more diffuse diagrams generally are from subareas within the igneous mass. Diagrams V to I X show
with greater areas of igneous rock and migmatite out- simpler, more marked preferred orientations that are
crop, in which several prominent joint sets are present due to the lesser amounts of igneous rock involved and
and no one set is dominant. The difference in the posi- to the more uniform deformation recognized in these
tion of the maximum of subarea VIII as compared with subareas. The rocks of subarea V I I I are strongly
the maximums of the subareas to the north may reflect lineated, and the lineation may have influenced the
an areal change in lineation attitudes, as most of the erodibility of the bedrock through its modifying effect
joints are of the ac type (perpendicular to the fold on the foliation. I n the diagrams for subareas X to
axes). XI11 the northwest- and west-northwest-striking pat-
The diagrams for subareas IX-XI11 on the eastern tern is continued, but is generally more diffuse because
side of the island demonstrate that the joint sets meas- of large areas of igneous and mixed igneous and meta-
ured on the western side of the island extend through morphic rocks in those subareas.
to the eastern side as far north as subarea X ; but the
pattern shown by these diagrams is disrupted to the FAULTS
north in the widespread intrusive and migmatite terrane
of subareas X I to XIII. A few major and several minor faults have been
The general correspondence between the strike of the mapped on southern Baranof Island (fig. 28.1). More
dominant joint sets and the linear northeast-trending detailed mapping ~ ~ ~ oundoubtedly
uld reveal many more
topographic features is shown on figure 28.1. This minor faults and possibly a few more major faults.
tendency toward parallelism indicates that the joints Almost all of the faults shown on the illustration have
have very probably controlled the trend of these linear associated shear zones that influenced the erodibility of
features. Generally northeast- trending topographic the bedrock locally, in many places extensively enough
 BREW, LONEY, POMEROY, AND MUFFLER B113
to be expressed on a topographic map at a scale of REFERENCES
1:63,360 or even smaller. At Big Branch Bay the ex- Loney, R. A., Berg, H. c., Pomeroy, J. S., and Brew, D. A., 1963a,
istence of a fault is inferred
. . from the offset of E W ~ O E ~ C
z. . L,
Reconnaissance geologic ma0 of Chichagof Island and north-
contacts across the bay. This is the only northeast- western Baranof Island, ~ i a s k a :U.S. Geol. Survey Misc.
Geol. Inv. Map 1-388. [In press]
trending fiord where such offset is present. Loney, R. A., Pomeroy, J. A., Brew, D. A., and M d e r , L. J. P.,
The pattern of the demonstrated faults indicates that 1963b, Reconnaissance geologic map of Baranof and Krmof
the number of faults striking in the northeast quadrant Islands, Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survev Misc. Geol. Inv. Map.
is &out equal to that in the northwest and that the I [In press]
strike of t&se structures is reflected t o p o g r a p ~ c a ~iny Peacock, M. A., 1935. Fiord-land of British Columbia : Geol. Sot.
America Bull., v. 46, p. 633-696.
their immediate oicinit~' It is however, Twenbofel, w. S., Sainsbun, C . 8.. 1858, padt paeerns in
most of the fiords and Occur On the southeastern Alaska : Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. m, p.
major faults or their extensions. 1431-1442.
Article 38

INFLUENCE OF SNOW COVER ON FROST PENETRATION

By DANIEL 0. KRINSLEY, Washinston, D.C.

Abstract.-Frost penetration is most effective through the Site C, 19 miles from site B and 33 miles from site A,
thinnest snow cover, and proceeds more rapidly in gravel and is 300 feet west of the headquarters building at Fort
sand than in silt or clay. Observations in Alaska, Wisconsin,
and U.S.S.R. suggest that an increase of 1 to 4 inches in the
Greely and is at an altitude of 1,280 feet. Dense stands
thickness of a 6-inch snow cover significantly dampens the fluctu- of white spruce and birch, 20 to 30 feet in height, and
ation of the ambient air temperature. a 2-inch-thick organic mat cover the site. The soil con-
sists of 3 feet of eolian silt overlying coarse outwash
Three thermocouple cables were installed in the vicin- gmvel. Permafrost, mas not found, but it has been
ity of Buffalo Center, Tanana Valley, Alaska, during found previously in discontinuous irregular bodies at
September 1961. Each cable contained thermocouples least 25 feet below the ground surface in the ontwnsh
a t the ground surface and at depths of 6,12,18,24,36, gravel at Fort Greely (Holmes and Benninghoff, 1957,
and 48 inches. The sites were inspected during the first p. 169). The ground-water table has been found to
and third weeks of October, and at about 2-week inter- range from 184 to 215 feet below the ground surface
vals from November 24 to February 17,1962. Soil tem- (Holmes and Benninghoff, 1957, p. 173).
peratures at the thermocouples were read directly from The average air temperature during September 1961
a calibrated potentiometer connected to the thermo- was 43.4"P, a departure of -2" from the 1943-60
couple cable. I n addition to the thermocouple data, air mean.2 The snow cover on Sestember 30 was 1 inch
temperature and snow depth were recorded a t each thick. The average temperature during October 1961
site. was 19.5"F, a departure of -5.7" from the 1943-60
Site A, three-tenths of a mile south of the Little mean. By October 31, the snow cover was 19,15, and 6
Gerstle River and approximately 50 feat above the
inches thick at sites A, B, and C, respectively. Sep-
stream channel, is adjacent to milepost 1388 of the tember was a climato10,oicallynormal or average month,
Alaska Highway and is a t an altitude of 1,300 feet.
but October wa8 colder and had more snowfall and re-
This well-drained area has been burned over, but cur-
sidual snow than the average October of the 17-year
rently is densel$ vegetated with black spruce, white
record. There were two periods of below-zero tempera-
spruce, and willow. The trees range from 15 to 25 feet
tures during October, each preceded and accom-
in height, and the understory consists of low bushes and
panied by snowfall. These periods occurred during
a mat of berries and ,gasses. Beneath the 2-inch-thick
the second and last weeks of the month.3
organic mat, glaciofluvial silt with several scattered thin
Ice appeared on the Tanana River and Jarvis Creek
gravel layers overlies coarse outwash gravel at a depth
(adjacent to Fort Greely) on October 12 (U.S. Weather
of 10 feet. No permafrost was found, and the water
Bureau, 1962), which is normal for the area. Simul-
table is at least 20 feet below the ground surf ace (on the
t>anwusly,most of the ponds froze and flow ceased in
basis of exposed gravel pits in the vicinity).
several creeks. The soil a t site C was frozen to a depth
Site B, 14 miles from site A and at an altitude of
of 3 inches but it was not frozen a t sites A or B.
1,220 feet, is located on a sand dune adjacent to mile-
During the third meek in November, snow cover at
post 1402. The dune is composed of medium sancl and
sites A, B, and C was 19,15, and 6 inches thick, respec-
is stabilized by a dense forest of poplar and birch 20
tively. These thicknesses increased 2 inches at each
to 30 feet in height. A 2-inch-thick organic mat com-
posed of berry plants and vegetable fibers covers the 'All air temperatures were recorded a t the Fort Creely recording
sand, which is underlain by out~vashgravel at n clepth station, 0.6 mile from site A.
'U.S. Army Signal Corps hteteorological Team, 1961, Climatology
of 20 feet. No permafrost was found, ailcl the water chart: Fort Greely. Alaska, Nov. [Duplicated report]
table is at least 25 feet below the gro~ulclsurface (on 8 U.S. Army Signal Corps hfeteorological Team, 1961, Monthly clima-
tological summary: Fort Greely, Alaska, Sept., Oct. [Duplicated re-
the basis of exposed gravel pits in the vicinity). port1

BRT. 38 I N U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-B, PAGES B144-B147. 1963.
 KRINSLEY

F I ~ U38.1.-Mean
~E daily and ruean monthly air temperatures recorded at Fort Greely, Alaska; snow thickness and 32"
isotherms at sites A, B,and C.
B 146 GEOMORPHOLOGY, GLACIAL GEOLOGY, AND GLACIOLOGY

s i b during the second half of December, and then TABLE38.1.-Summary of ratios of snow thickness, mean tempera-
ture differences between the azr-snow and snow-ground interfaces,
decreased 3 inches at each site during January and and ,anpo,t penetralion
February (fig. 38.1). The snow was light, dry, and
free of packing or crusting at all sites. November was of mean Ratio of mean
temperature
Ratio
6.3O colder than normal (1943-60 mean) ; December Site
~ a t i o01 moan
snow tliickness
difference
between
frost
penetration
was 17.2" colder than normal; and both January and (fig. 38.1)
mow-~TOIJD~
md air- OW
an. 7)24-
(Nor.
February were 2.0" and 6.4", respectively, warmer than interfaces (as.39.1)
(insulation)
normal? --
The air temperature at site C was generally within A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 9 3. 5 1. o
1" of the air temperature at the Fort Greely recording B--- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2. 3 2. 9 1. 5
C------------------------ 1. 0 1. 0 2. 2
station (fig. 38.1). Above - 13OF the air temperature
at site C was always 2" to 3' lower than the air temper- .
ature at site A or B (which were generally identical) ; times as thick as that at site C, but the insulating efTect
below -13' F it was always 2" to 3' above the air tem- of the snow was 3.5 times as great as that at site C.
perature at site A or B. All observations a t the themo- Although visual inspection of the sno~r-at the three
couple sites were genedly made during the hours 0800 sites did not reveal any density differences, layers, or
to 1200. crusts, the existence of these differences cannot be dis-
The mean temperature at the snow-ground interface counted in the absence of more precise measurements.
for the period November 24 through February 17 was Examination of table 38.2 discloses the existence of a
26.1°, 19.6", and l.l°F at sites A, B, and C, respec- significant break in the insulating effect of ~ 1 1 0 1at~
tively. The mean air temperature during the period
November 24 through February 17 was - 8.3OF. Ac- TABLE38.2.-Differences i n temperature between the air-snow and
snow-ground interfaces at site C
cording to Lachenbruch (1959, p. 29), "In the Arctic the
mean winter temperature of the snow surfam is gener- Tempera-
ture of Difference
ally probably somewhat lower than the corresponding Mean temperature snow- intem-
of au-snow inter- ground perature
air temperature because of the high emissivity of snow face, and total fluc- Snow- interface, between
Date tuation within depth and total air-snow
for long wave lengths." If it is assumed that the air- period (degrees (inches) fluctuation and snow-
Fahrenheit) within ground
snow interface had a mean temperature (November 24 period interfaces
(degrees (degrees
through February 17) of approximately - 9.0°F, then Fahrenheit) Fahrenheit)
the m a n temperature difference between the air-snow - ----
1::gzs
and.snow-ground interfaces was 35.1°, 28.6", and 10.1" No.4 - - - - - - - 13. 7
Dec. 11- - - - - - - - - - - - 1314 .7
at sites A, B, and C, respectively. Dsc. 2 6 - - - - - - - - - - - - -45.7 40. 7
Frost penetration proceeded most rapidly at site C, Jan. 7 - - - - - - - - - - - - - -26.7 '- 21 8
7.3J53. O 7 26.
g . 73
which had the thinnest snow cover (fig. 38.1). Curve %: 1: :1 :;:1
Feb. 17- - - - - - - - - - - -
-26 7
-. 3
7 3
4
29. 7
4. 3
C steepens considerably af tec the 32" isothem passes 5
through the eolian silt at a depth of 36 inches and enters
coarsioutwash gravel. This is in accord with the ob- thicknesses between 6 and 7 inches. This bmnlc has
servations made at Dow Field, Bangor, Maine (U.S. been referred to as the "critical thickness" of snow,
Army Corps of Engineers, 1947) and at Portland, which may be defined as the amount of snow cover re-
Maine (Fuller, 1940) that frost penetration was faster quired to significantly dampen the fluctuations of the
in gravel and sand than in silt and clay. It seems ambient air temperature. The critical thickness of
reasonable to assume that curve B would have been snow has been observed by others (table 38.3).
closer to curve A if the material at site B had been silt The insulating quality of snow is an expression of
rather than medium sand. Conversely, if there had been its thermal conductivity. This value is difficult to
an identical snow thickness at all sites, curve B would measure, and it depends on density, structure, texture,
have been below curve C at depths less than 36 inches, and interstitial air flou- (Bader, 1962, p. 58). I11 ncldi-
but would have crossed curve C somewhere below 36 tion, the thermal conductivity of snow is sensitive to the
inches.
thermal properties of the underlying material (Lachen-
Observations at site B indicate that although its snow
cover was 2.3 times as thick as that at site C, the insulat- bruch, 1959, p. 24). In view of all these variables and
ing effect of the snow was 2.9 times as great as that at the widely scattered observations (table 38.3), it is re-
site C (table 38.1). The snow cover at site A was 2.9 markable that the critical thickness of snow appears to
4 Idem, Nov. 1961-Feb. 1962. occupy such a narrow range of values.
 KRINSLEY B 147
TABLE38.3.-Critical thickness of snow observed i n this and REFERENCES
other studies
Atkinson, H. B:, and Bay, C. E., 1940, Some factors affecting
I
Location
I

1
-.---
M . ~ ~ I
annual Minimum tem-
temper- perature ln year
ofoimervation 1 1
1 Critical
gthick-S B"er,
frost penetration: Am. Geouhvs.
3-B, p. 935-951.
- - Union Trans., v. 21, pt.
Hen" 1%" The physics and nuxhania of snow as a

1 1 1 /
material: U. S. Army Corps Engineers Cold Regions Re-
search and Engineering Lab., Cold regions science and
Krinsley u a l o Cent, 25: 7 -61 illil) 6-7 engineering, pt. 11, sect. B, 79 p.
(this Alaska. Fuller, H. U., 1940, Studies of frost penetration : New England
report). Water Works Assoc. Jour., v. 64, no. 3, p. 275-281.
Pruitt '24. -55 Holmes, G. W., and Benninghoff, W. S., 1957, Terrain study of
Kabanov U.S.S.R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10
(1937). the Army Test Area, Fort Greely, Alaska: U. S. Geol. Sur-
Atkinson La Crosse, Wis---- 46.3 -38 (1936) 10 vey, Military Geology Branch, v. 1,287 p.
and Bay Kabanov, P. G., 1937, Soil temperature and warming of winter
(1940). crops Cabs.] : Am Meteorological Soc. Bull., v. 18, p. 6 5 4 6 .
Lachenbruch, A. H., 1959, Periodic heat flow in a stratified me-
dium with application to permafrost problems : U. S. Geol.
The data summarized in tables 38.1 and 38.2 suggest Survey ~ u l l1083-A,
. 36 p.
- dry snow is reduced
that the transfer of heat througl1 Pruitt, W. O., Jr., 1957, Observations on the bioclimate of some
abruptly when a critical thickness is attained. The taiga mammals: Arctic, v. 10,no. 3, p. 131-138.
U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1947, Report on frost investi-
measurement of the exact rate of reduction at critical gation, Boston, Mass., New England Division, 57
thickness and the explanatioll for this pllenomell~nare U. S. IVeather Bureau, 1961, Climatological data-Alaska : v. 47,
worthy of further study. no. 10, ~ c t1961,
. p. 156-171.
 Article 52

SEASONAL CHANGES IN THE CHEMICAL QUALITY OF SHALLOW GROUND WATER

IN NORTHWESTERN ALASKA

By ALVIN J. FEULNER and ROBERT G. SCHUPP, Anchorage and Palmer, Alaska

Work done in cooperation with the U.8.Air Force, Alaskan Air Uomrnand

Abstract.-Marked increases in mineralization of ground

water during the colder months are accounted for by simple
concentration by freezing, and by reduction in dilute recharge
during Mnter.

Data on the quality of shallow ground water at a

site in northwestern Alaska indicate that marked sys-
tematic changes occur throughout the year. These
changes are believed due to dilution of mineralized
ground water by melt water and precipitation in the
summer and by concentration of mineral constituents
in the water through freezing during the winter. The
data consist of analyses of a series of water samples
collected during the period June 1961 to July 1962 at
a remote site near the Bering Sea in northwestern
Alaska, just south of the Arctic Circle. The water
supply was developed during the late summer of 1961
by the U.S. Air Force; the analyses were made to rate
the water for use as boiler feed and to determine what
treatment, if any, would be required to make it suitable
for that use.
Although permafrost is known to extend to a depth
of 1,000 feet or more in this part of Alaska, water at
the site described here remains fluid throughout the
year in a permeable zone-most likely fractured rock
along a high-angle fault which trends northward into
the nearby mountains (fig. 52.1). The occurrence of
springs in summer marked by ice mounds in winter sug- maUBE. 52.1.-Sketch map showing fault, spring, and water-
gested the possibility of developing a year-round water supply installations ; datum mean sea level.
supply from this permeable zone. The temperature of
the spring water was reported to be 35'46°F in August case, the water probably would be more highly miner-
1959. The explanation of the year-round fluidity of alized than i t is. More likely, the water is derived from
the water has not been determined. It is unlikely that precipitation and snowmelt in the nearby mountains,
the water rises from a great depth or has been in contact and because of its relatively high velocity through the
with incompletely cooled igneous rocks; if such were the permeable zone it does not freeze completely.
ART. 52 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 475-B, PAGES B189-B191. 1963.
680231 -
1
4
B190 GROUND WATER

A water supply was developed by excavating a trench

into the permeable zone, placing perforated pipe along 200 -
the bottom of the trench, and backfilling the excavation. Z
0
Water entering the perforated pipe flows by gravity -I
=!
through a lateral pipe nearly 400 feet long t o a sump z 100-
K 90-
(fig. 52.1) from which it is pumped for use. T o pre- ,W so-
70
vent freezing of the water enroute to the sump, steam- w;60:
k" 50-
pipes were laid along the full length of the lateral pipe, L t ,,-
which was laid in the bottom of s trench excavated by 5g
$i
3;0-
blasting frozen bedrock. '"0
During the coldest months the inflow of water to the $5 20-
sump declines, because recharge to the permeable zone 3I
=z
n-
virtually stops and because of freezing inward from the z W
a 0 10-
boundaries of the permeable zone. The discharge to the w 5 ,gr
sump has ranged from several hundred gallons per min- ;L 7-
6-
ute for short periods to a low of 1,000 gallons per day in 22
g s ,-
- 2 5 -
late May 1962. The area lacks a well-defined drainage 0
system; the nearest stream, which flows only during the -I
3-
warmer part of the year, is about 600 feet away and a
K
2-
downslope from the permeable zone; thus recharge is z
I
chiefly from idiltration of snowmelt and rain.
Water samples were collected by Air Force personnel 1 I ' I 1 ' I " ' I ( 1 , I J
JUNE JULY AUG.SEPT.OCT. NOV. DEC. JAN. FEE. MAR. APR.MAY JUNE JULY
for chemical analysis by the Geological Survey in June, 1961 1962
September, and December 1961 and in January, Febru-
ary, April, May, June, and July 1962. Of these, the first FIG^ 52.2.--Changes in the chemical quality of the water dur-
and second were collected before installation of the ing the period June 1961 to July 1962.
water-supply system was completed. All the analytical
results are given in the accompanying table, and selected differences between the summer and winter concentra-
results are shown in figure 52.2. tions of magnesium, silica, and dissolved solids, in the
As may be seen by examination of the table and figure summer and winter carbonate hardness, and in the sum-
52.2, the chemical quality of the water changed sys- mer and winter specific conductance follow a similar
tematically during the period of sampling. F o r exam- trend.
ple, the sulfate content was 5 pprn (parts per million) The mineral constituents most likely to show a wide
or less in June and September 1961, increased to more range in concentration probably are determined by the
than 40 ppm by late April and early May 1962, and kinds of water-soluble minerals with which the water
dropped to 6 ppm by early July 1962. The noncarbon- has come into contact. A t this particular site, where
ate hardness showed a similarly wide range-as low as the summer and winter concentrations of sulfate differ
6 ppm in September 1961 and 5 ppm in July 1962, but so widely, the p o u n d water has percolated through
about 10 times as great in April and May 1962. The partly metamorphosed thin-bedded limestone intruded
Mineral ~ ~ ? t . ~ t i t ~ . e ~ t 8 , per million, and other characteristics of ground water at a site in northwestern Ala.Vca
i n? parts

Dissolved Hardness as Bpecl5c

Date of Man- Cal- Magne- Potas- Bicar- Chlo- Fluo- solids CaCOa conduct-
collec- Bflica Iron ganese cium sium Sodium sium bonate Sulfate ride ride Nitrate (residue ance (mi- pH Color
tion (810,) (Fe) (Mu) (Cs) (Mg) (Na) (K) HCOa (Sod) (Cl) (F) (NOS) onevap- cromhos
oration Carbon- Noncar- at 25OC)
at 180°C) ate bonate
- --__--------- -----
leSI
June 20 4.6 0.05 0.00 12 1.4 6.9 0.3 27 5.0 16 0.6 0.4 60 36 14 106 7.2 0
Bept.14 3.7 .00 .OO 9.2 1.2 6.1 .4 26 4.0 11 .6 .2 49 28 6 92 7.1 5
Dec. 11 2.9 .02 .02 15 1.8 6.7 .1 42 10 10 .8 .6 69 45 10 122 7.1 0
imz
Jan. 15 3.6 .02 .00 17 1.3 7.2 .I 39 15 11 1.0 .3 76 48 16 138 7.2 0
Feb.12 4.9 .02 .00 23 3.0 8.1 .5 42 26 16 1.3 .9 105 70 36 180 7.8 0
Apr. 5 7.8 .02 .O1 33 4.9 10 .6 53 39 25 .7 2.9 150 103 59 258 7.4 5
Apr. 20 5.4 .02 .00 31 3.9 11 .6 53 42 21 1.0 1.7 131 94 51 253 7.3 0
May 10 5.4 .02 .OO 35 3.9 11 .7 56 46 21 .8 1.9 154 103 58 270 7.7 0
June12 6.5 .02 .00 19 1.5 7.5 .6 55 9.0 11 .4 1.9 83 54 9 146 7.4 5
July 8 4.7 .W .OO 14 1.2 6.8 .4 43 6.0 9.0 .5 .8 64 40 5 107 7.3 0
 FEULNER AND SCHUPP B191
by granite. Pyrite, pyrrhotite, fluorite, and sphalerite top of the aquifer, thus reducing the cross sectional area
are common in the mineralized zones along the contact through which the water could flow. This freezing
of the limestone with the granite. Sulfate compounds accentuates the normal seasonal decline in yield, which
formed during weathering of these and other sulfide is due to lack of recharge from precipitation in the
minerals are dissolved readily in the ground water. winter and to depletion of the water in storage in the
The relative enrichment of the ground water in calcium aquifer. The increase in mineral content was caused
and sulfate in the later winter months probably is due partly by selective concentration of mineral matter in
to the fact that recharge from precipitation ceases and the unfrozen water. The freezing accentuates a normal
the discharge from the permeable zone consists almost seasonal increase in mineral content, which is due to a
entirely of ground water that has long been in contact reduction in the diluting effect of recharge from pre-
with mineralized rocks. The recharge from precipita- cipitation. Thus, in an aquifer 20 feet thick, freezing
tion, which has a relatively high sodium and chloride extending 15 feet into it may result'in a doubling or
content owing to proximity to the Bering Sea, is cut off tripling of the dissolved-solids content in the water that
during the winter as soon as the ground freezes. The remains unfrozen. The rapid decline in the mineral
increases noted in sodium and chloride probably are content of the water in the late spring is related to the
due to simple concentration by freezing whereas the thawing of the ice within the aquifer, plus infiltration
larger increases in calcium and sulfate are due in part of surface melt water which recharges the aquifer.
to concentration by freezing but also to the fact that The double peaks on several of the curves in figure
the winter discharge has been in contact with the rock 52.2 probably indicate that at least one slight thaw
materials longer. Sparse data from another Air Force preceded the main thaw in the spring of 1962; that
station in Alaska, where the bedrock consists wholly the thawing proceeded by stages is confirmed by air-
of limestone, indicate that there the greatest seasonal temperature data. As the water level. in the sump
differences in the chemical quality of the ground water is reported to have risen markedly on May 28,1962, it,
are in the concentrations of calcium and bicarbonate may be reasonable to assume that the mnximum mineral
and in the carbonate hardness, and are caused by a concentration of the ground water was reached shortly
combination of the processes similar to those described before that date.
above. R. M. Waller (U.S. Geological Survey,' oral Although documentation is sparse, probably other
communication, 1962) reported observing similar win- shallow ground-water supplies in subarctic and artic
tertime increases in mineral content in ground water areas are subject to similar marked seasonal changes in
flowing beneath a frozen stream in another part of chemical quality. Several factor-such as the depth
Alaska. of freezing before the snow cover becomes well estab-
As shown by figure 52.2, the mineral content of the lished, the total moisture content of the snow cover,
water was lowest during the summer, increased grad- and the length of time the ground is snow covered-
ually during the fall, increased relatively rarpidly dur- may affect the amount of increase in the concentration
ing the winter and early spring, and then declined very of dissolved minerals somewhat. However, it seems
rapidly in the late spring to about the same level as unlikely that the extremes would differ more than 10
that of the previous summer. Concurrent with the percent from the values reported here. The observed
more rapid increase in mineralization was a marked changes are believed sufficiently representative to pro-
decline in the yield of the water-supply system. The vide a basis for predicting the type of treatment that
decline in yield presumably was caused partly by a boiler-fed water may require at different times during
freezing inward from the sides and downward from the the year.