DEEP FOUNDATION

PILE FOUNDATION
 Pile Foundations
• Deep foundations, D/B>1-pile foundations
• Piles are relatively long and slender members used to transmit
foundation loads through soil strata of low bearing capacity to deeper
soil or rock having a higher bearing capacity.

• Pile resistance is comprised of

• end bearing
• shaft friction

• For many piles only one of these components is important. This is

the basis of a simple classification.
• If the diameter of a bored-cast-in-situ pile is greater than about 0.75 m, it is
sometimes called a drilled pier, drilled caisson or drilled shaft.
End Bearing Piles: Driven until it comes to rest on hard
impenetrable layer of soil or rock
Friction Piles
• Piles are also used to resist uplift loads. Piles used for this purpose are
called tension piles or uplift piles or anchor piles. Uplift loads are
developed due to hydrostatic pressure or overturning movement.
 Lateral or Inclined Loads
• Piles are also used to resist horizontal or inclined forces. Batter piles are
normally used to resist large horizontal loads
 CLASSIFICATION OF PILES
Types of Piles According to Their Composition
Piles may be classified according to their composition as
1. Timber Piles: made of tree trunks with the branches trimmed off. The
length of the pile may be 15 m or more.
2. Concrete Piles: are either precast or cast-in-situ piles. Precast concrete
piles are cast and cured in a casting yard and then transported to the
site of work for driving. If the work is of a very big nature, they may be
cast at the site also.
3. Steel Piles:Steel piles are usually rolled H shapes or pipe piles, H-piles
are proportioned to withstand large impact stresses during hard driving.
Pipe piles are either welded or seamless steel pipes which may be driven
either open-end or closed-end. Pipe piles are often filled with concrete
after driving, although in some cases this is not necessary.
TYPES OF PILES ACCORDING TO THE METHOD OF
INSTALLATION
According to the method of construction, there are three types of piles. They are
1. Driven piles,
2. Cast-in-situ piles and
3. Driven and cast-in-situ piles.
Driven Piles
• Piles may be of timber, steel or concrete. When the piles are of concrete, they are to
be precast.
• Piles are driven using a pile hammer.
• When a pile is driven into a granular soil, the soil so displaced, equal to the volume of
the driven pile, compacts the soil around the sides since the displaced soil particles
enter the soil spaces of the adjacent mass which leads to densification of the mass.
• The pile that compacts the soil adjacent to it is sometimes called a compaction pile.
The compaction of the soil mass around a pile increases its bearing capacity.
• If a pile is driven into saturated silty or cohesive soil, the soil around the pile cannot be
densified because of its poor drainage qualities.
• The displaced soil particles cannot enter the void space unless the water in the pores is
pushed out
• The immediate effect of driving a pile in a soil with poor drainage qualities is, therefore, to
decrease its bearing strength
Advantages
1. Piles can be precast to the required specifications.
2. Piles of any size, length and shape can be made in advance and used at the site. As a
result, the progress of the work will be rapid.
3. A pile driven into granular soil compacts the adjacent soil mass and as a result the
bearing capacity of the pile is increased.
4. The work is neat and clean. The supervision of work at the site can be reduced to a
minimum. The storage space required is very much less.
5. Driven piles may conveniently be used in places where it is advisable not to drill holes for
fear of meeting ground water under pressure.
6. Driven piles are the most favored for works over water such as piles in wharf structures
or jetties.
 Disadvantages
1. Precast or prestressed concrete piles must be properly reinforced to
withstand handling stresses during transportation and driving.
2. Advance planning is required for handling and driving.
3. Requires heavy equipment for handling and driving.
4. Since the exact length required at the site cannot be determined in
advance, the method involves cutting off extra lengths or adding more
lengths. This increases the cost of the project.
5. Driven piles are not suitable in soils of poor drainage qualities. If the
driving of piles is not properly phased and arranged, there is every
possibility of heaving of the soil or the lifting of the driven piles during the
driving of a new pile.
6. Where the foundations of adjacent structures are likely to be affected
due to the vibrations generated by the driving of piles, driven piles should
not be used.
 Cast-in-situ Piles
• Cast-in-situ piles are concrete piles. These piles are distinguished from
drilled piers as small diameter piles.

• They are constructed by making holes in the ground to the required

depth and then filling the hole with concrete. Straight bored piles or
piles with one or more bulbs at intervals may be cast at the site. The
latter type are called under-reamed piles. Reinforcement may be used
as per the requirements.

• Cast-in-situ piles have advantages as well as disadvantages.

 Advantages
1. Piles of any size and length may be constructed at the site.
2. Damage due to driving and handling that is common in
precast piles is eliminated in this case.
3. These piles are ideally suited in places where vibrations of
any type are required to be avoided to preserve the safety of
the adjoining structure.
4. They are suitable in soils of poor drainage qualities since
cast-in-situ piles do not significantly disturb the surrounding
soil.
 Disadvantages
1. Installation of cast-in-situ piles requires careful supervision and quality
control of all the materials used in the construction.
2. The method is quite cumbersome. It needs sufficient storage space for all
the materials used in the construction.
3. The advantage of increased bearing capacity due to compaction in granular
soil that could be obtained by a driven pile is not produced by a cast-in-situ
pile.
4. Construction of piles in holes where there is heavy current of ground water
flow or artesian pressure is very difficult.
Driven and Cast-in-situ Piles
The factors that govern the selection of piles

1. Length of pile in relation to the load and type of soil

2. Character of structure

3. Availability of materials

4. Type of loading

5. Factors causing deterioration

 VERTICAL LOAD BEARING CAPACITY OF A
SINGLE VERTICAL PILE
The bearing capacity of groups of piles subjected to vertical or vertical and
lateral loads depends upon the behavior of a single pile. The bearing capacity of
a single pile depends upon.
1. Type, size and length of pile,
2. Type of soil,
3. The method of installation.

The bearing capacity depends primarily on the method of installation and the
type of soil encountered. The bearing capacity of a single pile increases with an
increase in the size and length. The position of the water table also affects the
bearing capacity.
 VERTICAL LOAD BEARING CAPACITY OF A
SINGLE VERTICAL PILE
In order to be able to design a safe and economical pile foundation, we
have to analyze the interactions between the pile and the soil,
establish the modes of failure and estimate the settlements from soil
deformation under dead load, service load etc. The design should
comply with the following requirements.

• It should ensure adequate safety against failure; the factor of safety

used depends on the importance of the structure and on the
reliability of the soil parameters and the loading systems used in the
design.
• The settlements should be compatible with adequate behavior of the
superstructure to avoid impairing its efficiency.
 Load Transfer Mechanism
Fig. 15.4(a) gives a single pile of uniform diameter d (circular or any other
shape) and length L driven into a homogeneous mass of soil of known physical
properties. A static vertical load is applied on the top. It is required to determine
the ultimate bearing capacity Qu of the pile.
When the ultimate load applied on the top of the pile is Qu, a part of the load is
transmitted to the soil along the length of the pile and the balance is
transmitted to the pile base.

The load transmitted to the soil along the length of the pile is called the ultimate
friction load or skin load Qf and that transmitted to the base is called the base or
point load Qb
where Qu = ultimate load applied on the top of the pile
qb = ultimate unit bearing capacity of the pile at the base
Ab = bearing area of the base of the pile
As = total surface area of pile embedded below ground surface
fs - unit skin friction (ultimate)
• Consider the pile shown in Fig. 15.4(b) is loaded to failure by gradually
increasing the load on the top
• If settlement of the top of the pile is measured at every stage of loading after
an equilibrium condition is attained, a load settlement curve as shown in Fig.
15.4(c) can be obtained.
• If the pile is instrumented, the load distribution along the pile can be
determined at different stages of loading and plotted as shown in Fig. 15.4(b).

• When a load Q1 acts on the pile head, the axial load at ground level is also Q1
but at level A1(Fig. 15.4(b)), the axial load is zero.
• The total load Q1 is distributed as friction load within a length of pile L1. The
lower section A1B of pile will not be affected by this load. As the load at the
top is increased to Q2, the axial load at the bottom of the pile is just zero
• The total load Q2 is distributed as friction load along the whole length of pile L.
• The friction load distribution curves along the pile shaft may be as shown in the
figure. If the load put on the pile is greater than Q2, a part of this load is transferred
to the soil at the base as point load and the rest is transferred to the soil
surrounding the pile.
• With the increase of load Q on the top, both the friction and point loads continue to
increase.
• The friction load attains an ultimate value Qf, at a particular load level, say Qm, at
the top, and any further increment of load added to Qm will not increase the value
of Qf. However, the point load, Qp , still goes on increasing till the soil fails by
punching shear failure.

• Generally the vertical movement of the pile which is required to mobilize full end
resistance is much greater than that required to mobilize full skin friction.
• Experience indicates that in bored cast-in-situ piles full frictional load is normally
mobilized at a settlement equal to 0.5 to 1 percent of pile diameter and the full base load
Qb at 10 to 20 percent of the diameter. If applied in clay, it can be excessive
 Definition of Failure Load
• The methods of determining failure loads based on load-settlement curves are
described in subsequent sections.

• However, in the absence of a load settlement curve, a failure load may be

defined as that which causes a settlement equal to 10 percent of the pile
diameter or width (as per the suggestion of Terzaghi) which is widely accepted
by engineers.
• However, if this criterion is applied to piles of large diameter in clay and a
nominal factor of safety of 2 is used to obtain the working load, then the
settlement at the working load may be excessive.
 Factor of Safety
• In almost all cases where piles are acting as structural foundations, the
allowable load is governed solely from considerations of tolerable settlement
at the working load.
• The working load for all pile types in all types of soil may be taken as equal to
the sum of the base resistance and shaft friction divided by a suitable factor of
safety. A safety factor of 2.5 is normally used. Therefore we may write

• In case where the values of Qb and Qf can be obtained independently, the

allowable load can be written as

• The least of the allowable loads given by the above Equations is taken as the
design working load.
 METHODS OF DETERMINING ULTIMATE LOAD BEARING
CAPACITY OF A SINGLE VERTICAL PILE
The ultimate bearing capacity, Qu, of a single vertical pile may be
determined by any of the following methods.
1. By the use of static bearing capacity equations.
2. By the use of SPT and CPT values.
3. By field load tests.
4. By dynamic method
 GENERAL THEORY FOR ULTIMATE BEARING CAPACITY
• According to Vesic (1967), only punching shear failure occurs in deep
foundations irrespective of the density of the soil so long as the depth-width
ratio L/d is greater than 4 where L = length of pile and d = diameter (or width of
pile).
• The types of failure surfaces assumed by different investigators are shown in Fig.
15.6 for the general shear failure condition.
• The detailed experimental study of Vesic indicates that the failure surfaces do
not revert back to the shaft as shown in Fig. 15.6(c).
• The total failure load may be written as follows

where Qu= load at failure applied to the pile

Qb = base resistance
Qs = shaft resistance
Wp = weight of the pile.
• The general equation for the base resistance may be written as

where d= width or diameter of the shaft at base level

q'o = effective overburden pressure at the base level of the pile
Ab = base area of pile
c = cohesion of soil
γ= effective unit weight of soil
• Nc, Nq , N γ = bearing capacity factors which take into account the shape
factor.
 Cohesionless Soils
• For cohesionless soils, c = 0 and the term l/2γdN becomes insignificant in
comparison with the term qoNq for deep foundations. Therefore Eq. (15.5)
reduces to

• Eq. (15.4) may now be written as

• The net ultimate load in excess of the overburden pressure load qoAb is

• If we assume, for all practical purposes, W and q'0Ab are roughly equal for
straight side or moderately tapered piles, Eq. (15.8) reduces to
where As = surface area of the embedded length of the pile
= average effective overburden pressure over the embedded depth of the pile
Ks = average lateral earth pressure coefficient
δ = angle of wall friction.
Cohesive Soils
For cohesive soils such as saturated clays (normally consolidated), we have for ɸ = 0, Nq =1 and Nγ= 0. The ultimate base load
from Eq. (15.5) is
where α = adhesion factor
cu = average undrained shear strength of clay along the shaft
cb = undrained shear strength of clay at the base level
NC = bearing capacity factor
Equations (15.9) and (15.12) are used for analyzing the net ultimate load
capacity of piles in cohesionless and cohesive soils respectively. In each case the
following types of piles are considered.
1 . Driven piles
2. Driven and cast-in-situ piles
3. Bored piles
 ULTIMATE BEARING CAPACITY IN COHESIONLESS SOILS
Effect of Pile Installation on the Value of the Angle of Friction
• When a pile is driven into loose sand its density is increased (Meyerhof, 1959), and the
horizontal extent of the compacted zone has a width of about 6 to 8 times the pile diameter.
• However, in dense sand, pile driving decreases the relative density because of the dilatancy of
the sand (expand in volume) and the loosened sand along the shaft has a width of about 5
times the pile diameter (Kerisel, 1961)
• Kishida (1967) proposed that the angle of internal friction decreases linearly from a maximum
value of ɸ2 at the pile tip to a low value of ɸ1 at a distance of 3.5dfrom the tip where d is the
diameter of the pile, ɸ1 is the angle of friction before the installation of the pile and ɸ2 after
the installation as shown.
• With regard to bored and cast-in-situ piles, the soil gets loosened during
boring. Tomlinson (1986) suggests that the ɸ value for calculating both the
base and skin resistance should represent the loose state. However, Poulos
et al., (1980) suggests that for bored piles, the value of ɸ be taken as

• where ɸ1 = angle of internal friction prior to installation of the pile.

 CRITICAL DEPTH
• The ultimate bearing capacity Qu in cohesionless soils as per Eq. (15.9) is

• Eq. (15.16b) implies that both the point resistance qb and the skin resistance fs are functions
of the effective overburden pressure qo in cohesionless soils and increase linearly with the
depth of embedment, L, of the pile.
• According to Vesic (1967) the base and frictional resistances remain almost constant beyond
a certain depth Lc of embedment which is a function of ɸ.
• The L/d ratio as a function of ɸ may be expressed as follows (Poulos and Davis, 1980)
 TOMLINSON'S SOLUTION FOR Qb IN SAND
• The theoretical Nq factor in Eq. (15.9) is a function of ɸ. The values of Nq derived Tomlinson are
shown in Fig. 15.9.
 Bored and Cast-in-situ Piles in Cohesionless Soils
• In all the cases the sides and bottom if the hole will be loosened as a result of the
boring operations, even though it may be initially be in a dense or medium dense
state.
• Tomlinson suggests that the values of the parameters in Eq. (15.9) must be calculated
by assuming that the ɸ value will represent the loose condition.
• However, when piles are installed by rotary drilling under a bentonite slurry for
stabilizing the sides, it may be assumed that the ɸ value used to calculate both the skin
friction and base resistance will correspond to the undisturbed soil condition
(Tomlinson, 1986).
• As per De Beer (1965), the base resistance qb of a bored and cast-in-situ pile is about
one third of that of a driven pile.

• The frictional parameter may be calculated by assuming a value of ɸ equal to 28° which represents the
loose condition of the soil. The same Eq. (15.9) may be used to compute Qu based on the
modifications explained above.
 MEYERHOF'S METHOD OF DETERMINING Qb
FOR PILES IN SAND
• Meyerhof (1976) takes into account the critical depth ratio (LJd) for
estimating the value of Qb,
• Fig. 15.10 shows the variation of Lc/d for both the bearing capacity factors Nc
and Nq as a function of ɸ.
• According to Meyerhof, the bearing capacity factors increase with Lb/d and
reach a maximum value at Lb/d equal to about 0.5 (Lc/d), where Lb is the
actual thickness of the bearing stratum.
• For example, in a homogeneous soil (15.6c) Lb is equal to L, the actual
embedded length of pile; whereas in Fig. 15.6b, Lb is less than L.
Eq. (15.20) is applicable only for driven piles in sand. For
bored cast-in-situ piles the value of
qb is to be reduced by one third to one-half.
Clay Soil (0 = 0)
• The base resistance Qb for piles in saturated clay soil may be
expressed as

• where Nc = 9, and cu = undrained shear strength of the soil at the

base level of the pile
 VESIC'S METHOD OF DETERMINING Qb
• The unit base resistance of a pile in a (c - ɸ) soil may be expressed as (Vesic,
1977)

where c = unit cohesion

q'0 = effective vertical pressure at the base level of the pile
N*c and Nq* = bearing capacity factors related to each other by the equation

• As per Vesic, the base resistance is not governed by the vertical ground pressure
q’o but by the mean effective normal ground stress σm expressed as

• in which Ko = coefficient of earth pressure for the at rest condition = 1 - sin ɸ. Now the bearing
capacity in Eq. (15.22) may be expressed as
• An equation for Nσ* can be obtained from Eqs. (15.22), (15.24) and (15.25) as

• Vesic has developed an expression for N*σ based on the ultimate pressure
needed to expand a spherical cavity in an infinite soil mass as
Where
Irr = reduced rigidity index for the soil
Δ = average volumetric strain in the plastic zone below the pile point
Es = modulus of elasticity of soil
G = shear modulus of soil
μ= Poisson's ratio of soil
• Figures 15.1 1 (a) and 15.1 l(b) give plots of N*σversus ɸ, and N*c versus ɸ for various values
of Irr respectively.
• The values of rigidity index can be computed knowing the values of shear modulus Go and the
shear strength s (= c + q'o tan ɸ).
• When an undrained condition exists in the saturated clay soil or the soil is cohesionless and is
in a dense state we have Δ = 0 and in such a case Ir = Irr.
• For ɸ = 0 (undrained condition), we have
• The value of lr depends upon the soil state, (a) for sand, loose or dense
and (b) for clay low, medium or high plasticity. For preliminary estimates
the following values of lr may be used.
 JANBU'S METHOD OF DETERMINING Qb
• The bearing capacity equation of Janbu (1976) is the same as Eq. (15.22) and is expressed as

• The shape of the failure surface as assumed by Janbu is similar to that given in Fig.
15.6(b).Janbu's equation for Nq* is

where Ψ=angle as shown in Fig. 15.6(b). This angle varies from 60° in soft compressible soil to
105° in dense sand. The values for N*c used by Janbu are the same as those given by Vesic (Eq.
15.23). Table 15.1 gives the bearing capacity factors of Janbu. Since Janbu's bearing capacity
factor N* depends on the angle Ψ, there are two uncertainties involved in this procedure. They
are
1. The difficulty in determining the values of Ψ for different situations at base level.
2. The settlement required at the base level of the pile for the full development of a plastic
zone.
• For full base load Qb to develop, at least a settlement of about 10 to 20 percent
of the pile diameter is required which is considerable for larger diameter piles.
 THE ULTIMATE SKIN RESISTANCE OF A SINGLE PILE IN
COHESIONLESS SOIL
Skin Resistance (Straight Shaft)
The ultimate skin resistance in a homogeneous soil as per Eq. (15.9) is expressed as

• In a layered system of soil and δ vary with respect to depth. Equation (15.34a) may
then be expressed as

• As explained in Section 15.10 the effective overburden pressure does not increase linearly
with depth and reaches a constant value beyond a particular depth Lc, called the critical
depth which is a function of ɸ. It is therefore natural to expect the skin resistance fs also to
remain constant beyond depth Lc . The magnitude of LC may be taken as equal to 20d.
• Eq. (15.17) can be used for determining the critical length Lc for any given set of
values of ɸ and d. Q f can be calculated from Eq. (15.34) if and δ are known.
• The values of and δ vary not only with the relative density and pile material
but also with the method of installation of the pile.
• As per the present state of knowledge, the maximum skin friction is limited to
110 kN/m2 (Tomlinson, 1986).
SKIN RESISTANCE Qf BY COYLE AND CASTELLO METHOD (1981)
 STATIC BEARING CAPACITY OF PILES IN CLAY SOIL
• The static ultimate bearing capacity of piles in clay as per Eq. (15.12) is

• For layered clay soils where the cohesive strength varies along the shaft, Eq.
(15.37) may be written as

Bearing Capacity Factor Nc

The value of the bearing capacity factor Nc that is generally accepted is 9 which is
the value proposed by Skempton (1951) for circular foundations for a LIB ratio
greater than 4. The base capacity of a pile in clay soil may now be expressed as
The value of cb may be obtained either from laboratory tests on undisturbed samples or from the
relationships established between cu and field penetration tests. Eq. (15.39) is applicable for all
types of pile installations,
Skin Resistance by a-Method
Meyerhof 's Method (1976)
 BEARING CAPACITY OF PILES FOUNDED ON A
ROCKY BED
• Tomlinson (1986) suggests an equation for computing the end bearing
resistance of piles resting on rocky strata as
 PILE GROUP
• Very rarely are structures founded on single piles. Normally, there will be a minimum of
three piles under a column or a foundation element because of alignment problems and
inadvertent eccentricities. The spacing of piles in a group depends upon many factors such
as;
1. overlapping of stresses of adjacent piles,
2. cost of foundation,
3. efficiency of the pile group.
• With sufficient overlap, either the soil will fail or the pile group will settle excessively since
the combined pressure bulb extends to a considerable depth below the base of the piles
• The spacing of piles depends upon the method of installing the piles and the type of soil.
The piles can be driven piles or cast-in-situ piles.
• When the piles are driven there will be greater overlapping of stresses due to the
displacement of soil.
• If the displacement of soil compacts the soil in between the piles as in the case of loose
sandy soils, the piles may be placed at closer intervals.
• But if the piles are driven into saturated clay or silty soils, the displaced soil will
not compact the soil between the piles. As a result the soil between the piles
may move upwards and in this process lift the pile cap.

• Generally, the spacing for point bearing piles, such as piles founded on rock,
can be much less than for friction piles since the high-point-bearing stresses
and the superposition effect of overlap of the point stresses will most likely not
overstress the underlying material nor cause excessive settlements.
 PILE GROUP EFFICIENCY
• The spacing of piles is usually predetermined by practical and economical
considerations. The design of a pile foundation subjected to vertical loads
consists of
1. The determination of the ultimate load bearing capacity of the group Q u.
2. Determination of the settlement of the group, Sg , under an allowable load
Qga .
• The ultimate load of the group is generally different from the sum of the
ultimate loads of individual piles Qu
The factor

is called group efficiency which depends on parameters such as type of soil in

which the piles are embedded, method of installation of piles i.e. either driven
or cast-in-situ piles, and spacing of piles.
• There is no acceptable "efficiency formula" for group bearing capacity. There are
a few formulae such as the Converse-Labarre formula that are sometimes used
by engineers.
• These formulae are empirical and give efficiency factors less than unity. But
when piles are installed in sand, efficiency factors greater than unity can be
obtained as shown by Vesic (1967) by his experimental investigation on groups
of piles in sand.
• There is not sufficient experimental evidence to determine group efficiency for
piles embedded in clay soils.
• It may be mentioned here that a pile group with the pile cap resting on the
surface takes more load than one with free standing piles above the surface
 Pile Group Efficiency Equation
• There are many pile group equations. These equations are to be used very
cautiously, and may in many cases be no better than a good guess. The
Converse-Labarre Formula is one of the most widely used group-efficiency
equations which is expressed as

Where
m = number of columns of piles in a group,
n = number of rows,

d =diameter of pile,
s = spacing of piles center to center.
 VERTICAL BEARING CAPACITY OF PILE GROUPS
EMBEDDED IN SANDS AND GRAVELS
• Driven piles. If piles are driven into loose sands and gravel, the soil around the
piles to a radius of at least three times the pile diameter is compacted.
• When piles are driven in a group at close spacing, the soil around and between
them becomes highly compacted. When the group is loaded, the piles and the
soil between them move together as a unit.
• Thus, the pile group acts as a pier foundation having a base area equal to the
gross plan area contained by the piles. The efficiency of the pile group will be
greater than unity as explained earlier.
• it is conservative to assume an efficiency factor of unity for all practical
purposes. We may, therefore, write

• The procedure explained above is not applicable if the pile tips rest on compressible
soil such as silts or clays (where carrying capacity is governed by shear strength &
compressibility)
 Bored Pile Groups In Sand And Gravel
Bored piles are cast-in-situ concrete piles. The method of installation involves
1 . Boring a hole of the required diameter and depth,
2. Pouring in concrete.
• There will always be a general loosening of the soil during boring and then
too when the boring has to be done below the water table. Though bentonite
slurry (sometimes called as drilling mud) is used for stabilizing the sides and
bottom of the bores, loosening of the soil cannot be avoided.
• Cleaning of the bottom of the bore hole prior to concreting is always a
problem which will never be achieved quite satisfactorily. Since bored piles
do not compact the soil between the piles,
• The efficiency factor will never be greater than unity. However, for all
practical purposes, the efficiency may be taken as unity.
 Pile Groups In Cohesive Soils
• When piles are driven into clay soils, particularly when the soil is soft and
sensitive, there will be considerable remolding of the soil.
• Besides there will be heaving of the soil between the piles since compaction
during driving cannot be achieved in soils of such low permeability.
• There is every possibility of lifting of the pile during this process of heaving of
• the soil.
• Bored piles are, therefore, preferred to driven piles in cohesive soils. In case
driven piles are to be used, the following steps should be favored:
1. Piles should be spaced at greater distances apart.
2. Piles should be driven from the center of the group towards the edges, and
3. The rate of driving of each pile should be adjusted as to minimize the
development of porewater pressure.
• Experimental results have indicated that when a pile group installed in cohesive
soils is loaded, it may fail by any one of the following ways:
1. May fail as a block (called block failure).
2. Individual piles in the group may fail.

• When piles are spaced at closer intervals, the soil contained between the piles
move downward with the piles and at failure, piles and soil move together to
give the typical 'block failure’.
• Normally this type of failure occurs when piles are placed within 2 to 3 pile
diameters.
• For wider spacings, the piles fail individually. The efficiency ratio is less than
unity at closer spacings and may reach unity at a spacing of about 8 diameters.
• The equation for block failure may be written as (Fig. 15.27).

where
c = cohesive strength of clay beneath the pile group,
= average cohesive strength of clay around the group,
L = length of pile,
Pg = perimeter of pile group,
Ag = sectional area of group,
• Nc = bearing capacity factor which may be assumed as 9 for deep foundations.
• The bearing capacity of a pile group on the basis of individual pile failure may
be written as
READ ABOUT:

1. BEARING CAPACITY OF A SINGLE PILE BY LOAD TEST

2. SETTLEMENT OF PILES AND PILE GROUPS IN SANDS AND GRAVELS