Applied chemistry for CSE stream/BCHES102/202/Module-1/Faculty Incharge: Dr.

Anitha R

K. S. School of Engineering and

Management, Bangalore-560109

Applied Chemistry
For CSE Stream-BCHES102/202

Faculty: Dr. Anitha R

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Applied chemistry for CSE stream/BCHES102/202/Module-1/Faculty Incharge: Dr.Anitha R
MODULE 1
SENSORS AND ENERGY SYSTEMS

Syllabus:
Sensors: Introduction, working, principle and applications of Conductometric sensors, Electrochemical sensors,
and Optical sensors (colorimetry). Sensors for the measurement of dissolved oxygen (DO). Electrochemical
sensors for the pharmaceuticals. Electrochemical gas sensors for Sox and NOx. Disposable sensors in the
detection of biomolecules and pesticides.
Energy Systems: Introduction to batteries, construction, working and applications of Lithium ion and Sodium
ion batteries. Quantum Dot Sensitized Solar Cells (QDSSC’s)-Principle, Properties and Applications.
Self-learning: Types of electrochemical sensor, Gas sensor - O2 sensor, Biosensor -Glucosesensors.

SENSORS
What are Actuators & Transducers?
Transducer:
A device which converts one form of energy to another.

Sensor:
A sensor is a device that responds to pressure, thermal energy, electromagnetic energy, motion, or
magnetism by generating an electrical signal. Where input is a physical quantity and output is electrical
signal.

Actuator:
Where input is an electrical signal and output is physical gestures (heat, sound, electricity, etc.)

Main basic components of a sensor are:

a) Receptor: Receptor is a chemical or biological recognition element which is capable of interacting with
analyte specifically and selectively. It produces a signal corresponding to interaction in for of change in
potential, conductivity, current, mass, pH, colour etc…. If the receptor is of biological origin (e.g., DNA
antibodies and enzymes), the device is referred to as a biosensor. If the receptor is of chemical origin the
device is referred to as chemical sensors.

b) Transducer: During the interaction of sensing element with analyte, certain physical or chemical
properties of the sensing element changes proportionally to the analyte concentration. Transducer is used
to convert the signals created by the receptor- analyte interaction into a readable value or a measurable
form physical quantity. In most chemical sensors, the sensing element and the transducer are packaged
together, in direct spatial contact, in the same unit.

c) Electrical signal and display: The electronic system analyses the signal given by the transducer, helps in
signal amplification and converts the signals from analog to digital form. These amplified signals are then
displayed. Signals can be displayed in various forms such as numeric value, graph, image etc.

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What are Electrochemical Sensors? Explain the construction and working principle of
Electrochemical sensors.
Electrochemical Sensors
Sensors which convert the effect of electrochemical reaction between analyte and electrode surface into
a useful signal are known as electrochemical sensors.

In Electrochemical sensors the electrode is used as transducer element.

They are divided into several types:

• Potentiometric (measure voltage)

• Amperometric (measure current)
• Conductometric (measure conductivity)

Construction:

• Transducer of an electrochemical sensor consists of working or sensing electrode, electrolyte, counter

electrode and reference electrode.
• The sensing electrode has a chemically modified surface. This modification ensures the selectivity,
facilitating the reduction or oxidation of the analyte.
• The electrolyte is part of the electric circuit of an electrochemical sensor system. The role of the electrolyte
is to transport charge within the sensor.

Working Principle:

• Diffusion of the analyte to the electrode / electrolyte interface (in the liquid phase)
• Adsorption onto the electrode surface.
• Electrochemical reaction with electron transfer.
• Desorption of the products.
• Diffusion of the products away from the reaction zone to the bulk of electrolyte or gas phase.
Applications:
1. Electrochemical sensors used for the detection of blood glucose.
2. Electrochemical sensors are used for pH measurements.
3. Used to detect pesticides.
4. Used in the detection of hydrocarbon pollutants.
5. Optical sensors are used to measure the concentration of colored analyte.

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Explain the construction and working principle of Conductometric sensors (conductometry).

Conductometric sensors:
Conductometric sensors are two electrode devices, measures the electrical conductivity in sample
solution between two electrodes.

Construction:
• The electrodes used in conductivity sensor is called conductivity cell which is made up of two Platinum
electrode kept 1cm apart and the volume between two electrodes is 1Cm3.
• Here the electrodes are just used to measure change in electrolytic conduction of an electrolyte and they
do not provide surface for any reaction.

Principle:

• The principle underlying conductometric sensor is the substitution of ions of one mobility by ions of
another mobility. Therefore, the conductance of a solution depends on the number and mobility of ions.
• There will be change in specific conductance when there is a change in number of ions or type of ion. This
change is measured using conductivity cell.
1
• conductance c is given by 𝑐 = 𝑅 𝐬𝐢𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐬
Working:

• The conductivity is result of dissociation an electrolyte, into ions.

• The migration of the ions is induced by an electrical field.
• When a potential difference is applied to the electrode, there is an electrical field within the electrolyte.
• So, the positively charged ions move towards cathode and negatively charged ions are move towards anode.
• Thus, the current in the electrolyte is caused by the ion movement towards the electrodes where the ions are
neutralized and isolated as neutral atoms (or molecules).
• This chemical change is recognized by working electrode and transducers converts this chemical change into
electrical signal.

Applications of conductometric sensors

1. It is used to estimate acids, bases and their mixtures in a sample.

2. It is used to check the amount of ionic impurities in water sample.
3. It is used in measuring acidity or alkalinity of sea water and fresh water.
4. Conductometric biosensors are used in biomedical, environment monitoring, biotechnology and agriculture
related applications.
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Applied chemistry for CSE stream/BCHES102/202/Module-1/Faculty Incharge: Dr.Anitha R
Explain the working principle of Optical sensors (colorimetry) and mention its application.
Optical Sensors
Optical sensors are electronic components designed to detect and convert incident light rays into
electrical signals.

Example: Colourimetric Sensors

Principle:

• When a sample solution is interacted with a light of suitable wavelength, certain quantityof light is absorbed
by the analyte solution and it is observed by a sensor and transducer converts intensity of absorbed light
into electrical signal.

• The change in intensity at certain wavelength within visible (400–800mm) range can be determined using
special instrumentation.

Working of an Optical sensor:

• Optical transduction can be based on emission, absorption, reflection and scattering of light by the
analyte.
• The optical signal arises from the interaction of the analyte with an incident radiation. The interaction
could result in absorption, emission, scattering or reflection of light.
• The type of interaction depends on the wavelength of probing radiation and on the structure of the
molecule in the analyte.
• The intensity of the radiation emitting from the analyte carries information on the concentration of the
analyte. It is measured by the optoelectronic instrumentation.

The main components used in simple optical sensor are:

1. Light source
2. Wave length selector (filter)
3. Photodetector
4. Display system

Simple optical sensors are used to determine the concentration of coloured chemical species in solution. They
are based on measurement of absorbance of transmittance of light of particular wavelength by coloured
chemical species in the solution. They are governed by Beer-Lambert’s law.

Applications:
1. Optical sensors can be used in the determination of any chemical species which can interact with
electromagnetic radiation.
2. Optical sensors have been developed for a number of different types of chemical and biochemical
molecules and ions
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3. Optical sensors find important and varied uses in environmental, biotechnological, food, pharmaceutical,
medical and related applications.
4. Optical fiber based (bio) sensors are used in screening of drugs, Detection of food borne pathogen,
detection of explosives and environmental monitoring.

Sensors for the measurement of Dissolved Oxygen (DO):

• Molecular oxygen, O2 is slightly soluble in water. Only about 8mg of oxygen is soluble in one litre of water.
This oxygen present in water in dissolved form is called dissolved oxygen.
• It is an important water quality parameter. Because aquatic living being depend upon this dissolved oxygen
for their survival.
• Concentration of dissolved oxygen in boiler feed water plays an important role in corrosion of water boiler.
• In many industries, monitoring concentration of dissolved oxygen in metal melts and other materials is
highly essential.
• Since measurement of dissolved oxygen by classical titration method is tedious (too long & slow), sensors
for dissolved oxygen measurement plays an important role.

Two types of sensors are commonly used for measurement of dissolved oxygen, namely, optical sensor and
electrochemical sensor.

Explain optical sensor for measurement of Dissolved Oxygen (DO).

1) Optical sensor for measurement of dissolved oxygen:

• The main components of an optical sensor are semi permeable membrane, sensing element, light emitting
diode (LED) and photodetector.
• The sensing element contains a luminescent dye that is immobilized on a gel matrix. When this dye is
exposed to blue light, it moves to excited state and while returning back to ground state, it emits light with
known intensity.
• When dissolved oxygen crosses the semipermeable membrane and interacts with the dye, it reduces the
intensity of light emitted by dye.
• The intensity of light emitted by the dye is inversely proportional to dissolved oxygen concentration.
• Therefore, dissolved oxygen can be measured by measuring the decrease in intensity of light emitted by
dye using a photodetector.

Explain Electrochemical sensor for measurement of Dissolved Oxygen (DO).

2) Electrochemical sensor for measurement of dissolved oxygen:

• In electrochemical DO sensor, two electrodes used are of dissimilar metals.

• Zinc or lead is used as anode and silver metal is used as an inert cathode.
• The difference in the potential between the anode and cathode should be more than 0.5V to reduce
dissolved oxygen without an external applied potential.
• The electrolyte solution used is sodium chloride or any other inert electrolyte.

When the electrode assembly is dipped in water to measure its dissolved oxygen, anode undergoes
oxidation liberating electrons. At cathode, dissolved oxygen gets reduced.

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Cathode: Working electrode-Ag

Anode: Zn, Pb or any other active metal

Electrolyte: KOH, NaOH or any other inert

electrolyte.

Membrane: Teflon

Reactions: At anode: 2 Zn 2 Zn 2+ + 4 e
At cathode: O2 + 2 H2O + 4 e 4 OH-
Overall reaction: 2 Zn + O2 + 2 H2O 2 Zn (OH)2

The current produced by the reduction of oxygen at cathode is proportional to the partial pressure of oxygen
in the water sample. The zinc hydroxide that is produced by the reactions is precipitated out in to the
electrolyte solution. This will generally affect the sensor’s performance. Then the electrolyte and zinc anode
have to be replaced.

Electrochemical sensors for pharmaceuticals:

• Pharmaceuticals are basically organic compounds, which are used extensively by human beings as a
solution for various health issues.
• After usage, they are excreted or washed off their hosts and enter into the environment through effluents
of waste water.
• There is limited knowledge about their unintended effects in the environment.
• Majority of these are complex organic molecules of low biodegradability. Therefore, it is necessary to use
sensors for the detection of pharmaceuticals to monitor their concentration and know their toxic effects.

Describe the application of Electrochemical sensors in sensing Diclofenac (DCF).

(a) Electrochemical Sensors for detection of Diclofenac (DCF):

• Diclofenac with name 2-(2-((2,6-dichlorophenyl)amino)phenyl)acetic acid, is one of the most frequently

prescribed non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NAID) with antipyretic and analgesic effects.

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• It is safe in prescribed dose, but may cause adverse effects at higher doses. Due to wide usage and poor
biodegradability, it can have serious effects on the ecosystem.
• Electrochemical sensor can be used to detect diclofenac in lower concentrations.
• In the electrochemical sensor used to detect diclofenac, the sensing electrode is graphite coated with multi
walled carbon nanotubes and gold nanoparticles.
• Along with sensing electrode, counter electrode and reference electrodes are used.
• When the sample containing diclofenac is put in the sensor, the following oxidation reaction occurs on the
surface of the sensing electrode.
• The change in potential of the reaction gives the concentration of diclofenac.

Describe the application of Electrochemical sensors in sensing hydrocarbons-1-hydroxy pyrene.

(b) Electrochemical Sensors for detection of hydrocarbons: 1-hydroxy pyrene:

• Among the dangerous hydrocarbon pollutants, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are widely found
in air, water, soil and food.
• Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are carcinogenic and mutagenic compounds.
• They can enter the human body mainly through respiration and diet. After entering the body some
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons metabolized into hydroxyl polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, which are
excreted with urine.
• Electrochemical sensors are being developed for the detection of 1-hydroxy pyrene in urine sample.
• In these sensors, the sensing electrode is graphite coated with chromium containing metal organic frame
work and graphene oxide.
• The 1-hydroxy pyrene structure contains electrochemically active hydroxyl groups, which can be oxidized
by the anode active material.
• When the sample containing 1-hydroxy pyrene is put in the sensor, the following oxidation reaction occurs
on the surface of the sensing electrode.
• Concentration of 1-hydroxy pyrene is determined from the change in potential of the reaction.

Describe the application of Electrochemical gas sensors in sensing SOx and NOx.
Electrochemical gas sensors for Sox and NOx:
• Electrochemical gas sensors are used to measure the concentration of gases like NO 2, NO and SO2.
• In principle, any gaseous compound can undergo redox reaction on the surface of electrode can be
measured with an electrochemical sensor.
• Design of the sensor for each gas can be unique, but receptor coated on the surface of sensing electrode is
different for each gas.
• Reaction that occurs on the surface for each gas is also different.

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(a) Detection of NO2:

The detection of NO2 using an amperometric sensor in aqueous electrolyte is based on the following
electrochemical reduction reaction. The sensing electrode used is Au, Pt/Nafion with 10M H 2SO4 as
electrolyte. Ag-AgCl is used as the reference electrode.
NO2 + 2H+ + 2e → NO + H2O
(b) Detection of NO:

The detection of NO using an amperometric sensor in aqueous electrolyte is based on the following
electrochemical oxidation reaction. Au/NASICON-NaNO2 is used as the sensing electrode and electrolyte.

NO + 2H2O → NO3- + 4H+ + 3e

(c) Detection of SO2:

The detection of SO2 using an amperometric sensor in aqueous electrolyte is based on the following
electrochemical oxidation reaction. Au/Nafion sensing electrode with 0.5M H2SO4 is used as electrolyte.

SO2 + 2H2O → SO42- + 4H+ +2e

Concentration of these gases is determined by the change in the potential (current) due to the reaction
taking place on the surface of sensing electrode.

Write a note on Disposable Sensors? Explain its advantages over classical sensors.

Disposable sensor:

• Disposable sensors are portable, low-cost and easy-to-use sensing devices designed for short term or rapid
single-point measurements.
• They transducer physical, chemical or biological changes in their environment to an analytical signal.
• Portable glucometer used in monitoring blood sugar level at home with disposable strips is an example of
such disposable biosensor.
• Disposable strip of a biosensor is a special type of paper over which receptor and electrodes are coated.
• They are coated in the form of thin film strip using screen printing technology.

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• In such systems all the electrodes namely, reference, working and counter electrodes and bioreceptor are
printed on a single platform as shown in the figure.
• These electrodes are called as screen-printed electrodes and are main components of disposable
biosensor.
• These strips can be inserted into the portable systems and used for on-site sample analysis.

Explain about detection of Ascorbic acid with electrochemical oxidation.

(a) Detection of biomolecules like Ascorbic acid using disposable sensor:

• Chemical name of Vitamin-C, a water soluble vitamin is ascorbic acid.

• It is an antioxidant essential for life and aids in protecting the body against oxidative stress.
• It is abundantly available in fruits and vegetables.
• The electrochemical biosensors which can detect ascorbic acid in various samples in low concentration are
developed. These sensors are used for on the spot analysis.
• In the disposable strip, active materials of the sensing electrode, counter electrode and reference electrode
are printed using screen printing technology.
• Active material coated on the sensing electrode must be capable of oxidizing ascorbic acid on its surface.
• The ascorbate oxidase enzyme immobilized on a screen printed carbon electrode with poly (ethyl glycol)
and diglycidyl ether as a cross-linking agent can be used as sensing electrode.
• It oxidizes ascorbic acid into dehydroascorbic acid. Concentration ascorbic acid is determined from the
change in potential of the oxidation process.

Explain about detection of Glyphosate with electrochemical oxidation.

(b) Detection of pesticide like Glyphosate using disposable sensor:

• Pesticide can induce a number of diseases such as asthma, diabetes, birth defects, etc.
• Therefore, monitoring the level of pesticides is one of the best ways to detect the ill effects of pesticides.
• For example, glyphosate [N-(phosphonomethyl) glycine] is an organo phosphorus pesticide.
• It is extensively used as herbicide in agriculture. Its residues are present in large amounts in agricultural
products and entering in to ecosystem in large quantity.
• It is carcinogenic in nature.

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• The glycine oxidase enzyme immobilized on a screen-printed carbon electrode can be used as sensing
electrode in glyphosate disposable biosensor.
• It oxidizes glyphosate in to aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPS) and glyoxylate.
• Concentration of glyphosate is determined from the change in potential of the oxidation process.

Advantages of disposable sensors:

1. They are a fast, easy-to-use devices
2. They are economical (low cost) devices
3. Require only small quantity of the sample for measurement.
4. Used for short-term or single-shot measurement.
5. Used for on-the-spot analysis.

Thermometric sensors:

Thermometric sensor is based on the measurement of thermal changes during the interaction between
the analyte and receptor. Thermal changes are converted to measurable changes in the temperature or potential.
Chemical or biological species which undergo catalytic chemical reactions or enzyme-catalysed reactions
liberating heat can be determined by thermometric sensors.
Working principle:
Main component of a thermometric sensor is a small tubular catalytic reactor fitted with a temperature
transducer. In order to convert change in thermal energy into an electrical signal, two main kinds of transducers
used are thromocouple and thermistor. Analyte is fed in to the reactor. The wall of the reactor is coated with
a catalyst or enzyme capable of catalyzing the reaction, liberating heat energy. Heat liberated is quantified by
means of temperature transducer. The change in temperature is converted to voltage by the transducer which
is amplified and fed to the data storage and processing unit.
Applications of thermometric sensors:
1. Thermometric sensors are used in the determination of metabolites, bioprocess monitoring and
environmental control.
2. They are used for the determination of combustible gases that react with oxygen at the surface of a suitable
catalyst.
Energy System
Galvanic cell: Galvanic cell is a device which converts chemical energy into electrical energy through a
spontaneous redox reaction.

Battery: It is a device consisting of two or more galvanic cells connected in series or parallel or both.

Principle components of a battery are:

1. An anode where oxidation occurs.

2. A cathode where reduction occurs.
3. An electrolyte, which is ionically conducting.
4. A separator to separate anode and cathode compartments.

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Classification of batteries:
Batteries are classified as, Primary, secondary and reserve batteries.
1) Primary or Irreversible batteries: The batteries in which the cell reaction is not completely reversible
are called primary batteries. They are also referred to as irreversible batteries. They are not rechargeable and
once discharged have no further electrical use.
e.g., Zn - MnO2 battery, Li - MnO2 battery.

2) Secondary or Reversible batteries: The batteries in which the cell reaction is reversible are referred to
as secondary batteries. Secondary batteries after discharge can be recharged electrically to their original
condition by passing electric current through them in the direction opposite to that of discharge current. They
are also referred to as storage batteries or accumulators.
e.g., Lead – acid battery, Ni – Cd battery.

3) Reserve batteries: The batteries which may be stored in an inactive state and made ready for use by
activating them (by adding an electrolyte, another cell component) prior to application are referred to as
reserve batteries. In these batteries, a key component is separated from the rest prior to activation and hence
the batteries are capable of long-term storage.
e.g., Mg – water activated batteries (Mg – AgCl or Mg – CuCl), Zn – Ag2O battery.

Describe the construction, working and applications of Lithium-ion batteries and mention any four
applications.
LITHIUM – ION BATTERIES:

The batteries in which lithium ions are used instead of lithium metal and movement of lithium ion takes
place through the electrolyte from one electrode to another electrode are called lithium-ion batteries. In
general the battery consists of soluble lithium intercalated carbon/graphite is used as anode. The cathode
material is made up of lithium liberating compounds.
e.g., Lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2) battery.

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During discharging lithium ions are dissociated from the anode and migrate through electrolyte to cathode.
During charging, lithium from cathode material is ionized and moves towards the anode. At the same time
the electrons travel through external circuit. The discharge and charge reactions are given below.

Anode: Lithium intercalated graphite layer having thin copper foil.

Cathode: Lithium cobalt oxide layer having Aluminium foil as current collector.

Electrolyte: Lithium salt in ethylene carbonate propylene carbonate.

Separator: Polypropylene separator.

Representation: Graphite/LiX, Polypropylene/LiCoO2

Applications:
1) Used in cell phone, note PC, Portable LCD TV, Portable CD player,
2) Cardiac pace makers.
3) Power backups/UPS

Describe the construction, working and applications of Sodium-ion batteries and mention any four
applications.

Sodium-ion battery:
Sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) are energy conversion and storage devices that use sodium-ions to shuttle
positive charge between the anode & cathode in order to convert electrical energy to chemical energy and
vice versa.

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During discharging, sodium ions are extracted from the anode and move towards the cathode through
electrolyte. During charging the reverse process occurs where sodium ions are extracted from the cathode
and reinserted into the anode.

Anode: Sodium intercalated hard carbon material which can store sodium-ions at a low potential.

Cathode: Layered sodium transition metal oxides (NaCoO2, NaMnO2, FePO4, CoO2)

Electrolyte: Electrolytes can be solids or liquids. The solid electrolytes are either polymeric or ceramic.
Liquid electrolytes primarily consist of mixtures of carbonate solvents.

Separator: polymer separators or fiber-based separators such as glass fiber.

Cell Potential: 1.85 to 3.45 V

Application:

1) Used in cellular phones and laptops.

2) In electric vehicles and power tools.
3) Large-scale electric storage applications.

Quantum dots:
• Quantum dots (QDs) are semiconductor particles a few nanometer in size,
having optical and electronic properties that differ from those of larger particles as a result of quantum
mechanics.
• When the quantum dots are illuminated by UV light, an electron in the quantum dot can be excited to a
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state of higher energy. The excited electron can drop back into the valence band releasing its energy as
light.
• The energy band gap increases with a decrease in size of the quantum dot.
• The adjustable band gap of quantum dots allows the construction of nanostructured solar cell that is able
to harvest more of the solar spectrum.

What are Quantum Dot Sensitized Solar Cells (QDSSC’s)? Explain the working Principle, Properties
and Applications.
Quantum Dot Sensitized Solar Cells (QDSSC’s):

QDSSC devices generate electrical power when irradiated with sunlight.

Construction:

A quantum dot sensitized solar cell consists of three components, a photoanode, cathode and electrolyte.

Photoanode: Working electrode in the cell. It is a conducting glass which is coated with a wide band gap
semiconductor like TiO2, ZnO or SiO2 is coated. The thickness of the coating is 10 mm with porosity of 50-60
%. Outer layer of photoanode is coated with quantum dot sensitizer in colloidal form.

Cathode: It is used to regenerate the electrolyte and to complete the circuit.

Electrolyte: Photoanode is in contact with a redox electrolyte. It is hole conductor. Polysulfide redox couple
S2-/Sx2- which can effectively take up hole from quantum dots is used as an electrolyte.

Working:

• On illumination with sunlight, photons are captured by QDs and yielding electron-hole pairs.
• Electron-hole pairs rapidly separated into electrons and holes at the interface between the
nanocrystalline TiO2 and the QDs.

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• The electrons injected into the TiO2 film and the holes are released by redox couples in the liquid poly
sulfide electrolyte.
• The excited QD injects the electrons from its valence band (VB) to conduction band (CB) of the wide band
gap semiconductor (TiO2).
• From there electron travels through the external load and complete the circuit by entering back through
the counter electrode.
• The generated voltage is perceived as an evidence of the solar energy conversion to electric energy.
Properties:

1. Quantum dots has narrow bandgap.

2. It exhibits tunable bandgap.
3. Strong light absorption and
4. High multiple electron generation.

Application: 1. QDSSC is mainly used to harness solar energy.

The cell can be used to supply electricity for

1) Parking meters 5) Water irrigation pumps
2) Temporary traffic signs 6) Stream-flow gauges
3) Emergency phones 7) Remote guard posts
4) Radio transmitters 8) Lighting for roadways

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