FINALS COVERAGE

Specific Instructions in the completion of each chapter:

1. Set your learning goals. Read and understand the Intended Learning Outcomes
of each chapter. This shall serve as your checklist of acquired knowledge and
skills after completing the entire chapter, likewise, the basis of the teacher in
the formulation of the summative evaluation given at the end of each chapter.
2. Lecture notes are provided for you. BE SURE NOT TO SKIP the lecture. Read
and understand before answering the activities. You can take note those
concepts that are not clear to you and refer to your subject teacher during the
specified consultation hours.
3. Read the teacher’s insight and watch the downloaded videos saved in the flash
drive to supplement the lecture notes.
4. As you go on, you will encounter exercises that will test your knowledge and
understanding as well as your critical thinking. Read the instructions carefully,
and write your answers to the space provided at the end of Semifinals
coverage.
5. Compile your outputs in your Learning Portfolio to be submitted on the date set
by your teacher.
6. Should you have any queries or clarifications with the topics, please contact
your subject teacher during consultation hours (please refer to the
preliminaries of this material).

CHAPTER 4
TEACHING STRATEGIES AND METHODOLOGIES FOR TEACHING AND
LEARNING

Intended Learning Outcomes:

After studying this chapter, the student is expected to:
1. Compare and contrast the different teaching strategies and methodologies
for teaching and learning
2. Demonstrate the different teaching strategies and methodologies for
teaching and learning
3. Identify assessment and evaluation methods for learners
4. Conduct actual health education session

KEY TERMS:
active learning discussion
case study distance learning
clinical teaching preceptor
concept mapping problem-based learning
cooperative learning lecture
debate simulation

TEACHING STRATEGIES
◦ Stands for generalized plan for lessons which include structure, desired
learner’s behavior in terms of goals of instructions and an outline of
planned tactics necessary to implement the strategy.
 ◦ Teachers should decide the kind of teaching methods to employ, the use
of media and materials, the type of learning activities to be provided for
student and ways of grouping students for instruction.

Objectives of Teaching Strategies

1. To ensure that certain learning will be acquired in a given period.

2. To induce students to engage in exchange of ideas
3. to minimize the number of wrong responses on the student’s attempt to learn.

LESSON 1: TRADITIONAL TEACHING STRATEGIES

1. LECTURE
STRENGTHS:
 Valuable, where knowledge is advancing and up-to-date books are not
available
 factual material presented in direct/logical manner
 permits maximum teacher control
 enables lecture to clarify confusing/intricate points
 teacher can model thinking desired for student
 useful for large groups
 teacher become known as an expert in specific topic – controls the pace of
presentation
 presents minimal threats to students/teacher
 lecture material can become basis of publication

LIMITATIONS:
 easy, but a far less effective learning strategy
 not suited to higher levels of thinking
 creates passive learners and provides little feedback to learners
 student attention wavers in less than 30 minutes
 learning is difficult to gauge
 communication in one way
 places little emphasis on problem-solving, decision-making, analytical thinking
& transfer of learning.

Perceived Negative Factors

1. Material is disorganized or hard to follow. (Lacks outline or outline too detailed)

◦ Prepare and follow brief outline for each lecture.
2. Teacher lacks professional appearance (wears distracting clothing)
◦ Dress as a professional role model.
3. Teacher lacks facial expression (has monotone voice, shaky, nervous)
◦ videotape the lecture, establish goals for improvement
4. Lecturer won’t take eyes off notes (reads the lecture material)
◦ Practice until you know the main points by memory (smile, walk, and
relax)
5. Uses no visual aids or visuals of poor quality
◦ Ask media center or learning center personnel for assistance.
6. Too many power point slides
◦ Use visuals to support, not replace content.
7. Distracting habits of characteristics: pacing, using non-words (ah, um)
◦ Reposition hands holding note cards; videotape lecture; become aware
of the use of non-words.

PREPARATION:
◦ needs clear introduction and summary
◦ needs time and content limit to be effective
◦ should include examples, anecdotes
TYPES
1. Oral essay
2. Participatory Lecture (Brainstorming)
3. Uncompleted handouts
4. Feedback lectures
5. Mediated lecture – use of media such as films, slides, web images

2. DISCUSSION:

 Group-discussion, Lecture-discussion

STRENGTHS:
◦ Pools ideas & experiences from group
◦ Effective after a presentation, film or experience that needs to be
analyzed
◦ Allows everyone to participate in an active process
◦ Give learners opportunity to apply principles, concepts, and theories to
transfer to a
new and different situations.

LIMITATIONS:
 not practical with more than 20 people
 few people can dominate
 others may not participate
 time consuming and can get off the track
 quality is limited to type of questions and discussions.
  can get off the track

PREPARATION:
 requires careful planning by facilitator to guide discussion
 requires question outline
 Good discussion should happen spontaneously so a suitable topics should be
used.

DISCUSSION TECHNIQUES:
1. Make your expectations clear.
2. Set the ground rules
3. Plan a discussion starter
4. Facilitate don’t discuss
5. Encourage quiet group members
6. Don’t allow monopolies
7. Direct discussion among group members.
8. Keep the discussion on track
9. Clarify when confusion reigns
10. Summarize when appropriate

STRENGTHS:
- involves audience at least after the lecture
- audience can question, clarify & challenge

LIMITATIONS:
- time may limit discussion period
- quality is limited to quality of questions and discussion

PREPARATION:
- requires that questions be prepared prior to discussion

3. REPORT BACK SESSIONS

STRENGTHS:
 Allows for large group discussion - role plays, case studies, and small group
exercise
 Gives people a chance to reflect on experience
 Each group takes responsibility for its operation.

LIMITATIONS:
 can be repetitive if each small group says the same thing

4. QUESTION & ANSWER TECHNIQUES

Questioning is an integral part to teaching that is often taken for granted. It is used to
assess student’s competencies and baseline knowledge to find out what the group
already know about the subject in order to review its content.
Types of Questions:
1. Factual Questions - simple recall
2. Problem Solving - explanation needed
3. Multiple Choice Questions - test of recall and can be used to begin discussion
4. Open-Ended Questions - require learners to construct answers.
5. Discussion Stimulating Questions - help the discussion to move along for clearer
and better view of the topic.
6. QUESTIONS that guide problem-solving questions are phrased and sequenced
carefully to guide the learners in problem-solving thinking process
7. Rhetorical Questions – questions which do not expect answers at the time;
stimulates thinking and asking their own question while studying the topic

5. USE OF VISUAL AIDS

 It supplements lecture as a prelude to discussion.
 It enhances teaching and student’s interest and facilitate understanding of the
topic.
 Examples:
Handouts, chalkboards or white boards, overhead transparency, power point
slides and film
showing.

LESSON 2: ACTIVITY-BASED STRATEGIES

1. COOPERATIVE LEARNING
 an interactive teaching strategy that stimulates critical thinking, fosters a
feeling of community within the group and promotes individual responsibility
for learning through group process techniques.
 students learn not only how to think & analyze but also how to work effectively
in teams.
so that students work …
 against each other, individually,
 alone or cooperatively,
 together to accomplish shared learning goals
Cooperative activities also tend to promote the development of higher-order levels of
thinking, essential communication skills, improved motivation, positive self-esteem,
social awareness, and tolerance for individual differences.

Recent research links regular cooperative experience in the classroom with GAINS in
the following areas:
1. Student achievement
2. Critical and creative thinking
3. Positive attitudes toward subject and school
4. Group interaction and social skills
5. Self-esteem and mutual respect
6. promote student learning and academic achievement increase student retention
7. enhance student satisfaction with their learning experience

Four Principles in Cooperative Learning Classroom

1. positive interdependence
2. individual accountability,
3. equal participation of all group members
4. simultaneous interaction of group members

BENEFITS OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING

 Improved Attendance: Because of their commitment to others in their group,

students in cooperative classrooms tend to have better attendance.
 Higher Grades: Because of their active participation in class, students' self-
esteem and understanding of the material are increased. They earn higher
grades.
 Increased Participation: Because they are contributing to the group and
participating in class, students become more active learners.

Cooperative-Learning Strategies

1. Think-Pair-Share
The professor poses a problem or question.
Each student is given 60 seconds of “think” time, then students share their ideas or
thoughts about the answers to the question with a peer, then report solution to the
entire class.

2. Roundtable -used primarily for brainstorming.

Students are assigned to a group and sit in a circular fashion while a pad of paper is
passed from one student to the next.

3. Pass the Problem

-begins with the roundtable technique in which students, in a group, process a
problem or task by writing their ideas down on a sheet of paper in turn; the paper is
then passed to another group of students.

4. Formulate-Share-Listen-Create
-A group of students is assigned a question or problem in which each of them
verbalizes his or her answer as other group members actively listen. Then the group
as a whole creates a new answer incorporating the best ideas from each of the
individual members.

3. Pass the Problem

-begins with the roundtable technique in which students, in a group, process a
problem or task by writing their ideas down on a sheet of paper in turn; the paper is
then passed to another group of students.
4. Formulate-Share-Listen-Create
-A group of students is assigned a question or problem in which each of them
verbalizes his or her answer as other group members actively listen. Then the group
as a whole creates a new answer incorporating the best ideas from each of the
individual members.

5. Jigsaw
 a versatile group-learning structure that provides the opportunity for students
to use the critical thinking skills of analysis, reflection, synthesis, and
reconstruction.
 Example: Individual students are assigned one specific nursing theory.
Students number off from 1 to 4, and each number is assigned a different
theorist. After researching & analyzing their assigned theory individually before
class, students group interact with other students who were assigned the same
theory.

Steps in JIGSAW:

 Jigsaw 1. Students study individually their assigned nursing theory before

class. Students who are assigned the same theory meet and discuss pertinent
knowledge relative to the theory.
 Jigsaw 2. New groups are formed consisting of at least one person from each
theory group. Individual members explain their theory to the other members of
the group so that all members become knowledgeable about each theory.
 Jigsaw 3. Using the comprehensive knowledge gained through Jigsaw 2, the
group creates a new theory.
 Jigsaw 4. Each group presents its theory to the entire class. Discussion follows.

6. Inside-outside circle
 -structure used for team building and getting acquainted with team members
of the entire class. It is almost a game in that students learn while moving
about and having fun.

2. WRITING
  another activity-based teaching strategy wherein it influences student’s
dispositions toward thinking and take active participation in learning.
 Development of papers requires the application of various tools of critical
thinking, such as blending of concepts, determining priorities, and formulating
conclusions.

3. CONCEPT (MIND) MAPPING

-requires students to develop word pictures for a specific patient problem.
 defined as a graphic pictorial tool to arrange key concepts in which a map is
develop as students diagram schematically the relationships among various
clinical data.
This process assists the student to visualize complex relationships and to apply
theory to the clinical area.

4. DEBATE
 Also called Academic Controversy
 Similar to traditional debate, except that students are forced to look at both
sides of an issue, not just one side.
 Promotes higher achievement, higher academic self-esteem, and higher
quality problem-solving skill.
Conditions for Debate as effective strategy

1. Students need to be introduced to key issues in the course and have been able to
identify controversial points suitable for debate.
2. Students need to be familiar with one another in order to form working groups.
3. Students need knowledge of existing resources to use in formulating debate. This
includes increased familiarity with the faculty members as a source of support and
information.

5. SIMULATIONS
 Exercises that learners engage into learning about the real world without the
risks of the real world.

Purposes and Uses of Simulations

1. help learners practice decision making & problem solving
2. develop human interaction abilities
3. learn psychomotor skills in a safe and controlled settings
4. evaluate learning competence

Roles of the Teacher

1. Moderator – rules of the activities and implications of each move

2. Referee – control student participation to be sure the benefits of the strategy
are ensured
3. Coach - advice the players to enable them to play better
4. Facilitator – insights, difficulties they learned during the experience
relationship of the activity with the topic.

TYPES OF SIMULATIONS:
1. Simulation exercises
- primary focus is on the learning-process; controlled representations of a piece of
reality that learners can manipulate to better understand the corresponding real
situation. Situations in the Emergency Room, complications and scenarios that
students had to assess and to which they have to respond.

2. Simulation Games
- games that represents real-life situations in which learners compete according to a
set of rules in order to win or achieve an objective.
  It increases interaction among learners and allows even quiet and reserved
class members to participate in a relative situation and can serve as an
evaluation of learning.
Examples: crossword puzzles, bingo, stone in a box, stream chart

3. Role Playing
- a dramatic technique that encourages participants to improvise behaviors that
illustrate expected actions of persons involved in defined situations. Focus is on the
actions of the characters and not on acting ability.
 It can deal with the practice of skills and techniques, or it can deal with
changes in understanding, feelings, and attitudes.

4. Case study
- a written description of a problem or situation. Unlike other forms of stories and
narrations, a case study does not include analysis or conclusions but only the facts of
a story arranged in a chronological sequence.
 Used to develop critical thinking skills by exploring beliefs, values and attitudes
of the participants who are actively participating rather than being neutral
observers.

5. PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING (PBL)

 Learning is centered around problems. Teacher acts as facilitator and
mentor, rather than a source of "solutions.

Essential elements:
1. students are presented with a written problem or patient scenario in small groups.
2. a change in faculty role from imparter of information to facilitator of learning
3. an emphasis on student responsibility and self-directed learning.
4. a written problem is the stimulus for learning with students engaging in a problem-
solving process as they learn and discuss content related to the problem

Successful Problem-Based Learning

1. stimulate dialogue among learners rather than lecture;
2. permit self-discovery by learners rather than impose their expertise;
3. intervene only when the discussion lags or drifts from the topic;
4. serve as resources to learners rather than final authorities;
5. encourage acceptance of uncertainty and reflection; and,
6. refer students to additional reading material and learning opportunities.

LESSON 3: COMPUTER TEACHING STRATEGIES

1. COMPUTER ASSISTED INSTRUCTIONS

  refer either to stand alone
computer learning activities or
computer activities which
reinforce materials introduced
and taught by the teacher.
 Use of linear format, taking students through a series of screens with little to
no variation; creative software programs use to allow more student control.

2. VIRTUAL REALITY
 Virtual reality devices combine computer-generated images and haptic (tactile)
feedback enabling the learner to refine technical skills.
 High-fidelity simulators, are life-sized mannequins with complex interrelated
multisystem physiological and pharmacological models that generate valid
observable responses from the mannequin and allow students to interact with
the stimulator as they would with an actual patient in the clinical environment.

LESSON 4: DISTANCE LEARNING

- It began over 150 years ago in the form of correspondence or home study
courses (Reinert & Fryback, 1997) and developed to its newest form of Web –
based courses.
- Distance learning as any method used to connect teachers and learners who
are geographically separated.
- It is delivered by satellite, television broadcasting, or telephone lines. The
technology involves two way audio and video technologies.
- Courses delivered by computer via Internet and the World Wide Web (WWW)
are proliferating.

STRENGTHS:
- people in rural areas or those who are homebound can have greater access to
information and to higher education.
- Learners who had to travel several nous to attend courses or educational
sessions in the past can now receive the information their homes or at a local
site.
- Other benefits include the accessibility to a larger variety courses, the ability
to learn in one's own time frame (in some cases) and at o pace, the self-
directed nature of the learning experience, and the opportune more about
technology.
- For institutions providing the educational mandrel & learning can result in cost
savings (Billings, 2000; Carwile & Murrell, 2004; Chandler &Hanrahan, 2000;
Cook et al., 2004; Mather, 2000).

LIMITATIONS:
- lack of in-person face-to-face contact with the teacher
 - Technology glitches that may be severe as the system’s shutting down and
being inaccessible.
- Some learners may not be able to access the hardware and software they
need, and some may struggle with the learning to use the technology at the
time when they are supposed to be learning content.
- Some may not learn well with less structure in the educational experience, and
some may experience feelings of alienation
- As a result of these drawbacks, student withdrawal rates are higher in distance
learning courses than in traditional courses. Approaches to minimizing
disadvantages of distance learning will be discussed along with the specific
technologies.

CLINICAL EDUCATION IN DISTANCE LEARNING

Common to the various forms of distance learning is the provision of clinical

education. The role of the site coordinator varies by program. May use
telecommunication classrooms may help the learners become familiar with
technology. Broadcasting may facilitate class in the remote site. The role may also
encompass student recruitment, advertisement and testing.

Often the facilitator becomes a major source of professional and emotional

support for learners. Coordinator is hired to seek out and make formal arrangements
with preceptors. Orientation of preceptors and evaluation of student learning 1s also
part of the role (Block et al., 1999; Osborne et al., 2005).

In some undergraduate programs in which distance learning is conducted by ITv,

part-time faculty who live near the remote sites are hired to teach clinical courses
(Hoeksel & Moore, 1994). The clinical instructors are familiar with the resources in
their geographic area and can provide a rich learning experience for students. Close
communication between faculty on campus and clinical faculty is essential in these
cases.

DISTANCE LEARNING VIA INTERACTIVE TELEVISION

A typical ITV classroom contains a teaching podium with a control panel for the
cameras and monitors, a microphone for the teacher, a computer hook-up, a
document camera (somewhat like an overhead transparency projector), and a fax
machine. Also, in the front of the room is a large television monitor capable of
showing several remote sites. There is a VCR attached to the front monitors for both
recording and playing purposes. Full motion video images and voices transmitted
through broadband internet connections.
When first confronted with this high-tech classroom, instructors may feel very
intimidated. It is important that they are well oriented to the equipment and that the
conduct at least one trial run before beginning to teach. The instructor needs to know
about such basic details as paying attention to his or her clothing. Solid colors
transmit the best, and the teacher should avoid very dark or very light colors. Shiny
jewellery should be avoided because it can cause too much reflection and be
distracting Zalon, 2000).

Students also need to be oriented to the equipment. If the teacher does not bring up
the possible discomfort with microphone and camera, some students will think they
are the only ones who do not like being on “center stage”. Discussing the possible
discomfort can help students feel freer to take a step toward his or her education.

DISTANCE LEARNING VIA INTERNET

Classes can be delivered via internet and Web and believed that online courses can
be learning and cost –effective.

Synchronous versus Asynchronous Class

Synchronous when people interact at real time electronically via internet.
Asynchronous applications in with materials and prescribed activities are located on a
Web page or podcast that can be accessed at any time at the internet.

Webcasting
Newer and less expensive alternative eto ITV technology. Webcasting is a
synchronous Web-based, one way audio, streaming video and multimedia
technology. Instructor can show documents slides or links. Students can see and hear
the instructor and can ask questions

Podcasting
Asynchronous web based broadcast capable of conveying audio, picture and video
files. Pod derives from iPod product that can support this technology , can be in MP3
player or laptop and desktop computer. Advantage of podcast is that it is a one way
communication. Healthcare facility uses it to show MRI Scan and other anatomical
images to students.

Online Courses
Theoretical framework to guide the development and implementation of online
courses is Constructivism. Learners build their own knowledge from the information
and situations the encounter. The teachers serves as facilitators by providing
information relates to what students already know (existing schemata) and expand
their knowledge through questioning.

Advantage and Disadvantage of Synchronous Discussion

ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE
Mimics normal conversation All learners must be available at the
same time
Discussion takes place efficiently in Discussion progress quickly, and depth
“real time” of ideas may suffer
Can involve professional guest Slow typist may not participate much

Advantage and Disadvantage of Asynchronous Discussion

ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE
Learners and teachers may log on at Posting may become very lengthy and
any time time consuming to read
There is adequate time to think Procrastinators may not get involved in
through responses some of the discussion
Students may respond early in the time
period and not return to read later
postings

Expectations and instructions regarding conduct of the discussion should be very

clear. Include information regarding using technology, netiquette time frame
grammar and spelling.Planning content is crucial to keep discussion moving in
meaningful manner or direction. Students are evaluated and graded according to
their online discussion.

GRADING RUBRIC FOR ASYNCHRONOUS ONLINE DISCUSSION

EXCELLENT (3) GOOD (2) FAIR (1) POOR (0)
Post at least 3 Post two Post one No posting
comments or comments or comment or
questions spread questions spread question
over the span of over the span of
the week. the week.
Comments or Comments or Comments
questions are questions show superficial or
insightful, some preparation inappropriate
reflective or show and thought
critical thinking
Posting are well Posting are not Posting tend to be
written- clear and always well unclear or
concise written but are rambling
usually concise
Comments and Comments and Comments or
answers are answers are answers never
usually supported sometimes reflect the
by reference to supported by assigned readings
the assigned or reference to the
other readings assigned or other
readings

USES OF ONLINE EDUCATION

Online education is taking place in colleges and universities, prociding courses
undergraduate and graduate with special emphasis in RN and BSN programs.

Internet real myriad courses for professionals develop in many specialties. There are
blended or hybrid courses in which some of the course is taught online and some in
clinical setting or classroom. Hybrid courses may involve students assignment related
to Web site , discussion group online or giving some course material at home page .

RESEARCH ONLINE COURSES

Research design to test differences in level of learning between traditional and online
learning. Online improves computer competency skills. Socialization in distance are
at least equivalent to the scores of learners in traditional programs. Learner’s
satisfactions are conflicting. Some are satisfied but some are not.

LESSON 5: TEACHING PSYCHOMOTOR SKILLS

LEARNING PSHYCHOMOTOR SKILLS

The literature describes several models of how people learn to perform
psychomotor skills. The model described by Gentle( 1972 ) is still a classic in
the field. This model describes stages that learners go through.

PHASES OF SKILL LEARNING

Gentile divides skill learning into two main stages; “ getting idea of the
movement” and “ fixation/diversification”. Within these two main phases are several
cognitive and behavioral patterns.

1. Stage One: Getting the Idea of the Movement

- the initial step in getting the idea of the movement is having a goal; that is, the
learner is confronted with a clear-cut need or problem. Many stimuli affect the
learner and his or her environment at this point, some of which relate to the
goal and some do not. All stimuli that influence motor activity are called
“regulatory stimuli” and must be attended to. “Nonregulatory stimuli” are
those which do not influence the skill performance such as the color of the
disinfectant. Once the learner recognizes and attends to the necessary stimuli,
he or she will begin to plan movement to meet the environment demands. This
“motor plan” is a general mental proconception of what movements will be
required to attain the goal. The learner then executes this motor plan with
greater or lesser success.

TERMS RELATED TO PSYCHOMOTOR SKILL LEARNING

Regulatory stimuli – external conditions that influence or regulate skill
performance which the learner must pay attention.
Non regulatory stimuli - external conditions that does not influence or
regulate skill performance
Closed skill – skill performed under stable environmental conditions and stimuli
Open skill- skill performed under changing environmental conditions and stimuli
Motor plan - general mental preconception of what movements will be required
to perform a skill
Fixation – practicing the skill in the same way each time to fix a reproducible
patterns in memory
Diversification- practicing skill in variety of ways so that it can be reproduced
in modified way to meet changing environments at any time
Arousal- state of being stirred to action. If arousal is too high, excitability
results. If arousal is too low, passivity results
Intrinsic feedback- awareness of performance that arises from within the
individual
Extrinsic(augmented) feedback - awareness of performance that is supplied
by external source
Missed practice – Continuously repeated practice session with very short or no
rest periods between trials
Distributed practice – practice sessions with rest periods that are equal to or
greater than the practice time.

2. Stage Two: Fixation/diversifition

– if the learner was not successful in reaching the goal of the skill, he or she would
need to again go through the process of getting the idea of the movement. When the
performance is successful, the learner proceeds to the stage of
fixation/diversification. In fixation, the person must practice performing the skill in
changing environments so it can be modified as necessary at any time.

ATTENTION
Everyone knows that we cannot pay attention to everything around us at one time.
As just mentioned, learners must use selective attention when performing a skills, or
they would be distracted from the priorities of the moment. But, sometimes the
problem for essential is not limiting their attentions, but the difficulty of paying
attention to several essential stimuli at one time. The “bottleneck theory” of attention
( allport, 1980) proposes that our information processing system can handle a limited
number of stimuli at one time. Competing stimuli reach bottleneck where some
stimuli are filtered out consciously or unconsciously. Newer theories of attention
hypothesize that humans have limited availability of resources to carry out all the
activities that may be attempted at one time (Magil, 1998)

FEEDBACK
Every learner needs feedback during practice sessions. Feedback may be intrinsic or
extrinsic. Intrinsic feedback originates within the learner. It is little internal voice
that tells us we performed well or we did something wrong compared to a
performance standard that we have internalized.
Extrinsic feedback is supplied by the teacher or another objective source. It is
sometimes called “augmented feedback” because it augment our own internal
feedback. Experts in the field of motor learning have identified two forms of
augmented feedback: knowledge of results(KR) and knowledge of performance(KP).
KR refers to external verbal feedback about performance outcomes.
KP is external information about the action process involved in the performance.

PRACTICE
The second stage of Gentile’s model, fixation/diversification, has important teaching
implications. In this stage, the general motor pattern is practiced and refined as the
learner attempts to reach an adequate skill level. Closed skills lend themselves fairly
quickly to fixation, but open skills require refinement of a variety of motor patterns to
achieve diversification. The teachers’ role in this stage is to arrange for or even to
supervise practice. Practice is essential in order to fix the sequential order of
movements in the learner’s memory, but the amount of practice needed varies with
the complexity of the skill, the learners, motivation, and knowledge of related skills.
“Massed practice” refers to repeated practice sessions with very short or no rest
periods between trials. “Distributed practice” includes planned rest periods planned
rest periods that are equal tomor greater than the time given to the trials.
Generalizations that can be drawn from the literation are as follows:
1. People learn psychomotor skills best when using a greater number of short
practice sessions rather than fewer long sessions.
2. Distributed practices is generally better than massed practice.
3. Practice must be long enough fo the learner to make appreciate progress, rest
periods must be short enough be forgetting does not occur.

MENTAL PRACTICE
Mental practice is a technique that has been widely studied in movement science and
applied in physical education. The basic premise is that learners can improve their
skill level not only by physical practice but also by mental practice. To use the mental
practice process in teaching psychomotor skills, you have to first analyze a skill and
separate it into sequential steps. Then you have to combine the procedural steps with
instructions on how to implement the mental practice. Full instruction should be
written out if you expect the learner to use the process at home. When meeting with
the learners, first introduce the concept of mental imagery and explain how it can be
useful in learning psychomotor skills.

WHOLE VERSUS PART LEARNING

Teachers debate whether skills should be learned in their entirely or wether they
should be broken into their component parts and taught in sections. Recent research
on this topic is lacking, but based on research from the 1960s and 1970s. The part
method should be used for skills that are extremely complex with many parts; the
whole method should be used with skills of low complexity or where the parts are
extremely interrelated or organized. Translating these precepts into everyday
exaples reveals many of boths types of skills in nursing. Skills that could be taught by
the whole method might include assessment of vital signs, dressing change, and
nasogastric intubation. Educators should analyze each psychomotor skill acording to
its level of complexity and organization. It would then be fairly easy to determine
which skills should be taught by which method. The experienced educator also knows
which skills learners find the most difficult to master. These skills can be analyzed to
see whether they can be seperated into component parts for teaching purposes.

APPROACHES TO TEACHING SKILLS

Teaching psychomotor skills in a college or hospital laboratory can be done in a
variety of ways. Certain structures and methods of functioning may be workable in
some places but not in others, depending on a number of factors. These factors
include the type of program, the number of education available, nature of the student
body or number of practicing nurses to be taught, availability of technology, and
philosophy of the program.

DEMONSTRATION
As already mentioned, students often prefer instruction demonstration as a way
learning skills. New teachers sometimes find demontrations to be anxiety provoking.
Following the guidelines in the table and perhps keeping some note cards at your
side will help alleviate anxiety.

SIMULATIONS
Simulations technique can be a real help in teaching psychomotor skills. Simply
practiceing skilss with equipment in a laboratory is a stimulated experience. Nursing
skill laboratories are usully stocked with equipment similar to that found in clinical
agency, and learners often practice on manikins or fellow learners who simulate
patients. In addition to simulating the setting and equipment, simulation exercises
often go much farther. Elaborate scenarios may be planned in which the learners
apply skills to simulated hospital or home care situations. Students or lived simulated
patients may act out their reactions to the skills being “performed” on them.

LESSON 6: CLINICAL TEACHING

Clinical teaching is a complex enterprise. It is so complex that few researchers have

tackled the issues that need to be addressed. Yet, it is the same complexity that
makes the clinical setting such a rich learning environment. Until there is more
research to guide us, we must function with the empirical evidence that we have and
base our actions on the collective wisdom brought to us by more than a century of
recorded clinical teaching experiences.

PURPOSE OF THE CLINICAL LABORATORY

What kind of learning takes place in a clinical setting? What are the real purposes
behind having learners to spend time in clinical agencies? Some of the answers the
clinical are apparent and some we can only make educated guesses about. A
proposition such as " Frequent change in body position helps prevent what conditions
it ulcers can be tested with a variety of patients to see how and under but learn when
to apply it, and they holds true. Learners not only test the proposition that apply to it.

They work with a variety of patients who have different stomas and different
conditions and contours, using varied equipment. Infante (1985), in her classic study
of the clinical laboratory, noted that the oppor tunity for observation is an essential
element of clinical learning. The skill of observa tion can be taught in simulated
situations, but learners need repeated experience of observing patients in changing
circumstances so that they know what to look for in changing situations.
Problem-solving, decision-making and critical thinking skills are also refined in the
clinical laboratory Students should learn the basics of these skills before entering the
clinical setting. The ultimate practice in decision making and problem solving,
however is done in patient settings with many interacting variables and constantly
changing circumstances. Learners need practice using these cognitive skills under
the guidance of an educator and other professional staff in real-life settings (Roche,
2002).
Learners also gain organization and time management skills in clinical settings
(Oermann & Gaberson, 2007). Again, no simulation can prepare students as thor
oughly as the live laboratory when it comes to organization. It is in real clinical
practice, with the help of the instructor, that learners find out how to organize all the
data that bombards them, all the requests made of them, and all the intellectual and
psychomo tor tasks required of them. They learn to set priorities by having repeated
practice in doing so in complex situations. It is in the clinical laboratory that the skill
of delegation is practiced and truly learned. (in approach plan Oermann cross.
Cultural competence is a skill that can be learned well in clinical laboratory. Learners
must know how to approach different cultures. Learners must need to spend time in
clinical settings, and educators need to learn how best to use that time.

MISUSE OF THE CLINICAL LABORATORY

Infante (1985) points out clearly, the clinical laboratory have historically been
misused at all levels of nursing education. Objectives should focus on the application
of knowledge and skills more than on learning the future employee role. Misuse
clinical setting also occurs when novices are given too much responsibility to patient
care. Also when learners supervised and evaluated more than they are taught.

MODELS OF CLINICAL TEACHING

1. Traditional Model
◦ The clinical instructor has the primary responsibility for instruction,
supervision and evaluation of small students during clinical experience.
2. Faculty-Directed Independent Experience Model
◦ This is used in community-based setting and to minimize the number of
students requiring direct faculty supervision in acute or varied setting.
3. Collaborative Model
◦ This endeavors to provide excellent role models of expert nursing
practice. Staff nurses also assumes the collaborative and preceptor role.
4. Preceptor Role
◦ An expert nurse in the clinical setting works with the student on a one-
on-one basis to provide on-site clinical instructions for assigned
students.

MORE ON PRECEPTORSHIPS
It increases clinical experience for students and expose them more of the realities of
work world which reduce reality shocks. This also allows students to learn from
practitioners with high skill level. Real benefit of preceptorship model, some
educators perceive barriers as well. Preceptors themselves report some negative
aspects of preceptorship model. They sometimes feel a lack of trust to the ability of
student and faculty to care. The roles of educator and preceptors must be clearly
delineated if the preceptorship is going to work well. Educator is responsible in
overseeing the educational experience and ultimately responsible for student
learning outcome.

The role of preceptor (Oermann,1996a):

 Orienting students to the agency

 Assigning students to patients
 Teaching patient care
 Asking questions to ensure that learners understand what they are doing
 Evaluating student learning

Two major preceptor themes by Ohrling and Hallberg:

 Sheltering students while learning- they believed it was important to protect

students from situations too difficult for them, to prevent their not being
successful, and to assess their competence.
 Facilitating students’ learning- was accomplished by using a variety of teaching
strategies, conversing with students, demonstrating skills for them, and talking
them through various situations.

Preceptor and Learner relationship=success. The preceptor must be an experienced

nurse who will be a good role model and must be someone who has a good
interpersonal skills and who wants to be a preceptor. Strong interpersonal skills are
essential since the relationship must be based on mutual respect, trust, open
communication, and encouragement.

Techniques for Clinical Learning Experiences

1. Teacher-Created Data Collection Form
◦ Guide student’s identification and organization of data relevant to
patient care.
2. The “Verbal connections”
◦ used to verify the adequacy of the student’s preparation; the instructor
is able to identify the integration of complex information gleaned from
student’s preparation; and are able to ask questions.
3. Clinical Focus Guidelines - state expected learning outcomes, the activities in
which the students should engage; in order to achieve outcomes.

4. Clinical Concept Mapping - demonstrates the linkages that exist between patient’s
health condition, their clinical manifestations, therapeutic interventions prescribed for
each and the interrelationships that might exist among these.
Conducting Clinical Laboratory Sessions

 Pre-Conferences
Planning for patient care
Answer student’s questions about
their assignments
 Organize the activities of the learners
 Learners share research about cases and nursing diagnoses
 Observation Assignments
 learners are assigned to observe nurses or other allied medical
practitioners in the performance of procedures that are valuable
experience for them.
 Nursing Rounds
expose students to additional nursing situations and to encourage them to consult
each other in planning and evaluating care.
 Shift report – a way for students to learn the uniqueness of nursing
communication and means of professional socialization.

Written Assignments

1. Nursing Care Plans – it helps the learners to think like a nurse and develops the
problem solving techniques.
2. Journal or Related Literature - the purpose, goals, and format of this
assignment must be clearly defined to the students along with the explanation
on how is used as a clinical component and particularly how will this contribute
to the grade of the students.
3. Process Recording – they provide a structure for the student’s review of a
situation and her actions within it, as well as a basis for reflective critique of
what was going on in that situation.
4. Documentation - Instructor should ensure their accuracy and completeness,
appropriate use of abbreviation, notations, technical language and timeliness.
5. Conferences Between the Learner and the Educator - should be held with the
learner at least half way through and then at the end of the evaluation period.
Positive feedbacks must be given along the negative feedbacks.
It should be based on the performance of the learner as based on the
information and observation of the educator.
6. Post Conference – Discussion of what they have learned during the clinical
practicum.

An ideal time
 for pointing out applications of theory to practice,
 for analyzing the outcome of nursing care,
 for group problem solving.
 CHAPTER 5
ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION

Intended Learning Outcomes:

After studying this chapter, the student is expected to:
1. Identify assessment and evaluation methods for learners
2. Create questionnaires for assessment
3. Conduct actual health education session

KEY TERMS:
assessment grading system
classroom-assessment techniques item analysis
clinical evaluation tool item description
criterion-referenced evaluation item difficulty
evaluation norm-referenced evaluation
formative evaluation summative evaluation

LESSON 1: LEARNING ASSESSMENT OF CLIENTS

ASSESSING AND EVALUATING LEARNING

CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT

Classroom Assessment Techniques (CATs)

 are in-class, anonymous, short, nongraded exercises that provide feedback for
both teacher and learner about the teaching/learning process.
 PURPOSE – to provide the teacher with quick and timely feedback about the
effectiveness of his/her teaching and the state of student learning

ANGELO and CROSS (1993)

“Instructors who have assumed that their students were learning what they were
trying to teach them are regularly faced with disappointing evidence to the contrary
when they grade tests and term papers.”

ADVANTAGES OF USING CATs

 gaining insight into student learning while there is still time to make changes
 demonstrating to learners that the teacher really cares if they are succeeding
 building rapport with learners
 spending only short amounts of time to gain valuable information
 using the flexibility of CATs to adapt to the needs of individual classes
 helping learners to monitor their own learning
 gaining insight into your own teaching

DISADVANTAGE S OF USING CATs

 do take some class time away from other activities
 can be overused to the point of frustration of the learners
 they provide some negative feedback for the educator
 they are likely to point weaknesses in your teaching process or in your style

TYPES OF CATs

ONE-MINUTE PAPER
♦ this technique is used in the last two or three minutes of the class period
MUDDIEST POINT
♦ very popular assessment technique
♦ was first used by Mosteller (1989) at Harvard University
♦ especially useful for introductory level courses and for totally new content

DIRECT PARAPHRASING
♦ requires learners to put into their own words something they have just learned
♦ can be used in the classroom, as an out-of-class assignment, or with patient
teaching
♦ provides valuable feedback into learner understanding and ability to
translate information
♦ especially useful for nurses because in their work they will often have to
translate medical information into layman’s terms

APPLICATION CARDS
♦ after you have taught an essential principle, theory, or body of information,
and before you talk about how this information can be applied to the real world,
ask the learners to take a few minutes and write on an index card at least one
possible application of this content

BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE PROBE

♦ used before teaching new content to discover what the learners already know
about the material
♦ it is, in a sense, an ungraded pre-test
MISCONCEPTION/PRECONCEPTION CHECK
♦ helps to expose these mistaken ideas that may hinder learning.
♦ learners must be made aware of these preconceived notions and then led to
understand how those notions do not fit with the truth. (Enerson, Plank, & Johnson,
1994)

SELF-CONFIDENCE SURVEYS
♦ allow learners to express their possible lack of confidence in learning certain
content or skills
♦ learners may be self-confident in many areas but feel insecure in some
♦ may involve developing a short survey with five or six questions and a Likert-type
measurement

GOOD ADVICE ABOUT USING CAT

( ANGELO AND CROSS, 1993)
 If a published CAT doesn’t appeal to you or fit with your style, don’t use it.
 Don’t make the use of CATs a burden. Use them only when they can enhance
the learning process.
 Don’t use a CAT in class until you have tried it on yourself.
 Allow a little more time than you actually think you will need to administer a
CAT.
 Be sure to give learners feedback on the CAT results.

LESSON 2: METHODS OF EVALUATION

EVALUATION OF LEARNING

TEST BLUEPRINT
♦ a chart that spells out the content (behaviors, objectives) and the level of
knowledge to be tested
♦ can be highly specific or rather general, according to the teacher’s preference
♦ it should contain the content or objectives to be measured, a taxonomy of levels of
learning to be assigned to the content or objectives, and the number of questions or
relative weight to be given to each area.

MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
♦ easy to score and can be scored by computer
♦ licensure and certification examinations are multiple-choice tests
2 PARTS:
a. STEM – the question itself
b. OPTIONS – the possible answers or solutions that follow
a) ANSWER – the correct option
b) DISTRACTERS – the incorrect options

 the stem should be as short as possible while still conveying the ideas clearly
 negatively stated stems should be avoided unless they test for important
points
 distracters should be realistic
  the number of options that follow the stem may vary

RULES IN WRITING OPTIONS

 they should be grammatically consistent with the stem, both to use good style
and to avoid giving unwanted clues
 options should be fairly short and about the same length
 options should be placed in the logical order, if one exists
 avoid the use of qualifying terms, such as always, sometimes, usually, and
never.
 alter the positions of the correct answers in a series of multiple-choice
questions

TRUE-FALSE QUESTIONS
♦ designed to test a learner’s ability to identify the correctness of statements of fact
or principle
♦ limited to testing the lowest levels of knowing, knowledge and comprehension, and
thus have limited usefulness in tests for nurses or nursing students
♦ may be useful in evaluating patient learning or ancillary staff learning

MATCHING QUESTIONS
♦ test knowledge, the lowest level of knowing
♦ useful in determining if learners can recall the memorized relationships between
two things such as dates and events, structures and functions, and terms and their
definitions
♦ easy to construct and to score, but because they test only recall, they should be
used sparingly
♦ set up as two lists, with the premises usually on the left and the responses on the
right

ESSAY-TYPE QUESTIONS
♦ time consuming for test takers to answer thus limiting the amount of knowledge
sampling you can accomplish in a short time
♦ also time consuming to score
♦ lend themselves to testing the highest levels of knowing, especially analysis,
synthesis, and evaluation

Restricted response
♦ short-answer questions
♦ place limitations on the type of response requested
♦ fit well with case study formats
Extended response
♦ full essay questions
♦ permit the test taker to select all pertinent information, organize it as desired , and
express the thesis in a clear manner

TEST ITEM ANALYSIS

ITEM DIFFICULTY
♦ the proportion of test takers that answer the question correctly
♦ calculated by dividing the number of people who got the item right by the number
who took the test
# correct
Difficulty index = ––––––––––––––
# total test takers
The resulting fraction provides an estimate of difficulty, with the higher percentages
indicating easier questions

ITEM DESCRIPTION
♦ an estimate of the usefulness of an item in differentiating between learners who
did well on the whole test and those who performed poorly
♦ process for calculating item discrimination involves ranking the test papers from
highest to lowest scores and choosing the top 25 to 30 percent and the bottom 25 to
30 percent

EVALUATING PATIENT LEARNING

FEEDBACKS ABOUT PATIENT LEARNING:

 ask the person to read a pamphlet or fact sheet summarizing what you have
taught and to underline the important information
 a change in patient behaviour related to health care practices
 return demonstration of a taught skill
collect physical evidence of the effectiveness of patient teaching

EVALUATING LEARNER PROGRESS IN THE CLINICAL AREA

Choices to be Made Regarding Evaluation

Before beginning the process of evaluation, the individual educator or group of

educators must make several philosophical and practical choices. Should the
evaluation be formative or summative? Should it be norm referenced or criterion
referenced? What type of grading system should be used? What behaviors should be
evaluated?

Formative and Summative Evaluation

Formative evaluation is the ongoing feedback given to the learner identify

strengths and weaknesses and meet the learning objectives efficiently. It prevents
learners from being surprised at the end of the learning experience with a judgment
about their performance for which they were not prepared. Formative evaluation is
usually nongraded.

Summative evaluation, as it sounds, is a summary evaluation given at the end of

the learning experience. The purpose is ti assess whether the learner has achieved
the objectives and is ready to move on to the next experience. Summative evaluation
results in a grade of some type being given.
 Clinical evaluation in nursing almost always involves summative evaluation. It
may also include formative evaluation, whether formal or informal. The wise nurse
educator provides formative feedback even if the school agency does not require it.
Learners have a right to know they are progressing in their clinical work, and
educators can protect themselves against charges that they violated due process of
law if they can prove that a learner was kept apprised of clinical progress or lack of it.
The evaluative information may be given on an incident by incident basis, daily, or
weekly.

Formative feedback may be given orally or in writing. If it is given orally, the

instructor should also keep notes about what transpired. Written feedback is often
more valuable because the learner van take time to read and absorb the information
and the educator can keep a copy for future reference, after discussing the
evaluation, a plan for improvement is devised by both the instructor and the student.

Written formative evaluation notes are often called anecdotal records or clinical
progress notes. Tomey advocates recording observations of what the learner says or
does including the date, a description of the incident, and comments. Such notes
provide a longitudinal view of learner progress and become one source of data for a
summative evaluation. Keeping detailed weekly records of a learner’s clinical
experience is time consuming, yet without such data, formative or summative
evaluation is dependent on the instructor’s memory, a fallible tool at best. Using a
hand-held computer system in which students send information about their clinical
day, including a self-evaluation learning, to the instructor’s PDA can shorten record-
keeping time. Lacking written documentation, the instructor who is called on to justify
a summative evaluation on shaky ground.

Norm-Referenced and Criterion-Referenced Evaluation

In norm-referenced evaluation, a learner is compared to a reference group of

learners, either those in the same cohort or those in a norm group. Evaluation and
grading are therefore relative to the performance of the group. An evaluation process
in which a student’s behavior is characterized as below average, average, or above
average, or in which grades are distributed on a normal curve is norm referenced.

Criterion referenced evaluation is that which compares the learner with well
defined performance criteria rather than comparing him or her with other learners. A
criterion referenced evaluation tool defines the behavior expected at each level of
performance.

Grading Systems

The issue of grading also enters the picture when choices are being made about
various systems of evaluation. The two most common options for grading are
assigning letter grades and using a pass/fail or satisfactory/unsatisfactory approach.
Many educational institutions require that letter grades be given in all courses, so
Faculty are forced to arrive at letter grades whether they are using norm-referenced
or criterion-referenced methods.

Figure 1. Example of a Portion of a Norm-referenced Evaluation Tool

Below Average Average Above Average

1 point 2 points 3 points

Criteria:

1. Communicates therapeutically with

patients

2. Provides appropriate explanations to

families of patients

Figure 2. Example of a Portion of a Criterion-Referenced Evaluation Tool

Criteria:

1. Communicates therapeutically with patients (Select One)

Points
A. Communicates only when absolutely necessary.
Information provided is sometimes accurate. (1)

Does not engage in active listening.

B. Communicates on a social level.

Information given is accurate. (2)

Actively listens to patient concerns.

C. Actively listens and responds to patient concerns

In a professionally helpful and accurate way. (3)
 Rines strongly asserted that clinical grades should always be given on a pass/fail
or satisfactory/unsatisfactory basis since human behavior of any description is much
too complex to permit such fine discrimination as required in assigning numerical or
letter grades.

Criterion-referenced evaluation especially lends itself to the pass/fail system.

Criteria describing minimally acceptable behaviors can be written, and the learner
either performs at the level or does not. The teacher does not have to agonize over
several gradations or behavior.

Faculty who work in schools that require letter grades have found ways to
incorporate pass/fail clinical grading into the system. A common method used when
theory and clinical practice are combined in one course is to give letter grades for the
theory portion of the course and pass/fail for the clinical component. The total course
grade is the theory grade as long as the student receives a pas for clinical work. If the
student fails the clinical portion, a failing grade is given for the course, regardless of
the theory grade earned.

Another issue to be considered is the point at which students should be graded

for clinical work. Educators in schools of nursing should be clear about when they are
teaching and when they are formally evaluating and grading performance. In many
cases, anecdotal data collected in the first or second clinical session finds its way into
the final evaluation. There is no clear-cut evaluation period near the end of the
clinical practice experience.

The most dramatic way to cure this problem is to institute an end-of-course

performance examination. Wooley, Bryan, and Davis, describe a system of evaluation
with a final one-day summative clinical examination based on the New York Regents
College performance examination. Such examination, however, are labor intensive
and require extensive scheduling.

BEHAVIORS TO BE EVALUATED

The components of clinical eveluation tools vary from one school or agency to
another and may differ with each clinical specialty. Educators must decide which
general areas and which specific behaviors should be observed and evaluated.

Nevertheless, certain basic ingredients appear in most evaluation tools. The

following areas of performance are usually evaluated;

 use of the nursing process.

 use of health promoting strategies
 psychomotor skills
 organization of care
maintaining patient safety
ability to provide rationale for nursing care.
Ability to individualize care planning and interventions
Therapeutic communication
Ability to work with a professional team
Professionals behavior as following policies, being on time, maintaining
confidentiality, and being accountable for ones own actions.
 Written documentation of care.
SOURCES OF EVALUATION DATA

Information about learner behavior comes from sources other than just
instructor observation. Direct observation by instructors produces most pf the
data, but other sources should be used to give a balanced picture of
performance. Patients who have been cared for by the learner can be asked
some broad questions that will elicit data. Learner self-evaluation is good
source of data. Self-evaluation is never an easy task, but learners should be
taught how to do it. Learners may evaluate themselves using the same tool as
that use by the educator or they may provide their data in a personal interview
or by means of a diary or a log. Data may also be gathered from agency staff.
Formal evaluation is seldom sought from staff members unless they are
serving as preceptors. Informal input, however, can be valuable because the
staff may see the learner functioning in situations when the educator is absent.
This information, good and bad, can also be shared with the learners.

CONFERENCES BETWEEN EDUCATOR AND LEARNER

All of the evaluative data collected, wether on a formative or summative basis,

should be shared orally or in writing with the learner. Conferences should be
held with the learner at least half way through and then at the end of the
evaluation period. The content of the conference is usually based on the
information in the anecdotal records and the rating scales or summarizes that
are used. Positive as well as negative feedback should be given. Specific
behaviors and critical incidents that are highly indicative of the learner’s
typical performance should be pointed out. The more the specific and concrete
the educators is, the more the learner will benefit from the evaluation.

CLINICAL EVALUATION TOOLS

The instrument or tools used for clinical evaluation ahould meet the following
specifications;

 The items should derive form the course or unit objectives.

 The items must be measurable in some ways. It must be pssible to collect
substaining data.
 The items and instructions for use be clear to all who use the tool.
  The tool should be practical in design and length,
 The tool must be valid and reliable (Gaberson and Oermann, 2005).
Relatively few clinical evaluation tools in use today have been formally tested
for reliability and validity. If they have been tested, educators cannot be sure
that the instrument they are using are measuring what they want to measure,
and they are not certain that the outcome would be the same if different
teachers and used the tools to evaluate the same learner.

Three interesting tools that appear in the literature that have been tested for
reliability and validity are;

 Rating scales by Bonde (1983, 1984)

 Community Family Nursing Clinical Evaluation Tool by Hawky (2000)
 Clinical Evaluation Tool by Krichbaum, Rowan, Ducket, Ryden, and Savik
(1994)

The validity and reliability of an evaluation tool or a system of evaluation is not

important just because a grade may hinge on it, but because the professional’s future
of a nurse may depend on it. A summative evaluation of clinical performance may
determine a nursing students ability to stay in nursing school, a refresher nurses
freedom to reenter the profession, or a staff nurse orientees likelihood of holding a
position in an organization.

TEACHER’S INSIGHTS
Learners in the academe and in the clinical area need the feedback and judgment
of their work that evaluation provides them. The learners need to know how they are
doing at one level before proceeding to the next level or area. Educators must
evaluate learners to determine how well they are meeting objectives and to certify
that they are safe practitioners especially that they are going to be future nurses too.

Nurse educators should keep in mind that there is no perfect devised tool to
render totally objective judgments about people’s behavior. However, a lot is known
about evaluation principles and practices. This knowledge helps to elucidate the
clinical evaluation process and to make more scientific and perhaps less difficult.

SELF-REFLECTION:
As a student and future health educator, how should a teacher evaluate his or her
students?

CHAPTER ACTIVITIES:
SCENARIO 1:

You are an instructor in one of the schools in the province. You are handling 8
classes with 288 students. The country is preparing for a pandemic to enter.
Suddenly on March 12, 2020 – the President of the Philippines declared a
Luzon-wide Community Quarantine, emphasizing that movement will be
limited to essential ones only. Schools were also asked to suspend face-to-
face classes.

The school you’re working for went on to have blended learning and to
continue with the remaining of the semester. As an instructor, what will be the
issues you are going to face? What will be the possible solutions with these
concerns? With your learning in the different strategies of teaching, what are
your solutions? How will you evaluate them?

SCENARIO 2:

Create a health education plan on a certain topic (to be decided):

a. Formulate a session design
b. Craft IEC materials related to the topic (it may be pamphlet, poster, leaflet and the
like)
c. Formulate an evaluative tool to measure your audience learning of your topic.

REFERENCES:

Bastable (2018). Nurse as Educator

De Young, S (2014). Teaching Strategies for Nurse Educators

APPENDIX:

APPENDIX A: RUBRICS FOR CASE ANALYSIS

DESCRIPTORS Excellent Very Good Fair Poor

good

SCORES 5 4 3 2 1

AREAS

ISSUES Recognizes Recognize Recognize Mentions Does not

one or more s multiple s one problems recognize
key problems valid that lack the main
problems in in the problems significanc problem or
the case. case e mentions
Indicates problems
some issues that are not
 are more based on
important the facts of
than others the case
and explains
why

CONTENT Best and Important Some Failed to Applicable

AND applicable points are important make any points are
ANALYSIS points are presented points are important not
presented, while addressed points and presented
no unnecessa , but not analyze and paper is
unnecessary ry fully the case full of
contents. contents covered. scenario unnecessar
are left with it y contents
Discusses out. Considers issues.
facts in the facts in Does not
case and Discusses the case Accurately have a clear
cites related facts in and lists facts understandi
knowledge the case understan in the case ng of the
from and cites ds but does facts in the
research and related relevance not case
adds knowledg of these understand
knowledge e from facts the
from research relevance
personal of these
experience facts

ACTIONS Proposed More than Action Action No actions

actions best one proposed proposed proposed
deal with reasonabl is feasible is not
issue/s e action feasible

ORGANIZATIO Points are Made a Made Failed to Points are

N AND LOGIC logical and point, but some make the not logical
well- could points but point, do and are not
supported, present not not use the supported
organized more logical; concepts, by the
and logically not theories materials
presented by and more related to and
evidence. organized; the case principles
supported itself.
by
evidences

GRAMMAR Proper Few or no Overlooke Overlooked Many

AND sentence errors, but d errors in several errors,
PUNCTUATIO structure, sentence sentences errors in poorly
N punctuation, structure , spelling, written.
and spelling, could structure, punctuatio
no revision improve. punctuati n, and/or
required. on and sentence
spelling. structure
manifestin
g
carelessne
ss.

TOTAL: 50

APPENDIX B: RUBRICS FOR TEACHING PLAN/SESSION DESIGN

DESCRIPTORS Very good Fair Poor

SCORES 5 3 1

CRITERIA

TARGET CLIENT Target client is Target client is Target client is not

listed and listed but may not listed.
appropriate for be appropriate for
teaching teaching.

TOPIC Topic is listed and Topic is listed but Topic is not listed.
appropriate for may not be
client appropriate for
client.

GENERAL A general objective A general objective No general

OBJECTIVE is listed and is is listed but is not objective is listed.
appropriate appropriate for
clien

OBJECTIVES Specific objectives Multiple objectives Multiple objectives

are listed and are listed but not are not listed.
appropriate all are appropriate
(SMART) for client.

CONTENT Content is listed Content is listed Content is not

and includes all but may be lacking listed.
significant topics significant topics
for the client. for the client.

METHODOLOGY Teaching strategies Teaching-learning Teaching-learning

are listed and all strategies are strategies are not
are appropriate for listed but some listed.
client. may be
inappropriate for
client.

TIME ALLOTMENT Time allotment is Time allotment is Time allotment is

listed and is listed but times not listed.
realistic for client allowed may be
unrealistic for
client

RESOURCES Resources are Resources are Resources are not

listed and all are listed but may not listed.
appropriate for be appropriate for
client. client.

EVALUATION Evaluation of Evaluation of Evaluation of

teaching is listed teaching is listed teaching is not
and is appropriate but evaluation may listed.
for client. not be appropriate
for client.

REFERENCES References are References are References are not

listed in correct listed but not all listed.
APA format and all are from nursing
are from nursing resources.
resources References may
not be in correct
APA format.
TOTAL: 50

APPENDIX C: RUBRICS FOR SHORT ESSAY

DESCRIPTOR EXCELLEN VERY GOOD FAIR POOR NON-

S T GOOD COMPLI
ANT

SCORES 5 4 3 2 1 0

CORRECTNE Correct Answe Answer Answer Answer No

SS OF answer is r provided provide given is answers
ANSWER given (right provid is similar d is not incorrec provided
terminology ed is concept clear t, has
or concept) correc with no
t but correct relation
 incom answer to the
plete topic or
questio
n being
asked

CONCISE Explanation Explan Explanatio Explana Explana No

EXPLANATIO is ation n is tion is tion is explanati
N supported is correct missing incorrec ons
with correc but is not significa t provided
appropriate t but supported nt
concepts with informa
appropriat tion
e concepts

GRAMMAR Proper Few or Overlooke Overloo Many No

AND sentence no d errors in ked errors, answers
PUNCTUATIO structure, errors, sentences, several poorly provided
N punctuation but structure, errors written.
, and senten punctuatio in
spelling, no ce n and spelling
revision struct spelling. ,
required. ure punctua
could tion,
improv and/or
e. sentenc
e
structur
e
manifes
ting
careless
ness.

TOTAL: 15

APPENDIX D: RUBRICS FOR VIDEO ANALYSIS

DESCRIPTORS Excellent Very Good Fair Poor

good

SCORES 5 4 3 2 1

AREAS

CONTENT Best and Important Some Failed to Applicable

AND applicable points are important make any points are
ANALYSIS points are presented points are important not
presented, while addressed points and presented
no unnecessa , but not analyze and paper is
unnecessary ry fully the case full of
contents. contents covered. scenario unnecessar
are left with it y contents
Discusses out. Considers issues.
facts in the facts in Does not
case and Discusses the case Accurately have a clear
cites related facts in and lists facts understandi
knowledge the case understan in the case ng of the
from and cites ds but does facts in the
research and related relevance not case
adds knowledg of these understand
knowledge e from facts the
from research relevance
personal of these
experience facts

ORGANIZATIO Points are Made a Made Failed to Points are

N AND LOGIC logical and point, but some make the not logical
well- could points but point, do and are not
supported, present not not use the supported
organized more logical; concepts, by the
and logically not theories materials
presented by and more related to and
evidence. organized; the case principles
supported itself.
by
evidences

GRAMMAR Proper Few or no Overlooke Overlooked Many

AND sentence errors, but d errors in several errors,
PUNCTUATIO structure, sentence sentences errors in poorly
N punctuation, structure , spelling, written.
and spelling, could structure, punctuatio
no revision improve. punctuati n, and/or
required. on and sentence
spelling. structure
manifestin
g
carelessne
ss.
TOTAL: 15

REFERENCES

Textbooks

Bastable (2018). Nurse as Educator

De Young, S (2014). Teaching Strategies for Nurse Educators