1

Neurobiology of Learning and memory

Introduction: Fundamental
Concepts and Historical
1/25/2018 Foundations

Chapter Goals Chapter Goals

The goal of this chapter is to establish the
This will be done by discussing:
conceptual frame work for the course.
This will be done by discussing:
• The general significance of learning • Psychological and neurobiological
and memory approaches.

• Several key concepts • The historical foundations of the field

Significance of Learning and Memory Significance of Learning and Memory

What is memory? Your memory stores:

• Your personal experiences
• Emotions
• Preferences/dislikes
• Motor skills
• Knowledge of facts
• Language
Significance of Learning and Memory Significance of Learning and Memory

Fundamentally, you as a person are What is the purpose of

derived from experiences that memory?
have been stored in your nervous
system.
This is possible only because your
brain has developed the capacity
to store information.

Significance of Learning and Memory Definition

Learning vs Memory?
What is the purpose of
memory? “Learning is the process of
acquiring [representations of]
new information, while
-allows us to adapt to an ………..
uncertain future

Definition Definition

Learning vs Memory?

memory refers to the Learning is a set of processes

persistence of [that initiated by experience.
information] in a state that
can be revealed at a later Memory is a product of that process.
time” (modified from Squire,
1987).
Figure 1.1 Learning and Memory Explain the Fact That Our Past Figure 1.1 Learning and Memory Explain the Fact That Our Past
Experience Influences Our Behavior Experience Influences Our Behavior

Learning and memory processes They are theoretical concepts that are
cannot be observed; their proposed to explain the fact that our behavior
existence is inferred. is influenced by our past experiences.

Two Approaches to the Study of Memory: Two Approaches to the Study of Memory:

1. Psychological Approach:
The study of memory used to be the
sole territory of psychologists. The general goals of psychology are
to (a) derive a set of empirical
However, today neurobiologists also principles that describe how
have weighed in. It is useful to note experience influences behavior
the distinguishing features of both
the psychological and (b) provide a theoretical account that
neurobiological approaches. can explain the observed facts.

Psychologists Only Study Memory at a Single Level of Analysis Goal of Neurobiology

Psychologists study 2. Neurobiological Approach:

only the relationship
between experience Neurobiologists want to understand
and behavior. This how the brain acquires, stores, and
means they do not maintains and retrieves memories,
directly manipulate and how this changes behavior.
or measure brain
processes.
Neurobiologists Are Motivated by the Belief that Memory Traces
Have a Physical Basis in the Brain Historical Foundations: The Golden Age

To understand the physical

basis of memory requires a Over 30 years ago Paul Rozin described
multiple level approach. the last decade of the 19th Century as the
Not only is the brain “Golden Age of Memory” because many
manipulated, responses in the
of the basic phenomena and ideas that
brain to experience and drugs
are measured.
still occupy researchers today emerged
during that era.
Thus neurobiologists study
brain systems, synapses, and
molecules, as well as behavior.

Ebbinghaus and Memory Ebbinghaus and Memory

Hermann Ebbinghaus The nonsense syllable.
developed the first scientific
methods for assessing learning
and memory.
example
Studying “pure memory”
required a methodology that REB
could separate what the JOR
subject already has learned
from what the subject is now BYZ
being asked to remember. So, ZEL
he invented the nonsense
syllable.

Ebbinghaus and Memory Ebbinghaus and Memory

Observations. Observations.

- Memory retention was - Memory retention was

better with repetition better if the repetitions
are spaced over time vs
is they are bunched
together
 Ebbinghaus and Memory Forgetting Curve
How would you explain the shape of this curve?
Spaced vs Massed trials.

Theories of Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve Theories of Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve

Single-trace theory - Dual-trace theory -

strength of a single explains that the
memory trace declines forgetting curve results
monotonically as a from two memory traces
function of time whose strength decays
between learning and at different rates.
the retention test

Theories of Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve Ribot’s Law

Théodule Ribot proposed

that during diseases of the
brain, memories disappear
in an orderly fashion.
 Ribot’s Law Korsakoff’s Syndrome
Ribot's Law: Ribot also proposed that old memories
are more resistant to disease/disruption than new
memories. Serge Korsakoff described the
syndrome produced by alcohol
now called Korsakoff’s
Syndrome.
The syndrome is characterized
by what we now call
anterograde amnesia—the
inability to acquire new
memories.

Korsakoff’s Syndrome William James – Primary vs Secondary Memory

William James proposed that
memories emerge in stages.
During the late stages, there is
also retrograde amnesia—the 1. After image – decays very
loss of memories acquired rapidly
before the onset of the disease.
He also proposed that amnesia
could be due to either storage
failure or retrieval failure.

William James – Primary vs Secondary Memory William James – Primary vs Secondary Memory
William James proposed that William James proposed that
memories emerge in stages. memories emerge in stages.
2. Primary memory – 3. Secondary memory - the
representation of experience reservoir of enduring memory
that forms the stream of traces that, with an appropriate
consciousness. retrieval cue, can be recalled.
 Figure 1.6 William James Proposed that Memories Emerge in
William James – Primary vs Secondary Memory Stages

William James proposed that

memories emerge in stages.
Primary memory = Short-term
memory (STM).

Secondary memory = Long-

term memory (LTM).

Ramon y Cajal – Neuron Doctrine Ramon y Cajal – Neuron Doctrine

Santiago Ramón y Cajal Santiago Ramón y Cajal

The Neuron Doctrine: The Golgi Staining – to identify

idea that the brain is made up the structure of neurons.
of discrete cells called nerve
cells, each delimited by an
external membrane.

Ramon y Cajal – Neuron Doctrine Ramon y Cajal – Neuron Doctrine

Santiago Ramón y Cajal

Golgi Staining – to identify the structure of
neurons.

The Synaptic Plasticity Hypothesis: The

idea that the strength of a synaptic
connection can be modified by experience.
 Reticulum Theory versus Cell Theory Reticulum Theory versus Cell Theory

Reticulum theory: the brain

Reticulum Theory of Camillo Golgi
functions like a spider’s web
According Golgi, the nervous
system represented an exception
to cell theory, being formed not by
• The cells of the brain are fused into a
independent cells but rather by a
giant network, much like a spider’s web.
gigantic net.
All cells are in contact.

• The web functions as a whole network

Reticulum Theory versus Cell Theory Reticulum Theory versus Cell Theory
Reticulum Theory of Camillo Golgi Reticulum Theory of Camillo Golgi

Golgi believed that the

protoplasmic processes we now
call dendrites were in contact
with blood vessels and
functioned to provide nutrients to
the cell. He believed the business of
the nerve cells was carried
out by what we now call
axons, which he believed
were continuous with each
other and formed the
reticulum, or network.

Cajal’s Major Contributions Cajal’s Major Contributions

1. The neuron is an independent unit.

Cajal’s careful and more detailed 2. Cajal figured out the logic
anatomical descriptions, together with his of the brain’s wiring
strong writings, refuted the idea that nerve diagram.
cells were linked in a continuous network.
Axons could travel short or
long distances but they
This led to the now accepted view that always terminated at specific
neurons are truly independent units that locations among fields of
are composed of (a) a cell body or soma,
(b) dendrites, and (c) a single axon.
dendrites.
 The Neuron Doctrine—The Basis of Modern
Cajal’s Major Contributions Neuroscience

3. The synapse
Axon endings were
contiguous with dendrites The neuron is an anatomical unit—
but not continuous the fundamental structural and
(fused) with them. functional unit of the nervous
system.
Sir Charles
Sherrington later named Neurons are discrete cells that are
this axon–dendritic not continuous with other cells.
junction the synapse.

The Neuron Doctrine—The Basis of Modern The Neuron Doctrine—The Basis of Modern
Neuroscience Neuroscience

The neuron is composed of three The neuron is a physiological

parts: cell body, dendrites, and unit. Electrical activity flows
axons. through the neuron in one
direction (from dendrites to
the axon, via the cell body)
The points of connection between
neurons are called synapses.

Historical Foundations: The Golden Age Historical Foundations: The Golden Age
The Synaptic Plasticity hypothesis: The Synaptic Plasticity hypothesis: the
communication at the synapse is strength of a synaptic connection can be
chemical. modified by experience.
 Behavioral Methods: Pavlovian Conditioning Behavioral Methods: Pavlovian Conditioning

Ivan P. Pavlov developed the

fundamental methodology for studying In the Pavlovian conditioning method, two
associative learning in animals. events called the CS and US are presented
together.

Bell Food

Behavioral Methods: Pavlovian Conditioning Thorndike and Instrumental conditioning

Subsequently, the CS evokes the response called the CR.

Edward L. Thorndike developed the

first methodology for studying how
we learn about the consequences of
our actions.
This methodology is called
Psychologists assume that the CS evokes the CR instrumental conditioning. Some
because the CS gets associated with the US.
people also call it Thorndikian
Psychologists and neurobiologists continue to use
this method to study associative learning in conditioning.
animals.

Figure 1.10 Edward L. Thorndike Invented the Methodology for

Click to edit
Studying Instrumental
Master titleLearning
style Thorndike and Instrumental conditioning

The Law of Effect: The correct behavior is

learned because the consequences of
successful outcome (a satisfying state)
strengthened connections between the
stimulus (S) and correct response (R),

……and the consequence of unsuccessful

responses (an annoying state) weakens
competing and wrong S–R connections.
 2
Figure 1.10 Edward L. Thorndike Invented the Methodology for
Studying Instrumental Learning

Mechanisms of Synaptic
Plasticity: Introduction