Introduction to Manufacturing

Course Code: ME101

LAB MANUAL

Indian Institute of Technology Goa

 Course Content
Sr. Chapter Page No.
No.

1. Fitting 5

2. Turning 21

3. Welding 28

4. Drilling 38

5. Milling 41

6. Grinding 53

7. 3D Printing 61

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Aim of the Course:

1. To introduce the students to manufacturing processes.

2. To make them realize the requirements of manufacturing processes.
3. To give hands-on training on the machines/ machine tools associated with the
manufacturing processes.
4. Introducing the students to the fundamental materials used in the
manufacturing processes and their properties.
5. Make the students understand the safety aspects while operating different
manufacturing equipment.

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 General Instructions
Since this course involves laboratory exercises with machines, students must always practice
the following safety procedures:
a. All students must come to the laboratory in shoes.
b. No student must wear loosely fitting clothes that can get caught in rotating machinery.
c. Students with long hair must tie their hair.
d. Students must get permission from the TAs before handling any machine.
e. Students must ensure that the floor around the machine they are operating is dry and not oily
to avoid slipping.
f. Students must not lean on any machine in operation.
g. Students should clear the chips from the machine after use.
Following are some other instructions:
a. Use of mobile phones by students is not permitted. Those found using their phones will be
marked absent for that lab day and will receive zero grade for the lab.
b. The lab runs from 10 am to 1 pm. Please, make sure that you are in the lab by 9:55 am. Those
students who turn up after 10:10 am will be marked absent and will receive a zero grade for
that lab exercise. TAs reserve the right to deny entry to the student who is late.

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 1. Fitting

The term fitting is related to the assembly of parts, after bringing the dimension or shape of the
parts to the required size or form, to secure the necessary fit. The operations required for the
same are usually carried out on a work bench by hand, and it is referred to as bench work. Bench
work and fitting play an important role in engineering workshops. Although in today's
industries, most of the work is done by automatic machines which produce the jobs with good
accuracy, the job still requires some hand operations called fitting operations. The person
working in the fitting shop is called a fitter.

Fitting tools:

Fitting shop tools are classified as below:

1. Work holding devices/ Clamping tools

2. Measuring tools

3. Marking tools

4. Cutting tools

Work holding devices /Clamping tools:

• Work bench

A fitting process can be done at various places, but most of the important operations of fitting
are generally carried out on a table called the work bench as shown in Fig. 1.1. The work bench
is a strong, heavy, and rigid table made up of hardwood.

Fig. 1.1: Work bench with bench vice

The size of the work bench required is about 150 to 180 cm in length, nearly 90 cm in width,

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and approximately 76 to 84 cm in height.
• Bench vice

Bench vice, as shown in Fig. 1.2, is firmly fixed to the bench with the help of nuts and bolts. It
consists of a cast iron body and jaws. Two jaw plates are fitted on both the jaws. The holding
surface of the jaw plates is knurled to increase the grip. Jaw plates are made up of carbon steel
and are wear resistant. One jaw is fixed to the body and the second slides on a square threaded
screw with the help of a handle. The jaws are opened to the required length; the job is placed
in the two jaws and is fully tightened with the help of a handle. The handle is used to move the
movable jaw.

Fig. 1.2: Bench vice

• V block

V-block and V-block with clamp are shown in Fig. 1.3. In V block, V grooves are provided to
hold the round objects longitudinally. The screw of the clamp applies the holding pressure.
When the handle is rotated, there is movement in the screw.

Fig. 1.3: V-block and V-block with clamp

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Measuring tools
• Steel rule

Figure 1.4 shows a typical steel ruler. These are made up of stainless steel and are available in
many sizes ranging from 1/2 ft. to 2 ft. These are marked in inches or millimeters. The edgesof
the steel rule should be protected from rough handling.

Fig. 1.4: Steel ruler

• Calipers

Different types of calipers are shown in Fig. 1.5. These are generally used to measure the inside
or outside diameters. Different types of calipers are:
i. Outside caliper: It is used to measure the external dimensions.

ii. Inside caliper: It is used to measure the internal dimensions.

iii. Spring caliper: A spring is provided to apply the pressure and a lock nut is provided to
lock any desired position.
iv. Hermaphrodite, Jenny, or Odd leg Caliper: One leg is bent at the tip inwardly and the
other has a straight pointed end. It is used to scribe lines parallel to the straight edges.

Outside spring calipers Inside leg Odd leg calipers

calipers
Fig. 1.5: Different types of calipers

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• Vernier caliper

Vernier caliper is as shown in Fig. 1.6. It is used for measuring the outer dimensions of round,
flat, square components and also the inner dimensions of the holes and bore. A narrow blade is
used to measure the depth of bar slots. Typically, the least count of a Vernier caliper in metric
system is 0.02 mm and British system it is 0.001 inch. It is made of stainless steel.

Fig. 1.6: Vernier caliper

Marking tools
• Surface plate

The surface plate is shown in Fig. 1.7. It is used for testing the flatness and trueness of the
surfaces. It is made up of grey cast iron or graphite. Its upper face is planed to form a very
smooth surface. It is also used in scribing work. While not in use, it should be covered with a
woodencover.

Fig. 1.7: Surface plate

• Angle plate
The angle plate is shown in Fig. 1.8. It is made up of cast iron in different sizes; it has two planed
surfaces at right angles to each other and has various slots in each surface to hold the work
using bolts and clamps. Never do hammering on the angle plate to fasten (lighten) the nutsand
bolts.

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 Fig. 1.8: Angle plate
• Scriber and surface gauge

The scriber and surface gauge are as shown in Figs. 1.9 and 1.10 respectively. It consists of a
cast iron bass on the centre of which a steel rod is fixed vertically. Scriber is made up of high
carbon steel and is hardened from the front edge. It is used for locating the centres of round bars
or for marking of the lines.

Fig. 1.9: Scriber tools

Fig. 1.10 Surface gauge

• Punches
Punches are used for marking purposes. The dot punch (Fig. 1.11) is used for marking the dotted

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line and centre punch (Fig. 1.12) is used to mark the centre of hole before drilling. Punches are
made of high-carbon steel or high-speed steel. One end is sharpened and hammering is done on
the other end while working. For the dot punch, the angle of the punching end is 60 degrees
while for the centre punch the angle of the punching end is 90 degrees.

Fig. 1.11: Dot punch

Fig. 1.12: Centre punch

• Try- square

It is used for checking the squareness of two surfaces. It consists of a blade made of steel, which
is attached to a base at an angle of 90 degrees as shown in Fig. 1.13. The base is made of cast
iron or steel. It is also used to mark the right angles and measure the straightness of surfaces.
Try-square should not be used as a hammer.

Fig. 1.13: Try square

• Vernier height gauge

A Vernier height gauge and graduations on it are shown in Figs. 1.14 and 1.15, respectively.
The Vernier height gauge consists of a heavy base, a graduated beam, a sliding head with

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Vernier sliding jaws holding the scriber and a fine adjustment clamp. It is similar to large
Vernier calipers in construction, except that it consists of a heavy base which allows the gauge
to stand upright instead of a fixed jaw in a Vernier. The movable jaw of Vernier height gauge
consists of a projection or extension which is levelled to sharp edge for scribing lines at any
required height.

Fig. 1.14: Height gauge

Fig. 1.15: Graduations on vernier height gauge

Note:

Method of marking

Marking means setting dimensions with the help of a working drawing or directlytransferring
them from a similar part. The procedure of marking is as follows:
1. The surface to be marked is coated with the paste of chalk or red lead and allowed to dry.
2. Then the work is held in a holding device depending upon shape and size. If it is flat, a
surface plate is used; if it is round, a V block and clamp is used, or an angle plate is used,
etc.
3. Lines in the horizontal direction are scribed using a surface gauge. Lines at right angles can
be drawn by turning the work through 90 degrees and then using the scriber. If a true surface

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 is available, try square can also be used.
4. The centre on the end of a round bar can be located by using odd leg caliper, surface gauge,
etc.
5. The circles and arcs on a flat surface are marked by means of a divider.
6. After the scribing work is over, indentations on the surface are made using a dot punch and
hammer.

Cutting tools
• Hacksaw

A Hacksaw is used for cutting of rods, bars, pipes, flats, etc. It consists of a frame, which is
made from mild steel. The blade is placed inside the frame and is tightened with the help of a
flangenut. The blade is made up of high-carbon steel or high-speed steel. The points of the teeth
are bent in a zig-zag fashion, to cut a wide groove and prevent the body of the blade from
rubbing or jamming in the saw cut. The teeth of the blades are generally forward cut so pressure
is applied in the forward direction only. Fixed frame and adjustable frame hacksaw are shown
in Figs. 1.16 and 1.17 respectively.

Fig. 1.16: Fixed frame hacksaw

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 Fig. 1.17: Adjustable frame hacksaw

Depending upon the direction of the cut, blades are classified as:

1. Forward cut

2. Backward cut

Depending upon the pitch of the teeth (distance between the two consecutive teeth) blades are
classified as:
1. Coarse (8-14 teeth per inch)

2. Medium (16-20 teeth per inch)

3. Fine (24-32 teeth per inch)

• Files

Files are multi-point cutting tools. It is used to remove the material by rubbing it on metals.The
nomenclature of a file is shown in Fig. 1.18.

Fig. 1.18 Nomenclature of a File

Files are available in a number of sizes, shapes and degree of coarseness.

Classification of files

• On the basis of length

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 ▪ ( 4”,6”,8”,12” )

• On the basis of grade:

▪ Rough (R)(20 teeth per inch)

▪ Bastard (B)(30 teeth per inch)

▪ Second cut (Sc) (40 teeth per inch)

▪ Smooth file (S)(50 teeth per inch)

▪ Dead smooth (DS)(100 teeth per inch)

Rough and bastard files are the big cut files. When a higher material is required, these files are
used. These files have bigger cuts but the surface produced is rough. Dead smooth and smooth
files have smaller teeth and are used for finishing work. The second cut file has a degree of
finish between the bastard and smooth file.
• On the basis of number of cuts:

▪ Single cut files

▪ Double cut files

▪ Rasp files

Single-cut, double cut, and rasp files are shown in Figs. 1.19, 1.20, and 1.21, respectively.

Fig. 1.19: Single cut file

Fig. 1.20: Double cut file

Fig. 1.21: Rasp cut file

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In single-cut files, the teeth are cut in parallel rows at an angle of 60 degrees to the face. Another
row of teeth is added in opposite direction in case of double cut files. Material removal is more
in the case of double-cut files.
• On the basis of shape and size:

The length of the files varies from 4' to 14'. The various shapes of cross-section available are
hand file, flat file, triangular, round; square, half round, knife-edge, pillar, needle, and mill file.
▪ Flat file (Fig. 1.22): This file has parallel edges for about two-thirds of the length and
then it tapers in width and thickness. The faces are double-cut cut while the edges are
single-cut.

Fig. 1.22: Flat file

▪ Hand file (Fig. 1.23): For a hand file the width is constant throughout, but the thickness
tapers similar to a flat file. Both faces are double-cut, and one edge is single-cut. The
remaining edge is kept uncut to use for filing a right-angled corner on one side only.

Fig. 1.23: Hand file

▪ Square file (Fig. 1.24): It has a square cross-section. It is parallel for two-thirds of its
length and then tapers towards the tip. It is double-cut on all sides. It is used for filing
square corners and slots.

Fig. 1.24: Square file

▪ Triangular file (Fig. 1.25): It has a width either parallel throughout or up to the middle
and then tapered towards the tip. Its section is triangular (equilateral) and the three faces
are double cut and the edges single cut. It is used for filing square shoulders or corners
and for sharpening wood working saws.

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 Fig. 1.25: Triangular file
▪ Round file (Fig. 1.26): It has a round cross-section. It carries single-cut teeth all around
its surface. It is normally tapered towards the tip and is frequently known as a rat-tail file.
Parallel round files having the same diameter throughout the length are also available.
The round files are used for opening holes, producing round corners, round-ended slots,
etc.

Fig. 1.26: Round file

▪ Half-round file (Fig. 1.27): Its cross-section is not a true half-circle but is only about
one-third of a circle. The width of the file is either parallel throughout or up to the middle
and then tapered towards the tip. The flat side of this file is always a double cut and the
curved side has a single cut. It is used for filing curved surfaces.

Fig. 1.27: Half round file

▪ Knife edge file (Fig. 1.28): It has a width tapered like a knife blade and it is also tapered
towards the tip and thickness. It carries double-cut teeth on the two broad faces and single-
cut teeth on the edge. It is used for finishing sharp corners of grooves and slots.

Fig. 1.28: Knife edge file

▪ Needle file (Fig. 1.29): These are thin small files having a parallel tang and a thin, narrow,
and pointed blade made in different shapes of its cross-section to suit the particular need
of the work. These are available in sizes from 100 mm to 200 mm of various shapes and
cuts. These files are used for filing very thin and delicate work.

Fig. 1.29: Needle file

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Methods of filing
The following are the two commonly used methods of filing:

• Cross-filing
This method shown in Fig. 1.30 is used for the efficient removal of the maximum amount of metal in
the shortest possible time. It may be noted that the file must remain horizontal throughout the stroke
(long, slow, and steady) with pressure only applied to the forward motion.

Fig. 1.30: Cross-filing

• Draw-filing:

This method shown in Fig. 1.31 is used to remove file marks and for finishing operations. Here, the file
is gripped as close to the work as possible between two hands. In this filing method, a fine cut file with
a flat face should be used.

Fig. 1.31: Draw- filing

File card

It is a device fashioned like a wire brush used to clean dirt and chips from the teeth of a file as
shown in Fig. 1.32. When particles of metal clog the teeth, the file is said to be pinned (a
condition that causes scratching of the surface of the workpiece). Files, therefore, require
cleaning using a File card or by dislodging the material between the teeth using a piece of soft

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iron, copper, brass, tin plate, etc. which are sharpened at the end. Hardened steelshould never
be used.

Fig. 1.32: File card

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 Experiment 1: Fitting

Aim: To make a square workpiece of 50×50 mm from the given aluminium pieces.

Material required: An aluminium plate of size 60× 60 × 6 mm – 1 No

Tools required:

The sequence of operations:

Procedure:

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Drawings:

1) Original Workpiece

2) Final Workpiece

Conclusion:

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 2. Turning

Turning is a machining process used to shape a workpiece into a desired form by rotating it
against a cutting tool. It’s commonly used with materials like metal, wood, and plastic. A lathe
is a machine tool that rotates the workpiece on its axis to perform various operations such as
cutting, sanding, knurling, drilling, or deformation with tools that are applied to the workpiece
to create an object with symmetry about an axis of rotation. Lathes are used inwoodturning,
metalworking, metal spinning, and glassworking. Lathes can be used to shape pottery, the best-
known design being the potter's wheel. Most suitably equipped metalworkinglathes can also be
used to produce most solids of revolution, plane surfaces, and screw threads or helices.
Ornamental lathes can produce three-dimensional solids of incredible complexity. The material
can be held in place by either one or two centres, at least one of which can be moved
horizontally to accommodate varying material lengths. Other work-holding methods include
clamping the work about the axis of rotation using a chuck or collet, or to a faceplate, using
clamps or dogs. Examples of objects that can be produced on a lathe include candlestickholders,
cue sticks, table legs, bowls, baseball bats, musical instruments (especially woodwind
instruments), crankshafts and camshafts.

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 Fig. 2.1: Components of Lathe

The Bed :

The lathe bed is a mounting and aligning surface for the other machine components. Viewed
from the operating position in front of the machine, the headstock is mounted on the left end of
the bed and the tailstock is on the right. The bed must be bolted to a base to provide a rigid and
stable platform. The bedways are a precision surface (or surfaces) on which the carriage slides
left and right during machining operations. The ways are machined straight and flat and are
either bolted to the top of the bed or are an integrally machined part of the bed.

Headstock:

The headstock holds the spindle and drive mechanism for turning the workpiece. The spindle
is a precision shaft and bearing arrangement rotated directly by a motor or through a motor-
driven belt. Gears or sliding pulleys mounted at the rear of the headstock allow spindle speed
adjustment. A workpiece is held in the spindle for turning or drilling by a jawed chuck or a
spring collet system. Large, unusual-shaped, or otherwise difficult-to-hold pieces, can be
attached to the spindle with a face plate, drive dogs, and special clamps.

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Tailstock:

The tailstock supports long work that would otherwise sag or flex too much to allow for accurate
machining. Without a tailstock, long pieces cannot be turned straight and will invariably have a
taper. Some tailstocks can be intentionally misaligned to accurately cut a taper if needed. The
tailstock has a centering device pressed into a shallow, specially drilled hole at the end of the
workpiece. The center can be either "live" or "dead." Live centers have a bearing, allowing the
center to rotate along with the work piece. Dead centers do not rotate and must be lubricated to
prevent overheating due to friction with the workpiece. Instead of a center, a drill chuck can be
mounted in the tailstock.

Carriage:

The carriage provides mounting and motion control components for tooling. The carriage
moves left and right, either through the manual operation of a hand wheel, or a lead screw can
drive it. At the base of a carriage is a saddle that mates and aligns with the bed ways. The cross-
slide, compound rest, and tool holder are mounted to the top of the carriage. Some carriages are
equipped with a rotating turret to allow a variety of tools to be used in succession for multi-step
operations.

Cross Slide:

The cross-slide is mounted to the top of the carriage to provide movement perpendicular to the
length of the bed for facing cuts. An additional motion assembly, the compound rest, with an
adjustable angle, is often added to the top of the cross slide for angular cuts. The cutting tools that
do the actual metal removal during turning are mounted in an adjustable tool holder clamped to
the compound rest.

Lead Screw:

The lead screw provides automatic feed and makes thread cutting possible. It is a precision-
threaded shaft, driven by gears as the headstock turns. It passes through the front of the carriage
apron and is supported at the tailstock end by a bearing bracket. Controls in the apron engage a
lead to drive the carriage as the lead screw turns.

Machine Specifications
1. Distance between headstock and tailstock
2. Swing the largest work diameter

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3. Shape of the bed
4. Motor power
5. Maximum RPM of machine
6. Height from the bed to the center axis

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 Experiment 2: Turning
Aim: To make a 5 mm step turning from a rod with a 8 mm diameter.

Material required: A rod with 8 mm diameter of Length 80 mm.

Tools required:

The sequence of operations:

Procedure:

Drawings:

Given Work piece:

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Final Work piece:

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Conclusion

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 3. Welding

Welding is a permanent joining process. It is of two types - liquid/fusion welding and solid-
state welding.

Fusion Welding

It joins different metals/alloys, with or without the application of pressure and with or without
the use of filler metal. The fusion of metal takes place using heat. The heat may be generated
either from the combustion of gases, electric arc, electric resistance, or by chemical reaction.
Welding provides a permanent joint but it normally affects the metallurgy of the components.
It is therefore usually accompanied by post-weld heat treatment for most of the critical
components. Welding is widely used as a fabrication and repair process in industries. Some of
the typicalapplications of welding include the fabrication of ships, pressure vessels, automobile
bodies, off-shore platforms, bridges, welded pipes, sealing of nuclear fuel and explosives, etc.

Most of the metals and alloys can be welded by one type of welding process or the other.
However, some are easier to weld than others. To compare this ease of welding, the term called
‘weldability’ is often used. Weldability may be defined as the property of a metal that indicates
the ease with which it can be welded with other similar or dissimilar metals. For welding the
edges of the joining surfaces of metals are prepared first.

Solid State welding

This welding process is carried out at room temperature or at an elevated temperature which is
less than the melting point of the material. In this case, no melting occurs.

Welding processes are broadly classified as given below:

Gas welding
1. Oxy-acetylene 2. Air-acetylene 3. Oxy-hydrogen
Arc welding
1. Carbon arc 2. Plasma arc 3. Submerged arc
4. Metal arc 5. Electro-slag 6. Flux-cored arc
7. Gas metal arc (MIG) 8. Gas tungsten arc (TIG) 9. Atomic-hydrogen arc

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 Resistance welding
1. Butt 2. Projection 3. Spot
4. Percussion 5. Seam
Thermit welding
Solid state welding
1. Friction 2. Explosive 3. Ultrasonic
4. Diffusion
Other welding
1. Electron-beam 2. Laser

Welding joints are generally of two major kinds namely lap joint and butt joint. The main types
are described as under joints such as butt and fillet are shown in Figs. 3.1 and 3.2, respectively.:

Fig. 3.1: Butt weld Fig. 3.2: Lap weld

Lap weld joint

Single-Lap Joint: This joint, made by overlapping the edges of the plate, is not recommended
for most work. The single lap has very little resistance to bending. It can be used satisfactorily
for joining two cylinders that fit inside one another.
Double-Lap Joint: This is stronger than the single-lap joint but has the disadvantage that it
requires twice as much welding.
Tee Fillet Weld: This type of joint, although widely used, should not be employed if an
alternative design is possible

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Butt weld joint

Single-Vee Butt Weld: It is used for plates up to 15.8 mm thick. The angle of the vee depends
upon the technique being used, the plates being spaced approximately 3.2 mm.
Double-Vee Butt Weld: It is used for plates over 13 mm thick when the welding can be
performed on both sides of the plate. The top vee angle is either 60° or 80°, while the bottom
angle is 80°, depending on the technique being used.
Welding Positions: There are four types of welding positions, which are given as

a. Flat or down hand position

b. Horizontal position

c. Vertical position

d. Overhead position

They are represented in Fig. 3.3.

Flat or Down-hand Welding Position

The flat position or down-hand position is one in which the welding is performed from the
upper side of the joint and the face of the weld is approximately horizontal.

Horizontal Welding Position

In the horizontal position, the plane of the workpiece is vertical and the deposited weld head is
horizontal. This position of welding is most commonly used in welding vessels and reservoirs.

Vertical Welding Position

In vertical position, the plane of the workpiece is vertical and the weld is deposited upon a
vertical surface. It is difficult to produce satisfactory welds in this position due to the effect of
the force of gravity on the molten metal.

Overhead Welding Position

The overhead position is probably even more difficult to weld than the vertical position. Here
the pull of gravity against the molten metal is much greater.

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 Flat Horizontal

Vertical Overhead

Fig. 3.3: Welding Positions

Arc welding processes

The process, in which an electric arc between an electrode and a workpiece or between two
electrodes is utilized to weld base metals, is called an arc welding process. The basic principle
of arc welding is shown in Fig. 3.4. However, the basic elements involved in the arc welding
process are shown in Fig. 3.5. Most of these processes use some shielding gas while others
employ coatings or fluxes to prevent the weld pool from the surrounding atmosphere.

Fig. 3.4: Basic principle of arc welding

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 Fig. 3.5: Basic elements of arc welding

Arc Welding Equipment

Arc welding equipment, setup, and related tools and accessories are shown in Fig. 3.4. Some
common tools of arc welding are shown separately in Fig 3.5. A few of the important
components of arc welding setup are described as under.
Arc welding power source

Both direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC) are used for electric arc welding, each
having its particular applications. DC welding supply is usually obtained from generators
driven by electric motors or if electricity is unavailable then an internal combustion engine is
used. For AC welding supply, transformers are predominantly used for almost all arc welding
processes where mainselectricity supply is available. Transformers step down the usual supply
voltage (200-400 volts) to the normal open circuit welding voltage (50-90 volts). The following
factors influence the selection of a power source:
a. Type of electrodes to be used and metals to be welded

b. Available power source (AC or DC)

c. Required output

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d. Duty cycle

e. Efficiency

f. Initial costs and running costs

g. Available floor space

h. Versatility of equipment

Welding cables
Welding cables are required for conduction of current from the power source through the
electrode holder, the arc, the workpiece, and back to the welding power source. These are
insulated copper or aluminum cables.

Electrode holder
An electrode holder is used for holding the electrode manually and conducting current to it. It
is shown in Fig. 3.6. These are usually matched to the size of the lead, which in turn is matched
to the amperage output of the arc welder. Electrode holders are available in sizes that range
from 150 to 500 Amps.

Fig. 3.6: Electrode Holder

Welding Electrodes
An electrode is a piece of wire or a rod of a metal or alloy, with or without coatings. An arc is
set up between the electrode and the workpiece. Welding electrodes are classified into the
following types-
(i) Consumable Electrodes

(a) Bare Electrodes

(b) Coated Electrodes

(ii) Non-consumable Electrodes

(a) Carbon or Graphite Electrodes

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 (b) Tungsten Electrodes

Consumable electrodes are made of different metals and their alloys. The end of this electrode
starts melting when an arc is struck between the electrode and the workpiece. Thus consumable
electrode itself acts as a filler metal. Bare electrodes consist of a metal or alloy wire without
any flux coating on them. Coated electrodes have flux coating which starts melting as soon as
an electric arc is struck. This coating on melting performs many functions like prevention of
joints from atmospheric contamination, arc stabilizers, etc.
Non-consumable electrodes are made up of high melting point materials like carbon, pure
tungsten, or alloy tungsten, etc. These electrodes do not melt away during welding. But
practically, the electrode length goes on decreasing with the passage of time, because of
oxidation and vaporization of the electrode material during welding. The materials of non-
consumable electrodes are usually copper-coated carbon or graphite, pure tungsten, thoriated
or zirconiated tungsten.

Chipping hammer
Chipping hammer as shown in Fig. 3.7 is used to remove the slag bystriking.

Wire brush
Wire brush as shown in Fig. 3.8 is used to clean the surface to be weld.

Hand screen
Hand screen as shown in Fig. 3.9 used for protection of eyes and supervisionof weld bead.

Protective clothing

Operator wears the protective clothing such as an apron for protection from direct heat to the
body.

Fig. 3.7: Chipping Hammer Fig. 3.8: Wire Brush

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 Fig. 3.9: Welding hand screen
Safety Recommendations for Arc Welding

Beginners in the field of arc welding must go through and become familiar with these general
safety recommendations which are given below:
1. The body or the frame of the welding machine shall be efficiently earthed. Pipelines
containing gases or inflammable liquids or conduits carrying electrical conductors shall not
be used for a ground return circuit. All earth connections shall be mechanically strong and
electrically adequate for the required current.
2. Welding arc in addition to being a source of infra-red and ultra-violet light also;
consequently, the operator must use either a helmet or a hand shield fitted with a special filter
glass to protect the eyes.
3. Excess ultra-violet light can cause an effect similar to sunburn on the skin of the welder

4. The welder’s body and clothing are protected from radiation and burns caused by sparks and
flying globules of molten metal with the help of the following:
• Gloves protect the hands of a welder.
• A leather or asbestos apron is very useful to protect the welder’s clothes and his trunk and
thighs while he is doing welding.
• For overhead welding, some form of protection for the head is required
• A leather skull cap or peaked cap will do the needful.
• Leather jackets and leather leggings are also available as clothes for bodyprotection.
5. Welding equipment shall be inspected periodically and maintained in safe working order at
all times.
6. Arc welding machines should be of suitable quality.

7. All parts of the welding set shall be suitably enclosed and protected to meet the usual
service conditions.

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 Experiment 3: Welding

Aim: To make a butt joint using the given two MS pieces by arc welding

Material required:

Tools required:

Sequence of operations:

Procedure:

36
Drawings:

a) Butt weld :

37
 4. Drilling
Drilling is a process of making a hole in an object with a cutting tool generally called a “drill
bit”.

Holes are drilled to fasten parts with rivets or bolts or to produce internal thread. A bench
drilling machine is the most versatile machine used in a fitting shop for the purpose. Twist
drills, made of tool steel or high-speed steel are used with the drilling machine for drilling
holes.

Following are the stages of drilling work:

1. Select the correct size drill bit, put it into the chuck, and lock it firmly.
2. Adjust the speed of the machine to suit the work by changing the belt on the pulleys. Use
high speed for small drills and soft materials and low speed for large-diameter drills and hard
materials.
3. Layout the location of the pole and mark it with a center punch.
4. Hold the work firmly in the vice on the machine table and clamp it directly on to the machine
table.
5. Put on the power, locate the punch mark, and apply slight pressure with the feed handle.

Fig. 4.1: Bench Drill

38
 Experiment 4: Drilling

Aim: To drill two diagonal holes, each with a diameter of 5mm, into the provided aluminium
workpiece.

Material required: An aluminium plate of size 50× 50 × 6 mm – 1 No

Tools required:

Sequence of operations:

Procedure:

39
Drawings:

1. Original Workpiece

2. Final Workpiece

Conclusion:

40
 5. Milling
Milling is a machining process that uses rotary cutters to remove material from a workpiece by
advancing (or feeding) the cutter into the workpiece in a certain direction. The cutter may also
be held at an angle relative to the axis of the tool. Milling covers a wide variety of different
operations and machines, on scales from small individual parts to large, heavy-duty gang
milling operations. It is one of the most used processes for machining custom parts to precise
tolerances.

A milling machine is one of the most versatile conventional machine tools with a wide range
of metal cutting capabilities. Many complicated operations such as indexing, gang milling,
straddle milling, etc. can be carried out on a milling machine.

Types of Milling Machine

Most of the milling machines have a column and knee structure and they are classified into two
main types namely Horizontal Milling Machine and Vertical Milling Machine. The name
Horizontal or Vertical is given to the machine by virtue of its spindle axis. Horizontal machines
can be further classified into Plain Horizontal and Universal Milling Machine. The main
difference between the two is that the table of a Universal Milling Machine can be set at an
angle for helical milling while the table of a Plain Horizontal Milling Machine is not.

Fig. 5.1: Horizontal Milling Machine Fig. 5.2. Vertical Milling Machine

41
Horizontal Milling Machine

Figure 5.1 shows the main features of a Plain Horizontal Milling Machine. Their functions are:
• Column
The column houses the spindle, the bearings, the gearbox, the clutches, the shafts, the pumps,
and the shifting mechanisms for transmitting power from the electric motor to the spindle at a
selected speed.

• Knee
The knee mounted in front of the column is for supporting the table and to provide an up or
down motion along the Z axis.

• Saddle
The saddle consists of two slideways, one on the top and one at the bottom located at 90º to
each other, for providing motions in the X or Y axes using lead screws.

• Table
The table is mounted on top of the saddle and can be moved along the X-axis. On top of the
table are some T-slots for the mounting of workpieces or clamping fixtures.

• Arbor
The arbor is an extension of the spindle for mounting cutters. Usually, the thread end of an
arbor is a left-hand helix.

• Base
The base of the milling machine, along with the column, are the major structural components.
They hold, align, and support the rest of the machine.

• Spindle
The spindle holds the tool and provides the actual tool rotation.

• Spindle Reverse Lever

The position of this lever determines the spindle direction. The three positions of the handle
are: In, Middle, and Out. The middle position is the neutral position. Never move the spindle
reverse lever when the spindle is turning.

42
• Spindle Speed Selection Lever
The spindle speed selection lever is used to change the spindle R.P.M. setting. This type of
machine has a geared head so the spindle speed can only be changed when the spindle is
stopped.

• Spindle Clutch Lever

The spindle clutch lever engages the spindle clutch to the motor. By manipulating the spindle
clutch lever the operator can start and stop the spindle.

• Feed Rate Selection Lever

The feed rate selection lever is used to change the feed rate setting. The feed rate settings are
expressed in inches per minute.

• Motor Start and Stop Buttons

The motor start and stop buttons control the power to the main motor for the machine

Vertical Milling Machine

Figure 5.2 shows a vertical milling machine which is of similar construction to a horizontal
milling machine except that the spindle is mounted in the vertical position. Its additional
features are:

• Milling head
The milling head consisting of the spindle, the motor, and the feed control unit is mounted
on a swivel base such that it can be set at any angle to the table.

• Ram
The ram on which the milling head is attached can be positioned forward and backward
along the slideway on the top of the column.

Cutting Tools

• Cutting Tools for Horizontal Milling

43
 Fig. 5.3: Slab Mill Fig. 5.4: Side and Face Cutter Fig. 5.5: Slitting Saw

a. Slab Mills
For heavy cutting of large and flat surfaces.

b. Side and Face Cutters

This type of cutter has cutting edges on the periphery and sides of the teeth for cutting shoulders
and slots.

c. Slitting Saws
For cutting deep slots or for parting off.

• Cutting tools for Vertical Milling

Fig. 5.6: End Mill Fig. 5.7: Rough Cut End Mill

44
 Fig. 5.8: Slot Drill Fig. 5.9: Face Milling Cutter

a. End Mills
Commonly used for facing, slotting, and profile milling.

b. Rough Cut End Mills

For rapid metal removal.

c. Slot Drills
For producing pockets without drilling a hole beforehand.

d. Face Milling Cutters

For heavy cutting.

Milling Processes
Milling is a metal removal process by means of using a rotating cutter having one or more
cutting teeth as illustrated in Fig. 10. The cutting action is carried out by feeding the workpiece
against the rotating cutter. Thus, the spindle speed, the table feed, the depth of cut, and the
rotating direction of the cutter become the main parameters of the process. Good results can
only be achieved with well-balanced settings of these parameters.

45
 Fig. 5.10: Milling Process

Direction of Cutter Rotation

Fig. 5.11: Up Milling Fig. 5.12: Down Milling

Up Milling
In up milling, the cutter rotates in a direction opposite to the table feed as illustrated in Fig. 11.
It is conventionally used in most milling operations because the backlash between the
leadscrew and the nut of the machine table can be eliminated.

Down Milling
In down milling, the cutter rotates in the same direction as the table feed as illustrated in Fig.
12. This method is also known as Climb Milling and can only be used on machines equipped
with a backlash eliminator or on a CNC milling machine. This method, when properly treated,
will require less power to feed the table and give a better surface finish.

46
Typical Milling Operations
• Plain Milling

Fig. 5.13: Plain Milling

Plain milling is the milling of a flat surface with the axis of the cutter parallel to the machining
surface. It can be carried out either on a horizontal machine or a vertical machine as shown in
Fig. 13.

• End Milling

Fig. 5.14: End Milling

End Milling is the milling of a flat surface with the axis of the cutter perpendicular to the
machining surface as shown in Fig. 14.

47
 • Gang Milling

Fig. 5.15: Gang Milling

Gang milling is a horizontal milling operation that utilizes three or more milling cutters grouped
together for the milling of a complex surface in one pass. As illustrated in Fig. 15, different
types and sizes of cutters should be selected to achieve the desired profile on the workpiece.

• Straddle Milling

Fig. 5.16: Straddle Milling

In straddle milling, a group of spacers is mounted between two sides and face milling cutters
on the spindle arbor as shown in Fig. 16 for the milling of two surfaces parallel to each other at
a given distance.

Milling Cutter Property:

• High hardness and appreciably more than the workpiece hardness
• High hot hardness to withstand the hardness at elevated temperature
• High toughness to withstand shock load
• Large resistance to wear
• High thermal conductivity and specific heat

48
Milling Cutter Materials:
Tool Steels
Cast Tool Materials
Cemented Carbides
Stellite

Industrial Applications
Milling machines are widely used in the tool and die-making industry and are commonly
used in the manufacturing industry for the production of a wide range of components.
Typical examples are the milling of flat surfaces, indexing, gear cutting, as well as the
cutting of slots and keyways.

49
 Experiment No 5: Milling Operation

Aim: To make a slot on a given aluminium workpiece.

Material Given: An aluminium plate of size 50× 50 × 6 mm – 1 No

Tools required:

Procedure:

50
Drawings:

1. Original Work piece

2. Final Work piece

51
Conclusion:

52
 6. Grinding
"Grinding" is a process where an abrasive material, such as a grinding wheel or abrasive belt,
removes small amounts of material from a workpiece. This method achieves precise
dimensions, tight tolerances, and a smooth surface finish on various materials, including
metals, ceramics, plastics, and composites.
Grinding is a fundamental and versatile manufacturing technique used in industries like
aerospace, automotive, medical devices, and tool and die manufacturing.

▪ Grinding Machine
A grinding machine (shown Fig. 6.1) is a machine tool used to remove a workpiece's rough
surface with the help of a rotating abrasive wheel that acts as a tool.

Fig. 6.1: Grinding Machine

▪ Working of Grinding Machine

It works to the action of rubbing or friction between the abrasive particles and workpiece
material. Due to this, the workpiece is fed against the rotating abrasive wheel to remove
material in the form of very small chips.

53
▪ Parts of Grinding Machine

Fig. 6.2: Parts of Grinding Machine

1. Wheel: The wheel made from an abrasive compound is used for abrasive machining
operations. They are generally made from a coarse–particle aggregate composite material. It may
also be made from a solid steel or aluminum disc with particles bonded to the surface.
2. Wheel Head: This is mounted on the column on the back of the machine. It has vertical slides
that can raise or lower with the grinding wheel or a rotating hand wheel to accommodate
workpieces of different heights and set the wheel for the depth of cut.
3. Base: It has a column at the back for supporting the wheel-head. It also contains the drive
mechanisms.
4. Saddle: It mounts directly on the top of the base. It moves on hardened ways supported by
antifriction ball bearings. It also provides the means for moving the workpiece.
5. Table: It moves on a top base which is mounted over the saddle. It can be swiveled which
enables the operator to grind tapers.
6. Headstock: Headstock supports the workpiece by means of a dead center and as well as drives
it by means of a dog, or it may hold and drive the workpiece in a chuck.
7. Tail Stock: It can adjust and clamp in various positions to accommodate different lengths of
work pieces.
8. Cross-feed: It feeds the workpiece by the engagement of the cross-feed control lever through
hand or power.

• Operation of Grinding Machines

There are two types of grinding operations are as follows:

54
1. Rough or non-precision grinding
2. Precision grinding

1. Rough or non-precision grinding:

• The common forms of rough grinding are snagging and off-hand grinding where the work is
held in the operator’s hand.
• The work is squeezed hard against the wheel, or vice-versa. The accuracy and surface finish
obtained are of secondary importance.
• Snagging is done where a considerable amount of metal is removed without regard to the
accuracy of the finished surface.
• Examples of snag grinding are trimming the surface left by sprues and risers on castings,
grinding the parting line left on castings, removing flash on forgings, the excess metal on
welds, cracks, as well as imperfections on alloy steel billets.

2. Precision grinding:
• Precision is concerned with producing a good surface finish and a high degree of accuracy.
• The wheel and the workpiece both are guided in precise paths.

• Principal of Grinding Operation

Principal operation includes the grinding of external and internal cylindrical grinding, tapered
and formed surfaces, gear teeth, threads, and others using appropriate wheels and fixtures for
each job which may be done on grinding machines. These are explained below:
1. Tapered surfaces
For First Method:
• Adjust the Table: Set the table of the grinding machine to the desired taper angle of the
workpiece. This alignment ensures that the workpiece is positioned correctly for the taper
to be ground accurately.
• Align the Wheel Head: Adjust the wheel head to match the taper angle of the workpiece.
This alignment is crucial for ensuring that the grinding wheel contacts the workpiece at the
correct angle to produce the desired taper.
• Clamp the Workpiece: Secure the workpiece in the headstock using a chuck. This setup
stabilizes the workpiece during the grinding process, allowing for precise and consistent
tapering.

55
For Second Method:

• The longitudinal feed is obtained by the axial motion of the wheel.

• The external taper surfaces is to true the face of the sheet to the required taper.
• The internal tapered surface is ground on centreless machines by swiveling the housing and
the workpiece to the taper angle.

2. Formed surface
• They are finished on cylindrical and surface grinding machines.
• A typical formed surface grinding is the grinding of bed ways of complex cross-sections.

3. Gear Teeth
• The teeth of gears are ground on gear grinding machines either by the generating process
or by a forming process in which formed wheels are used.
• The generating process makes use of two saucer-shaped grinding wheels, whereas in the
formed wheel grinding of gear, a special fixture is used.

4. Threaded Surface
• Thread grinding is done on thread grinding machines with either single or multiple rib
wheels.
• In the grinding of external thread with a multiple rib wheel the work is mounted between
centers and is rotated at a definite speed.

• Types of Grinding Machines

Here are some of the most common types of grinding machines:

Surface Grinding Machine: This type of grinding machine is used to produce a smooth, flat
surface on a workpiece. It uses a horizontally rotating grinding wheel to remove material from
the surface of the workpiece.

Cylindrical Grinding Machine: Cylindrical grinders are used to grind the external or internal
cylindrical surfaces of a workpiece. They are commonly used for producing precision parts
such as shafts, bearings, and cylinders.

Centerless Grinding Machine: Centerless grinders do not require a center mount for the

56
workpiece, making them suitable for processing long, thin workpieces with consistent outer
diameters. They are often used in high-volume production settings.

Internal Grinding Machine: Internal grinders are used to grind the inner surfaces of
cylindrical workpieces. They are commonly employed for producing precise bores and holes
in parts.

Tool and Cutter Grinding Machine: This type of grinding machine is used for sharpening and
reconditioning cutting tools and drill bits. It can grind various types of tools to precise geometries.

Thread Grinding Machine: Thread grinders are specialized machines designed to create
precision threads on workpieces. They are commonly used in the production of threaded fasteners
and threaded components.

Gear Grinding Machine: Gear grinders are used to produce precision gears of various types,
including spur gears, helical gears, and bevel gears. These machines ensure accurate gear tooth
profiles and spacing.

Creep Feed Grinding Machine: Creep feed grinders are designed for heavy-duty material
removal. They use a deep cut and slow feed rates to remove material efficiently, often in a single
pass.

Surface and Profile Grinding Machine: These machines can simultaneously grind both the
surface and the contour or profile of a workpiece. They are used for producing complex shapes
and profiles with high precision.

Blade Grinding Machine: Blade grinders are used to sharpen blades for cutting applications,
such as those used in the woodworking and paper industries.

Jig Grinding Machine: Jig grinders are specialized machines used for precise hole and surface
grinding operations. They are often used in tool and die-making and mold-making industries.

Belt Grinding Machine: Belt grinders use abrasive belts to remove material from a workpiece.
They are versatile machines commonly used for deburring, shaping, and finishing applications.
57
Pedestal Grinding Machine: These are stationary machines with a pedestal or base. They are
commonly used for rough grinding operations on small to medium-sized workpieces.

Portable Grinding Machine: Portable or handheld grinders are small, portable machines that
can be carried to the workpiece. They are commonly used for tasks like cutting, grinding, and
polishing in various industries.

• Advantages of Grinding Machine Operations

▪ Grinding can produce a high surface finish with good accuracy.
▪ Grinding can easily machine hard materials.
▪ The operation can be performed with less pressure applied to the workpiece.
▪ Operator can obtain highly accurate dimensions.
▪ Grinding can also work at high temperatures.
▪ The process can achieve high cutting speeds, contributing to efficient material removal
and increased productivity.
▪ It can also operate for complex things.
▪ Smooth surface and flat surface can be obtained.

• Disadvantages of Grinding Machine Operations

▪ The cost of tooling is high.
▪ The process is also costly.
▪ This process cannot remove a high amount of material, they can only remove a small
amount of material.
▪ It consumes more time for removing the required material from the workpiece.
▪ Imperfect contact may lead to damage.

58
 Experiment 6 - Grinding

Aim: To grind an aluminium plate and create a fillet on one of its corners.

Material required:

Tools required

The sequence of operations:

Procedure:

Drawing

59
Conclusion

60
 7. 3D Printing
The term digital fabrication technology, also referred to as 3D printing or additive
manufacturing takes digital input in the form of CAD (computer-aided design) & creates a
three-dimensional object. It is done in a variety of processes in which material is deposited,
joined, or solidified under computer control, with the material being added together, typically
layer by layer.

1. Working of 3D printing
The basic principle of 3D printing involves creating an object by adding material layer by
layer. The process includes the following steps:
• Design: A digital 3D model is created using computer-aided design (CAD) software or
obtained through 3D scanning.
• Slicing: The 3D model is divided into thin horizontal layers using slicing software. This
software generates instructions for the 3D printer to deposit material layer by layer.
• Printing & Layering: The 3D printer reads the instructions and starts depositing material,
which can be plastic, metal, ceramics, resins, or even food ingredients, depending on the
type of printer. Then it builds up the object layer by layer, with each layer fusing to the
previous one. This process continues until the entire object is created.

61
2. Types of 3D Printing:
• Binder jetting: Binder jetting is a rapid prototyping and 3D printing process in which a
liquid binding agent is selectively deposited to join powder particles. The binder jetting
technology uses jet chemical binder onto the spread powder to form the layer. The
application of the binder jetting would be producing the casting patterns, raw sintered
products, or similar large-volume products from the sand. Binder jetting can print a variety
of materials including metals, sands, polymers, hybrid, and ceramics. Moreover, the
process of binder jettingis simple, fast, and cheap as powder particles are glued together.
Also, it can print huge products.
• Directed energy deposition: It is a more complex printing process commonly used to repair
or add additional material to existing components. Directed energy deposition has a high
degree of control of grain structure and can produce a good quality of the product. The
process of directed energy deposition is similar in principle to material extrusion, but the
nozzle is not fixed to a specific axis and can move in multiple directions. Furthermore, the
process can be used with ceramics, and polymers but is typically used with metals and
metal-based hybrids, in the form of either wire or powder. Examples of this technology are
laser deposition and laser-engineered net shaping (LENS). Laser deposition is an emerging
technology that can produce, or repair parts measured in millimeters to meters. Laser
deposition technology is gaining attraction in the tooling, transportation, aerospace, and oil
and gas sectors because it can provide scalability and diverse capabilities in a single system.
Meanwhile, laser LENS can exploit thermal energy for melting during the casting, and
parts are accomplished subsequently.

• Materials extrusion: It can be used to print multi-materials and multi-color plastics

(thermoplastics), ceramics, concrete, food, or living cells. This process has been widely
used and the costs are very low. Moreover, this process can build fully functional parts
of t h e product. Fused deposition modeling (FDM) is the first example of a material
extrusion system.
o Principal of FDM: Thermoplastic filament is fed into a heated nozzle where the plastic
is melted. The melted plastic is then extruded from the nozzle, with the print head being
controlled to enable the formation of layers by fusing extruded lines and then to form
3D objects by the fusing of layers. To achieve this the temperature must be controlled
to enable the fusion of adjacent lines & layers without excessive heating to introduce
material degradation and/or loss of geometric control.

62
• Materials jetting: It is a 3D printing process in which drop by drop of build material are
selectively deposited. In material jetting, a printhead dispenses droplets of a photosensitive
material that solidifies, building a part layer-by-layer under ultraviolet (UV) light. At the
same time, material jetting creates parts with a very smooth surface finish and high
dimensional accuracy. Multi-material printing and a wide range of materials such as
polymers, ceramics, composite, biologicals, and hybrid are available in material jetting.
• Powder bed fusion: The powder bed fusion process includes electron beam melting
(EBM), selective laser sintering (SLS), andselective heat sintering (SHS) printing
techniques. This method uses either an electron beam or laser to melt or fuse the material
powder together. Examples of the materials used in this process are metals, ceramics,
polymers, composites, and hybrids. Selective laser sintering (SLS) is the main example of
powder-based 3D printing technology. SLS is a 3D printing technology that functions in
fast speed, has high accuracy, and varies surface finish. Selective laser sintering can be
used to create metal, plastic, and ceramic objects. SLS used a high-power laser to sinter
polymer powders to generate a 3D product. Meanwhile, SHS technology uses a
thermal head to melt the thermoplastic powder to create 3D-printed objects.
Lastly, electron beam melting enhances an energy source to heat the material.
• Sheet lamination: It is the 3D printing process in which sheets of materials are bonded
together to produce a part of the object. The example of 3D printing technology that uses
this process are laminated object manufacturing (LOM) and ultrasound additive
manufacturing (UAM). The advantages of this process are that sheet lamination can do
full-color prints. It is relatively inexpensive, easy for material handling and excess material
can be recycled. Laminated object manufacturing (LOM) is capable of manufacturing
complicated geometrical parts with lower cost of fabrication and less operational time.
Ultrasound additive manufacturing (UAM) is an innovative process technology that uses
sound to merge layers of metal drawn from featureless foil stock.
• Vat Photopolymerization: The main 3D printing technique that is frequently used is
photopolymerization, which in general refers to the curing of photo-reactive polymers by
using laser light, or ultraviolet (UV). The example of 3D printing technologies by using
photopolymerization is stereolithography (SLA) and digital light processing (DLP). In the
SLA, it was influenced by the photo initiator and the irradiate exposure to particular
conditions as well as any dyes, pigments, or other added UV absorbers. Meanwhile, digital
light processing is a similar process to stereolithography that works with photopolymers.

63
 The light source is a major difference. Digital Light Processing uses a more conventional
light source, such as an arc lamp with a liquid crystal display panel. It can apply to the
whole surface of the vat of photopolymer resin in a single pass, generally making it faster
than stereolithography. The important parameters of VAT photopolymerization are the
time of exposure, wavelength, and the amount of power supply. The materials used initially
are liquid and they will harden when the liquid is exposed to ultraviolet light.
Photopolymerization is suitable for making a premium product with good details and a
high-quality surface.

3. Some common types of 3D printing materials:

• PLA (Polylactic Acid): It is relatively stiff and can produce objects with a smooth surface
finish, making it great for prototypes and decorative items. However, it's not as heat
resistant as some other materials.

• ABS (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene): ABS is a tougher and more heat-resistant material
than PLA. It's commonly used for functional parts, as it can withstand higher temperatures
and has good impact resistance.
• PETG (Polyethylene Terephthalate Glycol): PETG combines the durability of ABS with
the ease of printing of PLA. It's known for its strength, flexibility, and resistance to
moisture.
• Nylon: Nylon offers excellent strength, flexibility, and durability, making it suitable for
engineering applications. It has good resistanceto wear and abrasion, making it a preferred
choice for functional partssubject to stress.
• TPU (Thermoplastic Polyurethane): TPU is a flexible and rubber-like material that
produces objects requiring elasticity and impact resistance, such as phone cases, shoe soles,
and gaskets.
• Polycarbonate: Polycarbonate is a strong, impact-resistant material with high heat
resistance. It's used to produce parts that must withstand harsh conditions or create
transparent objects with high optical clarity.
• Metal Filaments: These are composite materials that combine metal powders (e.g., stainless
steel, bronze, copper) with a polymer binder. The resulting prints can be post-processed to
achieve a metallic finish.
• Wood PLA: This filament contains a percentage of wood fibers, resulting in prints with a
wood-like texture and appearance. It's often used for decorative objects.

64
• ASA (Acrylonitrile Styrene Acrylate): Similar to ABS but with better UV resistance and
weathering properties, making it suitable for outdoor applications.
• HIPS (High Impact Polystyrene): Often used as a support material for ABS, HIPS dissolves
in Limonene solution, leaving the main ABS part intact.
• PVA (Polyvinyl Alcohol): PVA is water-soluble and used as a support material for
complex prints, especially in dual-extruder printers. Itdissolves in water, leaving behind
the main print.

• Carbon Fiber Filaments: These combine PLA or other polymers with carbon fiber,
resulting in stronger and stiffer prints than typical filaments.
• Glow-in-the-Dark Filaments: These filaments contain phosphorescentmaterials that absorb
light and emit it in the dark, creating a glowing effect.

4. Applications
• Aerospace industry: In the aerospace industry, 3D printing technology has the potential to
make lightweight parts, and improved and complex geometries, which can reduce energy
requirements and resources. Use of 3D printing technology, can lead to fuel savings
because it can reduce the material used to produce aerospace parts.
• Automotive industry: The technology is used to create prototypes, customized parts, and
even entire vehicles in some cases.
• Automotive: The technology is used to create prototypes, customized parts, and even entire
vehicles in some cases.
• Fashion: Designers are exploring 3D printing to create intricate and unique fashion pieces.
• Art and Architecture: Artists and architects use 3D printing to create sculptures, intricate
models, and even full-scale buildings.

65
 Experiment 7 – 3D Printing

Aim: To 3D print the geometry by modeling.

Material required:

Tools required

Sequence of operations:

Procedure:

66
Drawing

Conclusion

67
FURTHER READING

1. Manufacturing Science, Amitabha Ghosh and Ashok Kumar Mallik

2. Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, S. Kalpakjian, Pearson

Education India, 2013.

3. Elements of Workshop Technology (Vol. 1-2), S.K. Hajra Choudhury and

A.K.Hajra Choudhury, Media Promoters and Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 2010.

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