45

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.
3-The cell division
Cell Cycle
The increased size and more complex organization of eukaryotic genomes
over those of bacteria required radical changes in the process by which the
two replicas of the genome are partitioned into the daughter cells during cell
division. This division process is diagrammed as a cell cycle, consisting of
five phases .
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The Five Phases

1-G1 is the primary growth phase of the cell. For many organisms, this
encompasses the major portion of the cell’s life span.
2-S is the phase in which the cell synthesizes a replica of the genome .
3-G2 is the second growth phase, in which preparations are made for
genomic separation. During this phase, mitochondria and other organelles
replicate, chromosomes condense, and microtubules begin to assemble at a
spindle. G1, S, and G2 together constitute interphase, the portion of the cell
cycle between cell divisions.
4-M is the phase of the cell cycle in which the microtubular apparatus
assembles, binds to the chromosomes, and moves the sister chromatids apart.
Called mitosis, this process is the essential step in the separation of the two
daughter genomes. We will discuss mitosis as it occurs in animals and
plants, where the process does not vary much (it is somewhat different
among fungi and some protists).
Although mitosis is a continuous process, it is traditionally subdivided into
four stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase,and telophase.
5-C is the phase of the cell cycle when the cytoplasm divides, creating two
daughter cells. This phase is called cytokinesis. In animal cells, the
microtubule spindle helps position a contracting ring of actin that constricts
like a drawstring to pinch the cell in two. In cells with acell wall, such as
plant cells, a plate forms between the dividing cells.
mitosis
mitosis Nuclear division in which replicated chromosomes separate to form
two genetically identical daughter nuclei. When accompanied by
cytokinesis, it produces two identical daughter cells.
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Prophase:
When the chromosome condensation initiated in G2 phase reaches the point
at which individual condensed chromosomes first become visible with the
light microscope . Ribosomal RNA synthesis ceases when the portion of the
chromosome bearing the rRNA genes is condensed.
the nuclear envelope breaks down and the endoplasmic reticulum reabsorbs
its components.
Metaphase:
The second stage of mitosis, metaphase, is the phase where the
chromosomes align in the center of the cell. When viewed with a light
microscope, the chromosomes appear to array themselves in a circle along
the inner circumference of the cell, as the equator girdles the earth .
Anaphase and Telophase: Separation of the Chromatids and Reformation
of the Nuclei Of all the stages of mitosis, anaphase is the shortest and the
most beautiful to watch. It starts when the centromeres divide. Each
centromere splits in two, freeing the two sister chromatids from each other.
The centromeres of all the chromosomes separate simultaneously, but the
mechanism that achieves this synchrony is not known.
Freed from each other, the sister chromatids are pulled rapidly toward the
poles to which their kinetochores are attached.
When the sister chromatids separate in anaphase, the accurate partitioning of
the replicated genome—the essential element of mitosis—is complete. In
telophase, the spindle apparatus disassembles, as the microtubules are
broken down into tubulin monomers that can be used to construct the
cytoskeletons of the daughter cells. A nuclear envelope forms around each
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set of sister chromatids, which can now be called chromosomes because

each has its own centromere.
Cytokinesis
Mitosis is complete at the end of telophase. The eukaryotic cell has
partitioned its replicated genome into two nuclei positioned at opposite ends
of the cell. While mitosis was going on, the cytoplasmic organelles,
including mitochondria and chloroplasts (if present), were reassorted to
areas that will separate and become the daughter cells. The replication
of organelles takes place before cytokinesis, often in the S or G2 phase. Cell
division is still not complete at the end of mitosis, however, because the
division of the cell proper has not yet begun. The phase of the cell cycle
when the cell actually divides is called cytokinesis. It generally involves the
cleavage of the cell into roughly equal halves.

Cytokinesis in Animal Cells

In animal cells and the cells of all other eukaryotes that lack cell walls,
cytokinesis is achieved by means of a constricting belt of actin filaments. As
these filaments slide past one another, the diameter of the belt decreases,
pinching the cell and creating a cleavage furrow around the cell’s
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circumference . As constriction proceeds, the furrowdeepens until it

eventually slices all the way into the center of the cell. At this point, the cell
is divided in two.
Cytokinesis in Plant Cells
Plant cells possess a cell wall far too rigid to be squeezed in two by actin
filaments. Instead, these cells assemble membrane components in their
interior, at right angles to the spindle apparatus . This expanding membrane
partition, called a cell plate, continues to grow outward until it reaches the
interior surface of the plasma membrane and fuses with it, effectively
dividing the cell in two.
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Meiosis
Meiosis is a process of cell division in which the number of chromosomes in
certain cells is halved during gamete formation. In the sexual life cycle,
there is an alternation of diploid and haploid generations. Meiosis produces
haploid cells from diploid cells.
somatic cells of adult individuals, making them diploid cells , but only one
set is present in the gametes, which are thus haploid .Reproduction that
involves this alternation of meiosis and fertilization is called sexual
reproduction.
Prophase I
In prophase I of meiosis, the DNA coils tighter, and individual chromosomes
first become visible under the light microscope as a matrix of fine threads.
Because the DNA has already replicated before the onset of meiosis, each of
these threads actually consists of two sister chromatids joined at their
centromeres.
Synapsis is the close pairing of homologous chromosomes that takes place
early in prophase I of meiosis. Crossing over occurs between the paired
DNA strands, creating the chromosomal configurations known as chiasmata.
The two homologues are locked together by these exchanges and they do not
disengage readily.
Metaphase I
By metaphase I, the second stage of meiosis I, the nuclear envelope has
dispersed and the microtubules form a spindle, just as in mitosis.
Completing Meiosis
After the long duration of prophase and metaphase, which together make up
90% or more of the time meiosis I takes, meiosis I rapidly concludes.
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Anaphase I and telophase I proceed quickly, followed—without an

intervening period of DNA synthesis—by the second meiotic division.
The Second Meiotic Division
After a typically brief interphase, in which no DNA synthesis occurs, the
second meiotic division begins. Meiosis II resembles a normal mitotic
division. ProphaseII, metaphase II, anaphase II, and telophase II follow in
quick succession.

Tissue ,organs and systems

Tissues
Groups of cells similar in structure and function are organized into tissues.
Types of Epithelial Tissues
1-Simple epithelial membranes are one cell layer thick. A simple,
squamous epithelium is composed of squamous epithelial cells that have an
irregular, flattened shape with tapered edges. Such membranes line the lungs
and blood capillaries.
2-Stratified epithelial membranes are several cell layers
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The glands of vertebrates are derived from invaginated epithelium. In

exocrine glands, the connection between the gland and the epithelial
membrane is maintained as a duct. Endocrine glands are ductless glands.

2-Connective Tissue Proper

two major classes:
connective tissue proper, which is further divided into loose and dense
connective tissues; and special connective tissues that include cartilage,
bone, and blood.
This extracellular material is generically known as the matrix of the tissue.
In bone, the extracellular matrix contains crystals that make the bones hard;
in blood, the extracellular matrix is plasma, the fluid portion
of the blood.
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Loose connective tissue consists of cells scattered within an amorphous

mass of proteins that form a ground substance. The cells that secrete
collagen and other fibrous proteins are known as fibroblasts.
Special Connective Tissues
Special connective tissues each have a unique extracellular matrix between
cells. The matrix of cartilage is composed of organic material, whereas that
of bone is impregnated with calcium phosphate crystals. The matrix of blood
is fluid, the plasma.
The special connective tissues—cartilage, bone, and blood—each have
unique cells and extracellular matrices that allow them to perform their
specialized functions.

Muscle Tissue
Muscle cells are the motors of the vertebrate body.
1-striated muscles : Are Skeletal and cardiac muscles are their cells have
transverse stripes when viewed in longitudinal section under the microscope.
The contraction of each skeletal muscle is under voluntary control, whereas
the contraction of cardiac and smooth muscles is generally involuntary
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2-Smooth Muscle
known as visceral muscle. Smooth muscle tissue is organized into sheets of
long, spindle-shaped cells, each cell containing a single nucleus.

Nerve Tissue
The fourth major class of vertebrate tissue is nerve tissue Its cells include
neurons and neuroglia, or supporting cells. Neurons are specialized to
produce and conduct electrochemical events, or “impulses.” Each neuron
consists of three parts: cell body, dendrites, and axon .The cell body of a
neuron contains the nucleus. Dendrites are thin, highly branched extensions
that receive incoming stimulation and conduct electric events to the cell
body. As a result of this stimulation and the electric events produced in the
cell body, outgoing impulses may be produced at the origin of the axon. The
axon is a single extension of cytoplasm that conducts impulses away from
the cell body. Some axons can be quite long.
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Organization of the Body. Cells are organized into tissues, and tissues are
organized into organs. Several organs can cooperate to form organ systems.
Organs and Organ Systems
Organs are body structures composed of several different tissues that form a
structural and functional unit . An organ system is a group of organs that
function together to carry out the major activities of the body.

1 2 3 4

1-Organ system 2- Organ 3-Tissue 4 - Cell

Levels of organization within the body. Similar cell types operate together and form
tissues. Tissues functioning together form organs. Several organs working together to
carry out a function for the body are called an organ system. The circulatory system is
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an example of an organ system.

System Functions Components

Transports cells, respiratory gases, and Heart, blood vessels, lymph,

Circulatory chemical compounds throughout the and lymph.
body.

Digestive
Captures soluble nutrients from
Mouth, esophagus, stomach,
ingested food Coordinates and
intestines, liver, and pancreas
integrates the activities of the body.

Endocrine Coordinates and integrates the

activities of the body. Pituitary, adrenal, thyroid, and
other ductless glands .

Muscular
Produces body movement .
Skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle,
and smooth muscle.

Receives stimuli, integrates

Nervous Nerves, sense organs, brain, and
information, and directs the body.
spinal cord .

Reproductive Carries out reproduction.

Testes, ovaries, and associated
reproductive structures.

Lungs, trachea, gills, and other

Respiratory air passageways.
Captures oxygen and exchanges gases.
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Skeletal Bones, cartilage, and ligaments.
Protects the body and provides support
for locomotion and movement.

Urinary Kidney, bladder, and associated

Removes metabolic wastes from the
bloodstream ducts

Plant tissue

Plants have three basic tissues, each composed of several cell types.

Dermal Tissue
Epidermal cells, which originate from the protoderm, cover all parts of the
primary plant body. A number of types of specialized cells occur in the
epidermis, including guard cells, trichomes, and root hairs.
Guard cells are paired sausage- or dumbbell-shaped cells flanking a stoma
(plural, stomata), a mouthshaped epidermal opening . Guard cells,
unlike other epidermal cells, contain chloroplasts. Stomata occur in the
epidermis of leaves
Ground Tissue
Parenchyma
Parenchyma cells, which have large vacuoles, thin walls, and an average of
14 sides at maturity, are the most common type of plant cell. They are the
most abundant cells of primary tissues and may also occur, to a much lesser
extent, in secondary tissues . Most parenchyma cells have only primary
walls, which are walls laid down while the cells are still maturing.
Parenchyma are less specialized than other plant cells, although there are
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many variations that do have special functions such as nectar and resin
secretion, or storage of latex, proteins, and metabolic wastes.
Parenchyma cells, which have functional nuclei and are capable of dividing,
commonly also store food and water, and usually remain alive after they
mature; in some plants (for example, cacti . Some parenchyma contain
chloroplasts, especially in leaves and in the outer parts of herbaceous stems.
Such photosynthetic parenchyma tissue is called
chlorenchyma.
Collenchyma
Collenchyma cells, like parenchyma cells, have living protoplasts and may
live for many years. The cells, which are usually a little longer than wide,
have walls that vary in thickness (figure 38.12b). Collenchyma cells, which
are relatively flexible, provide support for plant organs, allowing them to
bend without breaking. They often form strands or continuous cylinders
beneath the epidermis of stems or leaf petioles (stalks) and along the veins in
leaves. Strands of collenchyma provide much of the support for stems in
which secondary growth has not taken place.
Sclerenchyma
Sclerenchyma cells have tough, thick walls; they usually lack living
protoplasts when they are mature. Their secondary cell walls are often
impregnated with lignin, a highly branched polymer that makes cell walls
more rigid.
Cell walls containing lignin are said to be lignified. Lignin is common in the
walls of plant cells that have a supporting or mechanical function. Some
kinds of cells have lignin deposited in primary as well as secondary cell
walls.
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There are two types of sclerenchyma: fibers and sclereids.

Fibers are long, slender cells that are usually grouped together in strands.
Linen, for example, is woven from strands of sclerenchyma fibers that occur
in the phloem of flax.
Sclereids are variable in shape but often branched. They may occur singly or
in groups; they are not elongated, but may have various forms, including that
of a star.
Both of Fibers and Sclereids tough, thick-walled cell types serve to
strengthen the tissues in which they occur.

Vascular Tissue
Xylem
Xylem, the principal water-conducting tissues of plants, usually contains a
combination of vessels, which are continuous tubes formed from dead,
hollow, cylindrical cells (vessel members) arranged end to end, and
tracheids, which are dead cells that taper at the ends and overlap one
another
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Phloem
Phloem, which is located toward the outer part of roots and stems, is the
principal food-conducting tissue in vascular plants. If a plant is girdled (by
removing a substantial strip of bark down to the vascular cambium), the
plant eventually dies from starvation of the roots. Food conduction in
phloem is carried out through two kinds of elongated cells: sieve cells and
sieve-tube members.

The organ system of plants

A vascular plant consists of a root system and a shoot system .

The root system
1-anchors the plantand penetrates the soil
2-which it absorbs water and ions crucial to the plant’s nutrition.
Most plants produce either a taproot system in which there is a single large
root with smaller branch roots, or a fibrous root system in which
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there are many smaller roots of similar diameter. Some plants, however,
have intriguing root modifications with specific functions in addition to
those of anchorage and absorption.
The shoot system
consists of the stems and their leaves.
1-The stem serves as a framework for positioning the leaves, the principal
sites of photosynthesis. The arrangement, size, and other features of the
leaves are of critical importance in the plant’s production of food.
2-Flowers, other reproductive organs, and, ultimately, fruits and seeds are
also formed on the shoot .
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The Structure of Flowers

Flowers are considered to be modified stems bearing modified leaves.
1-stalk called a pedicel. The pedicel expands slightly at the tip into a base.
2- the receptacle, to which the remaining flower parts are attached.
3- sepals The outermost whorl .In most flowers there are three to five sepals,
which are green and somewhat leaflike; they often function in protecting the
immature flower and in some.
4- petals species may drop off as the flower opens. The next whorl consists
of that are often colored and attract pollinators such as insects and birds. The
petals, which commonly number three to five, may be separate, fused
together, or missing altogether in wind-pollinated flowers.
5- stamens, collectively called the androecium Each stamen consists of a
pollen-bearing anther and a stalk called a filament, which may be missing
in some flowers.
6-The gynoecium, consisting of one or more carpels, is at the center of the
flower.
A carpel has three major regions .
a-The ovary is the swollen base, which contains from one to hundreds of
ovules; the ovary later develops into a fruit.
b-The tip of the pistil is called a stigma. Most stigmas are sticky or feathery,
causing pollen grains that land on them to adhere.
c-Typically there is a neck or stalk called a style connecting the stigma and
the ovary.
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 Chapter 4
Genetics
The Genetic Material
DNA
DNA stands for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid. That is, a nucleic acid with two sugars.
DNA is the hereditary material of cells and is considered the blueprint of life. DNA is
found in all kingdoms of life. Even most viruses have DNA. When someone says DNA,
they may be referring to one's genetic material on multiple levels: They may be
speaking about a single deoxyribose nucleic acid molecule, a section of a double helix,
a section of a chromosome, or one's entire hereditary composition.
DNA Structure
Nucleic acids are large polymers made of many repeating units called nucleotides. Each
nucleotide is composed of :
1-a sugar molecule
2- a phosphate group
3-a molecule called a nitrogenous base.

DNA nucleotides contain

1-one specific sugar
2- deoxyribose
3-one of four different nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), guanine (G),cytosine (C) and
thymine (T).

Protein Synthesis
DNA and RNA are both important in the protein-making process. In the cell, the DNA
nucleotides are used as a genetic alphabet, arranged in sets of three (e.g., ATC , GGA ,
TCA , CCC ) to form code words in the DNA language. It is the sequence of these code
words in DNA that dictates which amino acids are used, and the order in which they
appear in a protein. DNA molecules are very long and code for many proteins along
their length. Proteins are synthesized in two steps; transcription and translation .

Step One: Transcription—Making RNA

Transcription is the process of using DNA as a template (stencil) to synthesize RNA
(mRNA)
Step Two: Translation—Making Protein
Translation is the process of using the information in RNA to direct protein synthesis
by attaching amino acids to one another. The mRNA is read linearly in sets of three
nucleotides called codons . A codon is a set of three nucleotides that codes for the
placement of a specific amino acid. In the context of an mRNA molecule, For example,
the codon UUU corresponds to only the amino acid phenylalanine (Phe). There are 64
possible codons and only 20 commonly used amino acids.

A ribosome is made of proteins and a type of RNA called ribosomal RNA ( rRNA ).
The process of translation can be broken down into three basic steps: (1) initiation, (2)
elongation, and (3) termination.
Initiation
Protein synthesis begins with the small ribosomal subunit binding to a specific signal
sequence of codons on the mRNA. The small ribosomal subunit moves along the
mRNA and stops at the first AUG codon on the length of the RNA. This AUG codon is
where translation begins. If an AUG is not found, translation does not occur. At the first
AUG codon, the first amino acid (methionine, or MET) is positioned on the mRNA.

Elongation
Once protein synthesis is started, the ribosome coordinates a recurring series of events.
Each time the ribosome works through this series of events, a new amino acid is added
to the growing protein.

Termination
The ribosome will continue to add one amino acid after another to the growing protein
unless it encounters a stop signal .The stop signal, in the mRNA, is also a codon. The
stop codon can be either UAA, UAG, or UGA.
The mRNA can be used to make another copy of the protein or can be broken down by
the cell to prevent any more of the protein from being made.
Mutations
A mutation is any change in the DNA sequence of an organism. They can occur for
many reasons, including errors during DNA replication. Mutations can also be caused
by external factors, such as radiation, carcinogens, drugs, or even some viruses. It is
important to understand that not all mutations cause a change in an organism.

Genetic engineering
Genetic engineering generally involves four stages:
1-cleaving the source DNA.
2- making recombinants; cloning copies of the recombinants.
3- screening the cloned copies for the desired gene. Screening can be achieved by
making the desired clones resistant to certain antibiotics and giving them other
properties that make them readily identifiable.
Gregor Mendel
Mendel
• Discovered principle of genetic segregation via numerous experiments utilizing pea
plants.
Mendel’s seven pairs of traits
1. Seed form (round or wrinkled)
2. Cotyledon color (green or yellow)
3. Seed coat color (white or colored)
4. Pod form (inflated or constricted)
5. Pod color (green or yellow)
6. Flower position (axial or terminal)
7. Plant heights (tall or short)
Human genetic disorders
Down's Syndrome(Mongolism)
Down's Syndrome is usually produced by the nondisjunction of chromosome 21 during
oogenesis and sometimes during spermatogenesis. The individual suffering from this
type of syndrome has 47 chromosomes instead of the normal 46. The extra chromosome
is not a sex chromosome but an autosome.
Most cases of mongolism were found to occur in children born by women in their
forties. The affected children, called mongoloids, show mental retardation and have a
shorter life expectancy. Their most prominent feature is the Mongolian folds in their
eyes; hence, the term mongolism.
Klinefelter's Syndrome
Gregor Mendel and biological inheritanceWhen an XY-bearing sperm unites with an
X-bearing egg, the resulting condition is called Klinefelter's Syndrome, or sexually
undeveloped male. Individuals having the syndrome show the following characteristics:
• testes are small
• sperms are never produced
• breasts are enlarged
• body hair is sparse
• individuals are mentally defective
The same abnormal meiotic division may occur in females. They produce eggs with XX
or no sex chromosomes. Such egg, when fertilized by a Y-bearing sperm, will not
develop (YO). This is because YO is lethal--it will cause death to the offspring.