1.
Short Notes
a) Bitwise Operator
Operators that work on binary representations of data. Examples:
• AND (&): Sets bits where both operands are 1.
• OR (|): Sets bits where at least one operand is 1.
• XOR (^): Toggles bits where operands differ.
• NOT (~): Inverts bits.
• Left Shift (<<): Shifts bits to the left.
• Right Shift (>>): Shifts bits to the right.
b) Structure and Union
• Structure: Collection of variables (of different types) grouped under a single name.
Example:
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struct Point {
int x, y;
};
• Union: Similar to structure, but shares memory for all members.
Example:
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union Data {
int i;
float f;
};
c) Pre-Processor
Directives processed before compilation. Common ones:
• #include (file inclusion)
• #define (macro definition)
• #if, #else, #endif (conditional compilation)
d) Switch Case
Control statement for multi-way branching.
Example:
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switch(choice) {
case 1: printf("One"); break;
case 2: printf("Two"); break;
default: printf("Other");
e) Array of Structure
An array where each element is a structure.
Example:
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struct Point arr[10];
f) Dynamic Memory Allocation
Allocating memory at runtime using malloc, calloc, or realloc.
Example:
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int *ptr = (int*)malloc(5 * sizeof(int));
g) Pointer Arithmetic
Operations on pointers, such as increment (++), decrement (--), or subtraction.
Example:
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int arr[] = {10, 20, 30};
int *p = arr;
p++; // Now points to arr[1].
h) Pointer to Pointer
A pointer storing the address of another pointer.
Example:
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int x = 10, *p = &x, **pp = &p;
2. Differences
a) break vs continue
• break: Exits the loop or switch entirely.
• continue: Skips the remaining code in the current iteration.
b) while vs do-while
• while: Checks the condition first.
• do-while: Executes the block at least once.
c) Recursion vs Iteration
• Recursion: Function calls itself.
• Iteration: Loops to repeat code.
d) Array vs Structure
• Array: Collection of elements of the same type.
• Structure: Collection of elements of different types.
e) Structure vs Union
• Structure: Each member has separate memory.
• Union: Members share the same memory.
f) Call by Value vs Call by Reference
• Call by Value: Copies values; original data unchanged.
• Call by Reference: Passes address; modifies original data.
g) malloc vs calloc
• malloc: Allocates uninitialized memory.
• calloc: Allocates memory and initializes it to zero.
3. Theory/Descriptive
Algorithm
Step-by-step procedure to solve a problem.
Characteristics: Finiteness, Definiteness, Input/Output, Effectiveness.
Advantage of 2’s Complement over 1’s Complement
• Single representation for zero.
• Simpler arithmetic operations.
Storage Classes
Define variable scope, lifetime, and linkage.
Examples: auto, static, register, extern.
Functions and Advantages
Reusable code blocks.
Example:
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int add(int a, int b) { return a + b; }
Advantages: Code reusability, readability.
Dynamic Memory Allocation
Allocates memory at runtime, enabling efficient use of memory.
Functions: malloc, calloc, realloc, free.
4. Programs
a) Factorial (Normal/Recursion)
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int factorial(int n) {
if (n == 0) return 1;
return n * factorial(n - 1);
b) Leap Year Check
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if((year % 4 == 0 && year % 100 != 0) || (year % 400 == 0)) printf("Leap Year");
c) Fibonacci Series
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int fib(int n) {
if (n <= 1) return n;
return fib(n - 1) + fib(n - 2);
d) Prime Numbers in a Range
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for(int i = start; i <= end; i++) {
if(isPrime(i)) printf("%d ", i);
e) Palindrome Check (String)
c
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int isPalindrome(char str[]) {
int i = 0, j = strlen(str) - 1;
while(i < j) if(str[i++] != str[j--]) return 0;
return 1;
f) GCD Using Recursion
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int gcd(int a, int b) {
return (b == 0) ? a : gcd(b, a % b);
g) File Operations
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FILE *file = fopen("test.txt", "r");
if(file) {
char line[100];
while(fgets(line, sizeof(line), file)) printf("%s", line);
fclose(file);
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