Module-3

SEISMIC-RESISTANT BUILDING ARCHITECTURE

1. INTRODUCTION

Earthquake-resistant or aseismic structures are designed to protect buildings to some or

greater extent from earthquakes. While no structure can be entirely impervious to earthquake
damage, the goal of earthquake engineering is to erect structures that fare better
during seismic activity than their conventional counterparts. According to building codes,
earthquake-resistant structures are intended to withstand the largest earthquake of a certain
probability that is likely to occur at their location. This means the loss of life should be
minimized by preventing collapse of the buildings for rare earthquakes while the loss of the
functionality should be limited for more frequent ones.

2. LATERAL LOAD RESISTING SYSTEMS

A lateral load resisting system (LFRS) is a structural assembly that transfers horizontal forces,
such as those from wind or seismic activity, from a building to its foundation:
LFRS systems are made up of horizontal and vertical elements that are connected to transfer
forces. The lateral system is one of the two primary structural systems in a building, along with
the gravity system.
Some common types of LFRS systems include:

1) Moment resisting frame

2) Building with shear wall
3) Bearing wall system
4) Braced frames
5) Building with dual system

1) Moment Resisting Frame

A Moment-Resisting Frame (MRF) is a structural system specifically designed to
withstand lateral loads, such as those from wind or seismic activity, through the bending
strength and stiffness of beams and columns rather than through diagonal bracing or shear
walls. In MRFs, the joints between beams and columns are designed to be rigid, allowing the
frame to act as a single unit that can resist bending moments.
Key Features of Moment-Resisting Frames:

1. Rigid Joints: The connections between beams and columns are fixed or rigid to resist
rotation. This rigidity enables the frame to resist lateral forces through bending rather
than just vertical support.
2. Ductility and Energy Dissipation: Moment-resisting frames are designed to flex under
extreme forces, allowing them to dissipate energy, especially important in seismic zones.
This flexibility helps prevent catastrophic failure during earthquakes.
3. “Strong Column-Weak Beam” Design: This concept ensures that beams will yield and
deform before columns do. By protecting the columns, this approach helps prevent
collapse of the structure.
4. Application in High-Rise and Seismic-Resistant Buildings: MRFs are particularly
suited to buildings that require resistance to lateral forces while also maintaining
flexibility, making them common in medium-to-high-rise structures and areas prone to
earthquakes.
5. No Need for Shear Walls or Bracing: Unlike braced frames or shear wall systems,
MRFs do not require additional lateral systems for stability, making them suitable for
open floor plans.

Advantages:

 Provides high ductility, crucial for earthquake-resistant design.

 Allows for more architectural flexibility due to the absence of walls or braces.
 Effective in dissipating energy during dynamic events, such as earthquakes.

Disadvantages:

 Higher construction costs due to complex joints and reinforcement.

 More challenging to design, as it requires careful detailing to ensure rigidity and strength
at joints.
Example Applications:

 High-rise office buildings in seismic regions.

 Residential towers where flexibility in internal layout is desired.

2) Building with Shear Wall

A Building with Shear Walls uses vertical, structural walls (shear walls) that are specifically
designed to resist lateral forces caused by wind or earthquakes. These walls work by transferring
horizontal forces, such as seismic forces, down through the building to the foundation, stabilizing
the entire structure.

Key Features of Buildings with Shear Walls:

1. Stiffness and Stability: Shear walls provide substantial stiffness to the structure, limiting
lateral displacements and preventing excessive sway, making the building more stable.
2. Load Path for Lateral Forces: Shear walls act as dedicated load paths for horizontal
forces, which are transferred through the walls to the ground, bypassing the frame
entirely.
 3. Enhanced Strength in Seismic Zones: Buildings with shear walls are effective in
resisting earthquake forces due to the high lateral strength and rigidity that the walls
provide. This feature reduces the risk of structural failure during seismic events.
4. Strategic Placement: Shear walls are usually placed symmetrically in the building
layout to counteract torsional effects (twisting) and to enhance stability. Common
placements include around stairwells, elevators, and at the periphery of the building.
5. Material Composition: Typically made of reinforced concrete, though they can also be
built with structural steel or other materials, depending on design requirements.

Advantages:

 Provides significant resistance to lateral forces, improving the building’s overall safety in
high winds or earthquakes.
 Minimizes the need for additional bracing systems, allowing open floor plans in some
cases.
 Reduces building sway, enhancing occupant comfort, especially in high-rise buildings.

Disadvantages:

 Reduced architectural flexibility as shear walls cannot be easily altered or moved.

 Can be heavy and costly to construct, particularly with reinforced concrete.
 Less effective in dissipating energy compared to moment-resisting frames (less ductile).

Example Applications:

 High-rise residential or commercial buildings in earthquake-prone regions.

 Multi-story parking garages or stairwells where stability and strength are critical.
 Schools, hospitals, and other essential buildings that require reinforced safety measures
against lateral forces.
3) Bearing Wall System
A Bearing Wall System (or Load-Bearing Wall System) is a structural system where walls
themselves bear and transfer the building's loads down to the foundation. This type of system
supports both vertical loads, like the weight of floors and roof, and, in some cases, lateral loads,
such as wind or seismic forces. Load-bearing walls serve as both the primary structural
framework and as partitions between spaces in the building.

Key Features of Bearing Wall Systems:

1. Structural Role of Walls: In a bearing wall system, walls carry and distribute the
structural loads to the foundation, eliminating or reducing the need for columns.
2. Vertical and Lateral Load Resistance: Bearing walls primarily resist vertical loads
(from floors and roof) but can also resist lateral loads, especially if reinforced with
materials like concrete or masonry.
3. Simpler Construction: The system is typically straightforward to construct compared to
framed systems, making it suitable for lower-rise buildings and simple layouts.
4. Continuous Load Path: Load-bearing walls transfer loads continuously from the roof or
floors down to the foundation, providing stability and reducing stress concentrations.
5. Material Composition: Load-bearing walls are usually constructed from masonry,
concrete, or brick. For added lateral strength, reinforced concrete or masonry is often
used in seismic zones.

Advantages:

 Cost-effective for certain types of buildings due to fewer structural elements.

 Simple design and construction, making it an economical choice for low-rise buildings.
 Efficient use of materials in low to mid-rise structures as walls serves dual purposes
(support and separation).
 Enhanced fire resistance when built with materials like concrete or masonry.
Disadvantages:

 Limited architectural flexibility: Walls cannot be easily removed or altered without

compromising structural integrity.
 Less suitable for high-rise buildings: High-rise structures require advanced systems
(like moment frames or shear walls) to handle the greater forces.
 Restricted floor plan options: Open layouts are harder to achieve since walls must
remain to bear loads.
 Less ductile in resisting seismic forces compared to frame-based systems.

Example Applications:

 Residential buildings: Especially low- and mid-rise buildings, where simplicity and
cost-effectiveness are priorities.
 Schools and hospitals: For shorter buildings where internal walls serve dual functions.
 Commercial buildings: Small offices or retail buildings that do not require large open
spaces.

4) Braced Frames

Braced Frames are structural systems used in buildings to provide stability and resistance to
lateral forces, such as those from wind or earthquakes. Braced frames use diagonal members,
known as braces, to create a truss-like framework that prevents excessive movement and
distortion of the building frame. This system enhances a building’s rigidity by effectively
transferring lateral loads to the ground, making it a common choice for mid- to high-rise
structures or buildings in areas susceptible to lateral forces.

Key Features of Braced Frames:

1. Lateral Stability: Braces within the frame act to resist lateral loads, preventing sway and
reducing deformation in the structure. The bracing creates a stable, truss-like
configuration.
 2. Diagonal Bracing Members: Braces are typically installed diagonally between columns
and beams, forming triangles, which is an inherently stable geometric shape. This
triangular shape helps to distribute loads efficiently.
3. Types of Braced Frames:
o Concentric Braced Frames (CBF): Braces intersect at beam-to-column joints.
They are simpler to construct and provide a direct path for load transfer.
o Eccentric Braced Frames (EBF): Braces do not meet at the beam-to-column
joints, creating a small offset, or "link," which improves energy dissipation during
seismic events by allowing the structure to deform slightly before fully engaging
the braces.
4. Enhanced Seismic Performance: Eccentric bracing, in particular, allows a certain
degree of controlled flexibility and energy absorption, which improves a building's
resilience in earthquakes by limiting the forces transferred to other structural members.
5. Materials: Braced frames are typically made from steel due to its strength and flexibility.
However, reinforced concrete can also be used in specific applications.

Advantages of Braced Frames:

 Increased Strength and Stability: Braces add significant strength to resist lateral forces,
which is critical in tall buildings and in areas with high wind or seismic activity.
 Cost-Effectiveness: The addition of bracing elements is usually more economical
compared to building a much thicker frame.
 Design Flexibility: Braces can be added in various configurations to suit the architectural
and structural requirements of the building.
 Reduces Sway: Braced frames minimize horizontal displacement, which improves
occupant comfort and structural safety.

Disadvantages of Braced Frames:

 Aesthetic Constraints: The visible braces may impact the aesthetic design of the
building, especially in external bracing.
  Reduced Interior Flexibility: Interior braced frames can limit floor plan options since
braces may restrict the placement of doors, windows, and open spaces.
 Added Load Path Complexity: If not designed correctly, the braces can introduce
complex load paths, making the structure more susceptible to local buckling or failure
under certain load conditions.

Example Applications:

 High-Rise Buildings: Braced frames provide essential stability and reduce sway.
 Industrial Structures: Warehouses and factories often use braced frames due to their
cost-effectiveness and ability to handle large, open spaces.
 Seismic Zones: In earthquake-prone regions, braced frames are used extensively to
improve energy dissipation and overall resilience.

Braced Frame Configurations:

1. Diagonal Bracing: A single diagonal brace connects opposite corners, forming a basic
triangular configuration.
2. V-Bracing and Inverted V-Bracing (Chevron): Braces meet in the middle of the beam,
forming a “V” or upside-down “V” shape, which allows for the placement of windows or
other openings in the frame.
3. K-Bracing: Braces form a “K” shape, connecting to the midpoints of columns. This
allows for large clear spans but is less common as it may concentrate stresses in certain
areas of the frame.
5) Building with Dual System
A Building with Dual System combines two types of structural systems to resist lateral forces
effectively: moment-resisting frames and shear walls or braced frames. This combination
enhances the building’s resilience, especially in high-rise buildings or structures in seismic
zones.
Components of a Dual System

1. Moment-Resisting Frames:
o Consist of beams and columns rigidly connected to resist bending and lateral
forces.
o Provide ductility, allowing the building to absorb energy by bending or swaying
slightly during seismic events.
2. Shear Walls or Braced Frames:
o Vertical elements designed to resist lateral forces through their stiffness and
strength.
o Offer stiffness and reduce overall building sway, limiting lateral displacement
under load.

Benefits of Dual Systems

 Improved Seismic Performance: Combining ductile frames with rigid walls or braces
allows buildings to better withstand earthquake forces.
 Redundancy and Safety: The dual approach provides multiple load paths, enhancing
structural redundancy.
 Optimal Material Use: Allows for a balance between flexibility and stiffness, reducing
excessive material usage.

Applications of Dual Systems

 High-Rise Buildings: Popular in skyscrapers where stability is essential.

 Seismic Zones: Ideal for buildings in earthquake-prone areas due to their resilience
against lateral forces.
 Critical Facilities: Structures like hospitals and emergency centers benefit from the
enhanced stability and reduced risk of collapse.
3. BUILDING CONFIGURATION – PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS

 Building Configuration

Building configuration, as per the Indian Standard (IS) codes, refers to the layout and structural
arrangement of a building, which plays a crucial role in how the structure behaves during events
like earthquakes. The IS codes, particularly IS 1893 (Part 1): 2016 and IS 875 (Part 3): 1987,
provide guidelines to ensure the safety and stability of building configurations, especially under
lateral loads such as wind and seismic forces. Here are some key aspects related to building
configuration as per these codes:
1. Plan Configuration:

 Symmetry: Buildings should ideally be symmetric in plan to avoid torsional effects.

Asymmetry can lead to uneven load distribution, which increases vulnerability during
earthquakes.
 Shape Complexity: Simple rectangular or square shapes are preferred over irregular
shapes. Irregularities such as L, T, or U shapes should be avoided, or they should be
separated into simpler shapes through expansion joints.

2. Vertical Configuration:

 Vertical Continuity: Consistent column and wall layouts from the foundation to the top
are recommended. Abrupt changes in stiffness or mass between floors (such as soft
stories or sudden reductions in column size) are discouraged, as they can create weak
points.
 Setbacks: Setbacks should be designed carefully, as they cause variations in stiffness and
mass. The code recommends that such variations be minimized or that additional
reinforcement be provided at setback levels.

3. Elevation Configuration:

 Uniform Mass and Stiffness Distribution: Sudden changes in mass or stiffness along
the height (e.g., through mezzanine floors or heavier floor loads) should be avoided, as
they can cause differential movement during seismic events.

4. Openings in Structural Walls:

 Minimizing Openings: Large openings in structural walls or around stairwells should be

minimized to maintain the wall’s load-carrying capacity. Openings should be positioned
away from edges and corners to avoid stress concentrations.
 Problems and Solutions

Building Configuration
Structural Problems Remedial Measures/Solution
Problem
Buildings with complex Use expansion joints to
Irregular Building Shapes shapes (L, T, U) experience simplify shapes, and ensure
uneven stress and torsion. symmetry to balance forces.
Open ground floors (often Reinforce soft story with shear
used for parking) create a walls or bracing, or design for
Soft Story Effect
significant difference in uniform stiffness across all
stiffness. floors.
Follow Strong Column–
Columns are weaker than
Weak Beam design to ensure
Weak Column–Strong Beam beams, risking column failure
beams deform before columns,
first.
preventing collapse.
Changes in stiffness, mass, or Maintain uniformity in floor
geometry along building plans; reduce mass or stiffness
Vertical Irregularities
height can lead to stress gradually with smooth
concentrations. transitions.
Avoid short columns where
Stiffer short columns attract
possible; otherwise, add
Short Columns excessive force and are prone
reinforcement or use flexible
to damage.
materials to reduce stiffness.
Design symmetrical mass and
Mismatch between center of
stiffness distribution; place
Eccentricity and Torsion mass and center of rigidity
shear walls or bracing systems
creates torsion effects.
symmetrically.
Strengthen beam-column
joints with additional
Critical beam-column joints
Weak Beam–Column Joints reinforcement, especially in
may fail under stress
seismic zones, to handle force
transfer effectively.
4. BUILDING CHARACTERISTICS

Building characteristics play a crucial role in determining a structure's behavior during seismic
events. Understanding these characteristics helps engineers design buildings that can better
withstand earthquake forces.
Key characteristics to consider include
1. Mode shape and fundamental period
2. Building frequency and ground period
3. Damping
4. Ductility
5. Seismic weight
6. Hyperstaticity /redundancy
7. Non-structural elements

1. Mode Shape and Fundamental Period

The mode shape refers to the pattern of deformations that a building undergoes during
vibration. Each building has multiple modes of vibration, and the first mode is generally
the most significant in seismic analysis.
The fundamental period is the time it takes for a building to complete one cycle of
vibration in its fundamental mode. A shorter fundamental period (stiffer buildings)
usually experiences higher forces during an earthquake, while longer periods (more
flexible buildings) can better absorb seismic energy.
2. Building frequency and ground period
Building frequency is the reciprocal of the fundamental period and reflects how many
times per second a building naturally vibrates.
If a building's frequency closely matches the ground period (the natural period of
vibration of the ground motion), resonance can occur, amplifying the building's response
and potentially leading to severe damage. Designing buildings with periods different
from typical ground periods can help avoid resonance.

3. Damping
Damping is the ability of a building to dissipate energy, reducing the amplitude of vibrations
during an earthquake.
 Higher damping capacity helps to absorb seismic energy, minimizing structural
damage. Common damping mechanisms include structural materials, added
dampers, or base isolation systems.
 Enhanced damping is often achieved through design elements like dampers or
base isolators that increase energy dissipation.
Here are some examples of damping:

 A swing: A swing's motion dies down due to damping unless a child keeps
pumping it.
 A glass or metal bowl: When struck, the tone of a glass or metal bowl decays
over time due to damping.
 A motor: When starting a stationary motor, undesirable oscillations are
generated. Damping can be used to suppress these oscillations.
  Electrical meters and balances: These are critically damped so that the pointer
moves to the correct position without oscillating.
There are several types of damping, including:

 Viscous damping: Caused by energy losses in liquid lubrication between moving parts

 Hysteresis damping: Energy loss within the moving structure itself

 Radiation damping: Vibrating energy of moving charges is converted to electromagnetic

energy

 Magnetic damping: Energy of motion is converted to heat by electric eddy currents

4. Ductility

In the context of seismic design, ductility refers to a building’s ability to undergo significant
inelastic deformations without sudden failure. Ductile structures can absorb and dissipate large
amounts of seismic energy, enhancing their resilience during earthquakes. The Indian Standard
(IS) Code 13920: 2016 – "Ductile Detailing of Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to
Seismic Forces" – provides specific guidelines to ensure adequate ductility in reinforced concrete
(RC) structures.

Importance of Ductility as per IS 13920

Ductility is crucial because it:

  Allows the structure to dissipate seismic energy through controlled deformations,
reducing the forces transmitted to the foundation.
 Prevents sudden, brittle failures, giving occupants more time to evacuate in severe
seismic events.
 Ensures the building’s structural integrity by allowing some parts of the structure to
yield while protecting more critical load-bearing elements (e.g., columns).

5. Seismic weight
Seismic weight is the total weight of a structure that includes the weight of the structure itself
and any other loads that act on it during an earthquake. The total seismic weight of a structure is
calculated by adding the seismic weight of each diaphragm to the weight of the base level.
Here are some things to consider when calculating seismic weight:

 Self weight: The self weight of a structure includes the weight of the walls, deck, and all
gravity and lateral members.
 Floor diaphragm: The seismic weight of each floor diaphragm is the total weight of all
members associated with that floor.
 Loads: The seismic weight includes any applied loads, such as the weight of permanent
equipment, the weight of landscaping, and a minimum of 25% of the floor live load in
storage areas.
 Exclusions: The weight of columns and walls from the base to mid-height of the first story,
and the weight from mid-height down of any walls, should be excluded from the seismic
weight.

The total seismic weight is used to determine the seismic base shear.

6. Hyperstaticity /redundancy

Hyperstaticity (or redundancy) is the presence of multiple load paths in a structure, which
provides alternative routes for force transfer if some structural elements fail.
 Redundant structures can better withstand localized failures, as the load can be
redistributed across other elements.
 Higher redundancy generally enhances a building’s seismic resilience by preventing
catastrophic failure due to isolated weaknesses.

7. Non-structural elements

In seismic design, non-structural elements refer to components that are not essential to the
primary structural system of a building but are still vital for functionality, aesthetics, and safety.
These elements do not carry the primary gravity or lateral loads but can be significantly affected
by seismic forces. Proper detailing and anchorage of non-structural elements are critical because,
during an earthquake, these elements may become safety hazards if they detach or fail.

Key Non-Structural Elements in Buildings

1. Architectural Elements:
o Partitions: Internal walls, often made of lightweight materials, provide room
divisions but need to be secured to prevent collapse during shaking.
o Ceilings and False Ceilings: Suspended ceilings can sway or collapse during
earthquakes, posing risks to occupants. Proper bracing or suspension systems help
mitigate this.
 o Cladding and Facades: Exterior finishes and decorative facades are vulnerable to
detachment under seismic loads, especially if they are heavy. Connections must
be flexible yet secure to allow some movement without failing.
o Glazing (Windows): Windows and glass panels can shatter due to lateral
movements, which can be hazardous. Laminated glass or specially treated glass
may help minimize damage.
2. Mechanical and Electrical Elements:
o HVAC Systems (Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning): Ducts, pipes,
and equipment need to be properly anchored to prevent displacement and
potential service interruptions.
o Piping Systems: Water, gas, and fire protection piping are critical and must be
secured to prevent leaks, breaks, or bursts during an earthquake.
o Electrical Systems: Light fixtures, electrical panels, and conduit systems require
adequate bracing to remain functional and safe.
3. Contents and Furnishings:
o Furniture: Desks, shelves, and cabinets can become projectiles or block escape
routes if not anchored.
o Fixtures and Equipment: Computers, lab equipment, and other heavy items
must be secured to avoid toppling or shifting.
o Storage Racks: Storage systems, especially in industrial or warehouse settings,
should be properly braced to prevent collapse.
4. Operational and Functional Systems:
o Emergency Systems: Equipment such as fire sprinklers, emergency lighting, and
alarm systems must remain operational during and after an earthquake.
o Communication Systems: Essential for post-earthquake safety, communication
lines should be securely fixed and supported.

Importance of Non-Structural Elements in Seismic Design

1. Safety Hazards: Non-structural elements, if not properly secured, can cause injuries or
fatalities during an earthquake. Falling objects or debris from unsecured ceilings,
partitions, or facades can endanger occupants.
 2. Functionality: In critical facilities like hospitals, schools, and government buildings,
maintaining the functionality of non-structural systems (e.g., HVAC, fire protection,
emergency lighting) is essential to post-disaster response.
3. Economic Impact: Damage to non-structural elements can lead to substantial economic
losses, especially for businesses with high-value equipment or inventory.
4. Protection of Assets: Anchoring and securing systems protect valuable items and
essential equipment, reducing the need for costly repairs or replacements post-
earthquake.

IS Code Recommendations for Non-Structural Elements

The Indian Standard IS 1893: 2016 (Part 1), which deals with seismic loads, includes
provisions for the design and detailing of non-structural elements:

1. Anchorage and Bracing:

o Non-structural elements should be adequately anchored to the building structure.
This is especially important for items like suspended ceilings, cladding, and heavy
equipment.
o Flexible connections are recommended to allow some movement without
detachment.
2. Relative Displacement:
o Non-structural elements should be able to accommodate the relative movement
between floors or walls without failure.
3. Weight Consideration:
o Heavy non-structural elements should ideally be avoided in high seismic zones to
reduce the risk of detachment and falling hazards.

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