Construction

and Building

Construction and Building Materials 20 (2006) 470–477

MATERIALS
www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Composite materials from local resources

V.K. Mathur *

Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee 247667, India

Received 26 May 2004; received in revised form 6 January 2005; accepted 31 January 2005
Available online 14 April 2005

Abstract

An overview of building materials from local resources is briefly presented with a particular attention on natural fibres based
composites. Natural fibres are low-cost, locally available in abundance and obtained from renewable resources. At the Central
Building Research Institute, Roorkee, the potential of sisal and jute fibres as reinforcements have been systematically investigated
to overcome their well-defined problems of moisture absorption. The performance of polymer composites made from these natural
fibres and unsaturated polyester/epoxy resin was evaluated under various humidity, hygrothermal and weathering conditions. Con-
sequent to this, various composite products such as laminates/panels, doors, roofing sheets, shuttering and dough moulding com-
pound have been prepared. The suitability to these products is assessed as an alternate material according to the existing Indian
standard specifications. The process know-how for the manufacturing of natural fibre composite panels/door shutters has also been
commercialized.
 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Natural fibers; Composites; Building materials; Wood substitutes local material

1. Introduction proved to be highly energy intensive and incompatible

with the physical properties of local materials. A con-
The developmental objective of building materials sensus is therefore, necessary of developing indigenous
programme addresses to meet the housing needs of a technology for producing building materials from local
country which is based on a resolute shifting of present resources which could provide sustained housing
production methods to a more intensive use of indige- growth [1]. To meet the challenges of these circum-
nous resources without ignoring minimum standards of stances, the Central Building Research Institute
durability and comfort of dwellings. In realizing the (CBRI), Roorkee is channelling most of its intellectual
goal of adequate ‘‘shelter for all’’, the utilization of lo- and physical resources on: (a) development of new, low
cal materials as well as agro-industrial wastes could cost materials from local resources; (b) conversion of
make a crucial contribution. In India, the shortage of industrial/agricultural wastes into building materials;
traditional materials in which cement claims a share (c) improvement in behaviour and performance of
of 17 million tones, brick 54,898 million, timber 13.34 materials; and (d) savings in energy. As a result, several
million cubic meter, steel 2.70 million tones and aggre- processes and products have been developed and being
gate for concrete 286 million tones. Many projects of exploited commercially by over 300 industrial units. It
building materials based on imported technologies is targeted that annual growth rate on the development
closed down with colossal financial losses as they of new material will be projected 10–15% globally
over the next decade presenting a long term future
*
Tel.: +91 332 272243; fax: +91 332 272272/272543. business opportunity upon substitution potential in
E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected]. construction sector.

0950-0618/$ - see front matter  2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2005.01.031
 V.K. Mathur / Construction and Building Materials 20 (2006) 470–477 471

2. Local building materials The current interest and activity in the composite
fields are the result of their new potentiality and increas-
It is widely recognized that mud, bamboo, stone and ing promises. With the advent of new development,
timber are some of the main local materials used for asbestos fibre in cement roofing sheet has been success-
shelter since time immemorial. The naturally occurring fully replaced by either cellulose fibres alone or a combi-
local materials exhibit variations in physical properties nation of cellulose fibres and polymeric fibres (polyvinyl
and also contain numerous types of impurities. Unsuit- alcohol, polypropylene and polyacrylonitrile). The con-
ability of soils, slow setting of lime, poor reactivity of version of natural fibres into cellulose pulp suitable for
raw clays, early decay of bamboo, etc. makes these tra- conventional machinery need to be thoroughly re-
ditional materials functionally inadequate in terms of searched. Slurry infiltrated fibre concrete (SIFCON) is
durability and the high cost of maintenance. The CBRI a special fibre reinforced concrete which contains 6–
has developed a rich knowledge base and infrastructures 20% steel fibres instead of 1–3% for normal fibre rein-
for improving the performance of these locally available forced concrete for structures like blast loading, repair
materials [2,3]. of pre-stressed concrete beams and safe vaults [4]. Rein-
Good quality of bricks have been produced from forced macro-defect free cement (MDF) is another class
inferior soils (black, red, marine clays, etc.) using admix- of composites consisting of polymeric fibres and MDF
tures such as rice husk ash, fly ash, colliery waste, etc. A cement based on calcium aluminate [5]. However, the
rapid setting lime from magnesium limestone and acti- problem related to its hygroscopic nature requires more
vated lime pozzolana mixture using raw clay have been attention for applications.
developed for plastering, mortars and concretes. The The concept of using fibre reinforced plastics (FRP)
utilization of stone in masonry blocks has been made in building construction is not entirely new as it has been
using odd shapes and sizes of stone and a lean cement reported in the early sixties. In the seventies, work on
sand mortar for hilly regions. Researches on the second- composite bars made from carbon/aramid fibres and
ary source of plantation timber (rubber wood, poplar thermosetting resin in Europe indicate that bars were
and other forest wastes) indicate its possible use as sub- less appropriate for reinforced concrete because of their
stitutes for wood lumber through seasoning and preser- low modulus of elasticity [6]. However, it was indicated
vative treatments. The pretreatment of bamboo against that these new materials were more suitable to produce
moisture swelling and termite decay has been attempted pre-stressing tendons, if reliable anchorage could be
with a positive result to encourage the enhanced use of developed. In the 80s, aramid fibres (Kevlar) based
bamboo mats/boards/sheets in rural housing. In the field bars/strips and pre-stressing elements have been devel-
of resins from renewable resources, cashew nut shell li- oped. Since 1988, carbon fibre rods, tendons and sheets
quid (CNSL) has assumed significance as it is available were used as counter measure to corrosion problem of
in large quantities in India. Polymerized CNSL has been concrete in place of steel. Despite FRPs wide applica-
promoted for making expansion crack joint filler with tions, the acceptance of its durability in an alkaline envi-
coconut pith, polymer concrete, concrete coatings with ronment is still a concern to some designers [7–13].
epoxy and as a diluent for polyester resin in making During 1992, a thorough durability research programme
low cost boards. Adhesive developed from fruits/barks/ has been established by the Eurocrete consortium aimed
leaves of plants is being promoted for the bonding of fa- at to obtain performance data on the FRP bars in real-
cades. Rosin obtained from distillate of lisa of pine trees istic concrete environments through accelerated labora-
was tried for the modification of unsaturated polyester tory exposure [7]. The composite rods (8 mm2 and of
resin to be used as a matrix for composites. 60–65%) were subjected to various accelerated aging con-
ditions such as temperature (21–80 C), pH (10–13.5), io-
nic content of the solution (K, Ca, Na) and stress levels
3. An overview on developmental trends in composites (5–75%) for 24 months. One of the most investigated
parameters was the pull out bond strength. Any attack
The use of composite materials in the construction on the bars might reasonably be expected to manifest it-
industry is known since time immemorial. Timber, a self in a degradation of the surface zone of the bar, thus
natural material consisting of cellulose fibres in a lignin affecting the bond with the concrete. On visual examina-
matrix, mud block from chopped straw/cow dung mixed tion, there was no evidence of surface deterioration of
with mud, horse hair or sisal fibres in a gypsum, conven- bars after 12 months exposure. The increase in bond
tional concrete in which aggregate/short fibres mixed strength with time has been attributed to the continued
with cement, etc. are the traditional composite materials strength gain of the concrete in the specimen. The field
that have been used for centuries. However, these com- exposed samples were consistent with the result obtained
posites have started losing its importance due to its less for the bars in the accelerated laboratory conditions.
ability to meet the stringent demands of new applica- It is felt that high inter-laminar shear properties of com-
tions. posite rods is essential for their long-term durability in
472 V.K. Mathur / Construction and Building Materials 20 (2006) 470–477

concrete. After the Great Hanshin Earthquake in 1995, development of prototype for low cost housing units
continuous fibre sheets have become to play a major role and food grain silos in India (1976–77), demonstrate
in retrofitting of damaged structures. The performance the use of appropriate technology in developing coun-
of these FRP continuous sheets bonded concrete has tries. In the 80s, building panels and roofing sheets made
been conducted under weathering (three years natural from bagasse/phenolics were installed in houses in Ja-
and 1000 h accelerated UV), immersion at 70 C in maica, Ghana and the Philippines [15]. In another pro-
water for 30 days and freeze and thaw cycles (from gramme, developmental work on low cost building
25 to +20 C) [9,10]. The exposed sheets showed insig- materials based on henequen/palm/sisal fibres and
nificant deterioration in the tensile strength, bond unsaturated polyester resin has been undertaken as a
strength (18% under immersion in water) and ultimate co-operative research project between Government of
un-cracked and pre-cracked loads for post-strengthen Mexico and UNIDO for appropriate utilization of nat-
RC girder. It is generally felt that FRP used for ural resources [16]. In the 90s, UNDP in association
strengthening are positioned inside the buildings or with the Government of India supported a programme
box girder and metal grids. This is mainly due to vapor- to develop jute based composites and moulded products
ization of the epoxy component from the sheets follow- as wood substitutes in packaging and building sectors.
ing heat accumulation during sunlight exposure that Attempts to prepare wall panels, roofing sheets, tempo-
affect the structural integrity after the sheets cool down. rary shelters, post office boxes from natural fibre poly-
An industry accepted design guideline along with perfor- mer composites have drawn considerable attention. It
mance driven adhesive for bonding with substrates is widely experienced that these composites failed in
could encourage greater use of these FRP sheets as wet conditions, either through surface roughening
repairing laminates by potentially limiting liability. caused by fibre swelling or delamination, possibly owing
Composite shuttering plate is another area of research to crack propagation between plies. This has resulted in
for casting of concrete as an alternative to plywood. a thrust for further work in developing water resistant
Limitation of plywood/timber in terms of its reuse value natural fibre composites for making dimensionally sta-
could be effectively overcome by the use of pultruded ble building products.
composites made from glass fibres/polyester resin. How- Use of natural fibres as a reinforcement in a cement
ever, the performance of these plates in terms of their re- matrix has also been practised for making low cost
peat limits needs further investigation. building materials such as panels, claddings, roofing
It is known that composites offer many desirable sheets and tiles, slabs and beams [17,18]. Sisal and coir
properties over conventional materials but they also face are two of the most studied fibres, but bamboo, jute,
bewildering problems of complexity in design, wide hemp, reeds and grasses have also been studied for mak-
choice of materials combinations, processing methods, ing fibre concrete and sheeting materials. The Swedish
etc. Because of this, the adoption of fibre composites Cement and Concrete Institute has been involved with
in civil infrastructure applications has been slow. This sisal products for many years especially with respect to
can also be attributed mainly due to high material cost, their durability. Field experience has also been gained
lack of a track record and inadequate ductility. by installing sisal fibre based roof tiles in South Africa
[18]. Appropriate Technology International (ATI) and
Save for Child Federation (SCF) have actively pro-
4. Composites from natural fibres moted fibre-cement roofing tiles since the seventies.
Thousands of tiles have been made in countries such
Natural fibres are a major renewable resource mate- as Kenya, Sri Lanka and in Latin America using indig-
rial throughout the world specifically in the tropics. enous plant fibres as a reinforcement. Based on their
According to the Food and Agricultural Organization findings, both ATI and SCF have concluded that, as
Survey, natural fibres like jute, sisal, coir, banana, etc. currently manufactured, such fibre reinforced tiles are
are abundantly available in developing countries such unsuitable for rural housing. In 1987, International La-
as India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Indonesia, Bangladesh, bour Organization (ILO) supported some craft indus-
Philippines, Brazil, China and South African countries. tries for the production of fibre-cement roofing tiles in
Recent reports indicate that plant fibres can be used as a Ivory Coast-West African country. Studies indicate that
reinforcement in polymer composites replacing to some the quality of tiles produced by these manufacturers is
extent more expensive and non-renewable synthetic fi- generally poor because of inadequate quality control
bres such as glass especially in low pressure laminating. in the production [19]. CSIRO, Australia adopted an
Notable contributions in this field are the construction autoclave process using wood fibres as a reinforcement
of cheap primary school buildings using jute fibre rein- for making asbestos-free cement products in the 80s
forced polyester in Bangladesh (1972–73) under the aus- [20]. A key concern with the use of these natural fibres
pices of the Cooperative of American Relief Everywhere in cement relates to their long terms durability due to
(CARE) and UNIDO [14]. Subsequent efforts on the weakening link between the individual fibre cells from
 V.K. Mathur / Construction and Building Materials 20 (2006) 470–477 473

alkali attack and moisture sensitivity, particularly under failure behaviour in terms of fibre fracture/pull-out, deb-
severe exposure conditions. Efforts are being made to onding, resin yielding, fibre swelling, etc. [24].
solve these problems by pretreatment of fibres and also The durability of natural fibre composites was stud-
using low alkaline cement binders. ied under various humidity, hydrothermal and weather-
ing conditions [25]. The aging-induced deteriorative
effect of these conditions on the dimensional stability,
5. Research and development at CBRI surface topography and mechanical properties of the
composites was observed. The severity of aging was
The thrust on developing innovative materials from more detrimental in an accelerated water test as com-
locally available cheaper renewable resources is being pared to the other exposure conditions. SEM observa-
pursued at the Institute. A concerted effort is focused tion reveals the fibre accentuation along with fibre
mainly on rational utilization of natural fibres and breakage/splitting and surface discoloration in both nat-
renewable resins based adhesives/coatings [2,21]. Pres- ural and accelerated weathering of UV exposure. It was
ently, the annual production of natural fibres in India found that the extent of reduction in tensile strength un-
is 6 million tonnes compared to the world production der two years outdoor exposure was roughly equal to
of 25 million tonnes. One strong option in this direc- 750 h of accelerated weathering. Some biological deface-
tion is to develop natural fibres based composites and ment in the form of fungal infestation appeared at the
wood substitute products. Currently, the Indian require- cut edges of weathered composites while extensive disfig-
ment of wood is 10 million cubic meter whereas the urement was noticed on all surfaces under high humid-
estimated production is 4 million cubic meter in build- ity/water-immersion. In order to prevent weather-
ings. The existing wood substitute materials such as induced degradation, a UV stabilized polyurethane coat
reconstituted panel products (particle/fibre boards) ply- was applied on the exterior surface of samples. These re-
wood and other materials cannot meet the increasing de- sults could be useful as an indicator for assessing the
mand of wood without fresh efforts. suitability of natural fibre composites in damp and dry
conditions. Exposure against termite (M. bessoni) has
5.1. Materials innovation shown that the weight loss in the composites noted
was below 1% along with only cling of termites on their
A systematic research programme on potential of surface. The fire propagation index of these composites
natural fibres has been planned for making low cost made with a combination of ammonium phosphate and
composite building materials [22–27]. Sisal and jute fi- aluminium tri hydrate was 10.54 only when compared
bres were chosen as reinforcements because of their high to kail wood (i = >30).
tensile modulus and low elongation of break. Moisture Based on these findings, an Indian Patent on im-
sensitivity of these fibres was reduced by the attachment proved natural fibre composites and their products has
of organophillite on their surface through titanate/si- been filed. To ensure their commercial viability, success-
lane/zirconate coupling agent treatments [22]. The ful industrial trials have also been made for manufactur-
screening of these treatments was evaluated in terms of ing of laminates/panels, door shutters, shuttering,
fibre wettability (surface free energy) and its bonding roofing sheets and dough moulding compounds. The
with resin matrix. Polymer composites have been pre- developed process know-how for producing natural fi-
pared using these chemically treated fibres in the form bre composite panels/door shutters has been commer-
of chopped strand/non-woven mats and unsaturated cialized.
polyester resin. The physico-mechanical properties of
these composites were studied as a function of fibre vol- 5.2. Laminates/panels
ume fraction, aspect ratio, number of fibre plies, type of
coupling agents and sisal/glass/filler combinations [23]. Natural fibre composite laminates were prepared using
An increase of 71% in tensile strength up to 50 wt% fi- wollastonite, chopped sisal/jute mats and unsaturated
bre content and 87% in flexural strength up to 74 wt% polyester resin. The properties of these laminates are gi-
fibre content has been observed. The optimum strength ven in Table 1. The laminates are rigid and moisture resis-
of laminates was noticed at the aspect ratio of 323 while tant. It can be nailed and screwed for easy installation and
four number of fibre plies gave the desired results. also accommodative against any kind of paints and
Improvement in bonding between fibre and matrix was varnishes. In order to reduce the overall weight and im-
further made by modifying the polyester resin by isocy- proved rigidity of single layered press boards, the corru-
anate moiety. The addition of 4,4 0 diphenyl methane gated core sandwich composite panels have been
diisocyanate enhances the toughness of the resultant prepared using wet lay-up technique for natural fibre
composites. Microstructural investigation of failed un- based laminates as face and core materials. Consequent
treated and treated sisal composites under both dry to this, the manufacturing cycle was further reduced by
and wet conditions were also carried out to know the replacing corrugated core with polyester–urethane hybrid
474 V.K. Mathur / Construction and Building Materials 20 (2006) 470–477

Table 1
Physico-mechanical properties of natural fibre/polyester composite laminates
Property Sisal/polyester (resin 50 wt%) Jute/polyester (resin 70 wt%) Coir/polyester (resin 70 wt%)
3
Density (g/cm ) 1.05 1.22 1.4
Water absorption, 24 h (%) 3–4 1.09 3–4
Swelling thickness (%) 5 – 5–6
Tensile strength (MPa) 40 66.01 20.40
Elongation (%) 4–6 2.31 0.4–1.0
Tensile modulus (GPa) 2.13 4.42 1.2–2.0
Flexural strength (MPa) 77 93.80 41.54

resin based cellular foam. The panels are lightweight, pos- rienced in the existing alternatives for door panels/shut-
sess good bending stiffness and excellent thermal and ters construction. The thermal conductivity (U value)
sound insulation. In semi-structural uses, hybrid compos- of the door panel was 0.18 kcal/h C m2 and its screw
ites have been prepared from glass fibre/sisal fibre and withdrawal strength was 1500 N, compared to the
polyester resin. The tensile strength and elastic modulus typically specified value of >1000 N for wood. Under
of hybrid composite are 56 MPa and 2 GPa, respec- end immersion test, the door was dimensionally stable
tively. These sheets can be used as an alternative to struc- and the bonding between the face sheets and the core
tural plywood. was intact even on applying knife for delamination
purposes. The prepared doors satisfy the requirements
5.3. Door shutters as mentioned in IS: 4020-1998 for slamming, shock
resistance, impact indentation, edge loading, misuse,
Door shutters made from materials like wood based etc. (Table 2). The weight of door is 12–14 kg/m2.
panel products are required to have certain performance Fixtures such as handles, locks and hinges can be fixed
attributes. These includes: resistance to impact and in the finished door shutters. The cost of the composite
slamming, shape stability against operational loads door (32 mm thickness) was comparable to conven-
(latching and locking), torsional and diagonal deforma- tional ones.
tion performance (misuse), wind pressure and suction
forces and durability. According to an estimate, 60 5.4. Jute pultruded door frames
millions doors and door frames would require to meet
the Indian housing activities. Composite profiles have been prepared from jute hes-
Composite door shutters were prepared by bonding sian cloth and phenolic resin by pultrusion technique.
the jute/sisal laminates face with plastics wood slab The pultruded sections were assembled by meter joints
core. Plastics wood slab was made from polyester–ure- fortified with a reinforced adhesive pack to form a door
thane hybrid resin reinforced with rice husk flour along frame of different sizes. The profiles were evaluated for
with blowing and expanding agents. This core has an the physico-mechanical properties, hygro-thermal stabil-
inherent optimum elastic–plastic balance that impart ity and weathering. The density of profiles is found to be
identifiable grain dependent properties similar to wood. 0.87 g/cm3. The change in dimension of profiles was
Its combination with natural fibre composite laminate negligible in terms of thickness swelling and weight gain
face exhibited superior performance attributes as expe- after 24 h immersion in water. Under weathering, the

Table 2
Properties of jute/sisal composite door shutters
Test Wooden door (IS: 4020-98)a Composite door
Local planeness test <0.50 mm 0.02–0.1
Edge loading test Deflection of the edge at 1000 N load after 15 min: <5 mm Negligible
Impact indentation test <0.2 mm (no abnormal defect) No cracking/tearing; indentation: 0.05–0.1
Shock resistance test No visible damage after 25 blows No damage observed
Slamming test No visible damage after 50 successive impacts No visible damage occurred at any point
End immersion test No delamination after 8 drying and wetting cycles Dimensionally stable
Glue adhesion test No delamination between face and core Face and core bonding intact
Knife test Excellent adhesion No peeling of face even applying the force
Screw with drawl resistance >1000 N 1500 N
test (on face)
Misuse test No permanent deformation of the fixing or any part No visible damage
of door is hindering its normal working
a
Indian standard specification – door shutters – methods of tests.
 V.K. Mathur / Construction and Building Materials 20 (2006) 470–477 475

reduction in flexural strength of 22% in natural and wash is applied on both the sides of dried sheets. It is
19% in accelerated weathering was observed, respec- produced in the size of 2 · 1 m of 6–8 mm thickness.
tively. Comparative properties of pultruded jute frame Experimental structures with coir-cement roofing sheets
and wooden door frame was made (Table 3). It has been have been constructed since 1990–1991 to assess the long
observed that the moisture content of jute profiles was term performance under actual condition of use.
nearly half than that of the wooden frame materials. Roofing sheets of thickness 3–4 mm have been pre-
The profiles do not require any kind of seasoning, or pared from chopped fibre strand mats, fibrous reinforc-
preservative treatments, as do wooden frames, prior to ing filler, anti-aging agent and unsaturated polyester
assembling. These frames were installed in the brick resin [21]. Wooden blocks with corrugated face are used
works as similar to wooden door frames to assess their as moulding male and female dies. The properties of
actual behaviour under normal use. Three holdfasts roofing sheets are given in Table 4. It has been observed
can be fixed on each side of frame, one at the centre in the load–deflection curve that sheet cannot break un-
and others two at 20 cm from the top and the bottom der flexure when peak load of sheet is reached. The re-
of frame. The results have so far indicated no signs of sults indicate that sheets have an adequate strength
dimensional instability in terms of warping and bulging and rigidity to merit application as roofing materials.
after three years [26]. In order to improve out door durability, neopentyl gly-
col based gelcoat is used on exterior sides of the sheet.
5.5. Roofing sheets
5.6. Composite shuttering plates
An appropriate technology for production of coir-ce-
ment roofing sheet has been developed. In the manufac- Timber used as shuttering and formwork is being
turing process, coir fibres are first soaked in mineralized replaced by plywood and mild steel. Though plywood
water for at least 2 h. The free water is drained off from has certain advantages, the problems of preservation
the fibre, which is then mixed with dry cement in the ra- and dimensional instability affect its re-use value. On
tio of 1:5 by weight. The sheet is made with this wet mix the other hand, pressed steel shuttering sheets have
of cement coated fibres either by a manual process or a problems of corrosion, defective surface and poor
semi mechanized process. It is held under pressure for 4– resistance against penetration of external heat and
8 h then demouled and cured in the shade. A cement cold under extreme climates. Recently, pultruded glass

Table 3
Properties of pultruded jute door frames
Property Wooden door frames (IS: 4021-83)a Pultruded jute door frames
Moisture content (%) 8–14 4.40
Seasoning/treatment Prevented from warping and mould growth Not required
Dimensions/size (cm) H-199-209, W 79-99 H-214, W-92
Thickness (mm) 60 60
Hold fast 3 3
Gluing of joints BWR adhesive Reinforced adhesive
Installation Solid door frame, no grouting is required to fill inside of frame Frame cavity is filled by concrete/foams
Finish Priming followed by varnish/paint PU paint/varnish/melamine
Weathering Al priming required Resin rich layer
Dimensional stability No warping/twisting Dimensionally stable
a
Indian standard specification for timber door, window and ventilator frames.

Table 4
Properties of the corrugated roofing sheets
Property Sisal-polyester sheets Coir-cement sheets Asbestos-cement sheet
Pitch length (mm) 75 146 146
Pitch depth (mm) 19.25 48 48
Weight (kg/m2) 3–4 12 13.50
Density (g/cm3) 1.02 1.10 2.0
Water absorption 24 h (%) 3–5 8–10 25
Thickness (mm) 3.31 7.0 6.0
Bending strength (MPa) 45–58 9–11 25–30
Deflection (mm) 30–40 – –
Thermal conductivity (kcal/m2 h C) 0.12–0.15 0.125 0.24
476 V.K. Mathur / Construction and Building Materials 20 (2006) 470–477

Table 5
Properties of natural fibre shuttering plates
Property Plywood-IS: 4990-1993a Composite plate
Materials Rotary/slice cut veneers Epoxy with natural fibre and fibrous filler
Specific gravity 0.65 1.1
Moisture content (%) 5–15 2–3
Tensile strength (MPa) 55 57
Adhesion of plies Resistance to veneers separation No separation of plies
Resistance to water No sign of separation of edge of veneers Edge swelling in absence of sealing. Surface smoothness
and no blisters or surface deterioration intact after casting
Cement poisoning Defective surface Not observed
Shuttering requirements
Surface finish Smooth and defect-free Smooth and rigid
Treatment Required Not required
Oiling Required Not required
Storage Free circulation air Free circulation air
Weight (kg/m2) 3.9 for 3 mm 12.5 for 8 mm
Thickness (mm) 12 8
Deflection (mm) 3 1.60
a
Indian standard specification for plywood for concrete shuttering work.

fibre reinforced composites are being considered as an 5.7. Dough moulding compounds
alternative shuttering material for casting of concrete
slabs. The tendency of using short natural fibres as replace-
A high pressure compression moulded sheet has been ment to glass fibres in dough moulding compound has
prepared from sisal/glass fibres and epoxy resin (fibre been reported to allow for a light weight and cost-effec-
content 30 wt%). The tensile strength and modulus tive option. The main aim was to utilize sisal fibres and
of the plate were 57 MPa and 2.6 GPa, whereas wollastonite as synergistic reinforcement alternatives to
the flexural strength and modulus were 98 MPa and glass fibres. A dough composition comprising titanate
4.7 GPa, respectively. The water absorption of the treated sisal fibres, silanized wollastonite, glass fibres
plate was in the order of 4%. Modular shuttering panel (optional), zinc oxide, calcium stearate, methyl methac-
(12.50 kg/m2) has been designed for casting of 120 mm rylate monomer and catalysed styrenated unsaturated
thick horizontal/flat concrete slab with supports at polyester resin has been formulated [27]. Microstructure
0.90 m distance. The designed load includes: self weight of moulding indicates that the constituents are well dis-
of panel, fresh weight of concrete, live and impact loads. persed in the doughy mixture and the reinforcements are
The modular composite plate (8 mm) using a steel frame arranged nearly perpendicular to the advancing crack
as a stiffener was subjected to 600 kg/m2 of static load front, thus requiring higher loads to mobilize cracks.
for 7 days in the laboratory. The deflection in the plate The physico-mechanical properties of these mouldings
was 1.95 mm at upon initial loading and 2.57 mm are comparable to coir/polyester moulding, wood fibre/
after 7 days. It has been observed that the deflection in polyester moulding and glass fibre/polyester moulding
the natural fibre sheet (8 mm) was under permissible lim- (Table 6). These developments make natural fibre wor-
it (3 mm) and also comparable to the 12 mm plywood thy of consideration as an alternative to traditional glass
(Table 5). The modular panel was also tested by casting fibres reinforcement for producing moulding products
a 130 mm thick concrete slab. It is found that the surface that were cheaper. The potential for sisal-dough mould-
of slabs was smooth. Application of releasing agent on ing compounds in construction can be considered for
plate surface before casting could be desirable to obtain developing substitute materials such as chequered floor
more number of repeats. plates, roof tiles, artificial marbles, sanitary wares, etc.

Table 6
Properties of sisal/wollastonite moulding vis-à-vis other reported moulding
System Tensile strength (MPa) Elastic modulus (GPa) Flexural strength (MPa)
Sisal fibre/wollastonite/polyester moulding 25–27 5–6 45–48
Sisal fibre/wollastonite/glass fibre/polyester moulding 42.28 7.8 –
Coir/glass fibre/CaCO3/polyester moulding 27.80 1.4 25
Wood fibre/polyester moulding 18–22 – 38
Glass fibre/polyester moulding (10–16% glass) (low/medium quality) 26–41 12.40 –
 V.K. Mathur / Construction and Building Materials 20 (2006) 470–477 477

6. Conclusions symposium on non-metallic reinforcement for concrete structures,

Japan 1997;vol. 2:139–46.
[10] Katawaki K, Sasaki I. Deterioration of FRP in environment by
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