A Personal Guide to Electronic Slot Machines

John M. Pacyniak, Ph.D.

PREFACE

Gambling is a fundamental human activity. People have always gambled,

are gambling and will continue to gamble in the future. It is a feeling of
adventure that seeks change, a search for the unknown and chance, and all
that is knew. It sends us to the casinos, space research and exploration, the
laboratory and financial activities, the stock market. It is a part of human
nature. We enjoy the thrill of risk taking. We decide not to carry an
umbrella, betting that it will not rain, and feel good when it doesn’t. We
exceed the speed limit, “taking a chance” that a patrolman will not catch us
and issue a ticket. We over extend ourselves financially in the hope that a
raise is on the horizon. People with a family history of cancer continue to
smoke taking the chance that it will not affect their health. We all take
chances and gamble to some extend. This “impulse” is part of us and the
more we understand it the better we can enjoy our lives and deal with
uncertainties.

The purpose of this book is to give the reader a basic knowledge and
explanation of how modern slot machine operates and understands the odds
of playing slot machines. Virtually, anyone who visits a casino is familiar
with a slot machine and how it operates, even a novice. You insert a coin,
pull the handle or press a button and wait a few seconds to see if you win.
It’s basic simplicity accounts for much of the success of slot machines in
today’s casinos.

First, it is unreasonable to claim that this book will make you a winner at
slot machines, though I would hope that the insights provided will have a
positive outlook in that direction. There exits no tricks or optimum strategy,
which will make you a winner. However, a better understanding of how slot
machines operates and how calculations of theoretical win probabilities are
produce may affect your playing and hopefully increase your odds.

In Chapter One, a brief historical summary of the development of slot

machines is introduced with several comments on gambling. Chapter Two

1
deals with the basic mathematics of permutations, combinations and
probability. We show the basic concepts of how to calculate pay out
percentages and generalize it to a popular modern slot machine. Chapter III
goes to the heart of a slot machine. A detail description is given without
revealing any proprietary secrets of the industry. Chapter IV discusses the
psychological effects of playing with a slot machine and suggestions for
maintaining control and good sense while gambling with slot machine.

This book does not judge the morality of gambling though I am a

enthusiastic player, I am even more enthusiastic about the design and
outcome of an electronic slot machine. It is the latter enthusiasm that I hope
will be carried by the reader.

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 A Personal Guide to Electronic Slot Machines

Contents

PREFACE

Chapter I. Gambling and Slot machines

A Short History
Types of Machines

Chapter II. The Mathematics of Slot Machines

Probability
Permutations and Combinations
Slot Machines and Combinations
Pay Out Percentage Calculations
Random Number Generators
Internal Controls

Chapter III. The Electronic Three Reel Single Line Slot Machine

Standard Model
Operation
Law of Averages
Technological Advancements and Future
Developments

Chapter IV. Slot Machine and Human Behavior

Conditioning and Reinforcement

Environmental Factors
Remarks

Chapter V. Conclusion

Bibliography

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 CHAPTER 1

Gambling and the Slot Machine

A Short History

Gambling is a fundamental human activity. In the early history of man,

prehistoric existence was a struggle of gambles against nature with the
ultimate prize of survival. Today, with daily routines, man’s necessity to
gamble is getting involved in the action of every day living. It is a feeling of
adventure that seeks changes, a search for the unknown and a fascination
with games of chance. In random games such as bingo and slot machines,
there is an equal chance for everyone to perhaps win for the first time in
their life. Gambling has become a vital part of some lives and in some cases
has lead to destructive and potentially addictive consequences while in
others a delight and a diversion for modern man and woman.

Charles Fey, (1862-1944), is considered the Thomas Edison of Slots. He

created his first machine in 1895, the same year X-rays were discovered by
Wilham Roentgen, in the basement of his home, in San Francisco. He placed
a few on location and did so well that he devoted full time to inventing,
manufacturing and operating slot machines. In 1896, he opened a factory in
San Francisco where he created many machines including the famous
Liberty Bell, Draw Poker, Three Spindle and the Klondike. The business
was destroyed in the 1906 Earthquake and Fire. Today, the original site is
memorialized as a California Historical Landmark 937.

The first three reel slot machine created by Charles Fey in 1898 was called
the Liberty Bell Slot. This machine is the standard of over one million
machine worldwide. The Liberty Bell is owned by Marshall and Frank Fey,
the sons of Charles Fey and can be seen at the Liberty Bell Saloon and
Restaurant in Reno, Nevada.

4
Besides the nation's largest public display of vintage slot machines, many
original items such as leaded glass shades, numerous beer tray, firearms, old
photographs, Edison phonographs and massive cash registers can be seen. In
addition to preserving the old slots produced by his father, Marshall Fey in
1983 wrote "Slot Machines: A Pictorial History of the First 100 years of the
World's Most Popular Coin-Operated Gaming Device". The book is now in
his fifth printing.

The term slot machine was originally used for automatic vending machines
as well as for the gambling devices, but in the 20th century, the term became
restricted to gambling devices. The first such gambling device in the US
were mere novelties that did not return coins but presented opportunities,
such as two toy horses that would race after a coin was inserted. By the end
of the nineteenth century, machines that paid off in coins were in existence,
usually in the form of a circular display with a spinning indicator that came
to rest or pointed to a number, color, or picture. Today's most popular slot
machines are 3 reel forms with a window showing winning combinations for
coins played into the machine.

In the 1920's, the faces of morality and their law opposed the operation of
slot machines. It was believed that the distribution of slot machines were
controlled by organized crime and legislation restricted their sale. Nevada
was the only state where legalized gambling was allowed. As other states
and countries permitted gambling, the slot machines came into wide use
throughout the world. US manufacturers such as International Gaming
Technology had a prime segment of the markets. For the slot enthusiast, the
action of pulling the handle, the sound of the reels falling into line and the
jingle of cascading coins were all part of the attraction. By the late 1970's,
electronic machines operated by push button and having visual displays
were common. In the 1980's, the popularity of slot machines and table
games were running even, but by the 90's, slots had taken over and now
account for over two thirds of casino revenue in the US. Slot machines
gained their universal appeal in casino because unlike the other games, they
are played at the pace of the player and don't require any specific skills.
Commonly referred to as one-armed bandit, the goal of the game is to spin
the reels so that symbols on all reels line up on a single line. If this happens,
the slot machine pays out coins according to the pay off table posted on the
front of the cabinet. The pay off table describes the amount base on how
many coins have been played and the type of symbols lining up. Players
have a much greater chance of hitting any of the lower paying combinations.

5
Types of Machines

There are two kinds of slot machines: straight slots and progressives. These
machines are essentially the same, but for one feature: straight slots will pay
the winner a predetermined amount, where as progressive slots have a
jackpot that grows by a percentage of each coin played. In general, a number
of progressive machines are linked to a single computer where a grouping of
machines feed into one jackpot, and the jackpot grows to a very large dollar
sum, hundred of thousands and even millions. These grouping make up a
number of casinos with many machines throughout several states.
Progressive machines can be identified by flashing electronic pay off signs
displayed either on top of the machines or above a group of machines.

There are many different types of machines to choose from. Whether

playing a progressive or straight slot, players will be faced with a number of
choices. Machines vary on denominations of coins, the number of reels, how
many coins to play, and single or multiple pay lines. The wages can be as
low as a nickel and up to $ 500.00 per coin. The most common machines are
three reels types but some have four and five reels. When it comes to the
odds of winning, one must look at the number of reels a machine has, and
the jackpot pay off. The higher the number of reels and the higher the
jackpot, the probability of hitting the jackpot decreases considerably. A
computer programs the combination of symbols that will line up on a single
line. In Chapter three, a detail description of a typical three-reel machine
will be presented. Most machines are set out to pay from 83 percent up to 98
percent of the coins played averaged over a long period of time.

Most popular machines operate on a two and three coins maximum play.
With some machines, the number of coins played is proportional to the pay
off and with others the pay off is more than proportional. For example, the
IGT popular Double Diamond machine jackpot pays 800 coins for one coin
play and 1600 coins for two coins play, while the Triple Diamond slot
machine pays a jackpot of 1000 coins for a single play and 2500 coins for
the maximum two coin play. Another machine, called the "Wheel of
fortune", requires that you play the maximum coins for you to win the
jackpot. We have mentioned that most slot machines have one pay line but

6
three, five and nine lines are not uncommon. For these machines, the
maximum coins have to be played in order to optimize a likely win.

Most casinos will place their liberal machines where they are likely to attract
the most attention such as heavy traffic areas and in locations visible from
many directions on the casino floor. This may or may not be the case
everywhere. In the next chapter, we present some basic concepts of
permutations and combination and show how to calculate the probability of
winning with a three-reel slot machine. An introduction to random numbers
and their use in determining a jackpot will be discussed.

7
 Chapter II

The Mathematics of Slot Machines

An electronic device called a random number generator determines today’s

electronic slot machines outcomes. Slot machines are programmed to reflect
the desired pay out percentage determined by the casino, which cannot be set
below the legal minimum. The Gambling Commission in the state to which
the machine is delivered determines legal minimums. Some casinos
advertise a 99% pay back on $1.00 machines. What this means is that the
casino will hold the difference between the stated pay back and 100% as
their profit margin on all monies played on that machine. It does not mean
that at any one time a player will get back 99% of the coins he put into the
machine. So what is a random number generator and how does it work?
Before we answer this question, it will be useful to review some basic
concepts of probability and learn the fundamentals of permutations and
combinations. These concepts will help us in understanding how to derive
pay out percentages and establish hit and win frequencies for a given slot
machine.

Probability

Probability is a branch of mathematics that deals with determining the

likelihood that an event will have a particular outcome. It is based on the
study of permutations and combinations and is the foundation for statistics.
Two French mathematicians, Blaise Pascal and Pierre de Fermat are credited
with the development of probability theory in the 17th -century, but one can
go back as early as the 12th century B.C., where Chinese records indicate
studies of square arrays of numbers with the property that the rows,
columns, and diagonals add up to the same number. Over the centuries, the
interest of probability theory grew in attempts to answer questions arising in
games of chance such as how many times a pair of dice must be thrown
before the chance that a six will appear is 50/50. A number between 0 and 1,
inclusive, represents the probability of outcome with a probability 0 for an

8
event that will not occur and probability of 1 indicating certainty that it will
occur.
If we represent impossibility by zero and certainty by one, we can represent
probability as a line between zero and one. This is shown below.

0 1

impossible chance that a certain

coin shows head

Everything that is impossible is placed, at zero a person is not a bird, and

everything that is certain is placed at one, people are mortals. The whole
point of probability is to discuss uncertain events before they occur. After
this event, things are completely different. When the weather forecast gives
a 90% chance of rain, it may in fact not rain. The chance that an earthquake
may happen this week in San Francisco is very small but it may occur today.

Before delving into the mathematics, we should ask what determines

probability. Physics tells us that all events in nature are subject to physical
laws, that their outcomes are therefore dictated by these laws and that, by
correct application of these laws, we should be able to determine these
outcomes. For instance, if a coin of a certain weight is flipped with a certain
force, the laws of physics should tell us how many times it would turn over
before it comes to rest on a certain surface and therefore, which side will be
up. In reality, the problem may not contain all the information needed to
solve it and chance comes into the solution. Part of the chance element in
flipping a coin comes from a lack of information such as which side of the
coin is up before the flip. In games of chance involving cards, coin, roulette
wheels, etc. a random event is often called a “fair” event. In Slot machines
random numbers provide a way for the game to be fair. The probability of
selecting a winning combination is only based on the random number
selected by the computer chip. There are very few aspects of life, the
universe, or anything, in which chance is not in some way crucial to
existence. It is becoming increasingly difficult to succeed in life whether one
runs a business, practices medicine, deals in finances or engineering without
a keen appreciation of chance and probability. For this reason if you are

9
going to play slot machines, you need to know what your risks and chances
are and this is the goal of this chapter.
Permutations and Combinations

Many problems in probability require some methods of counting. For

example, how many five letter words, meaningful and meaningless, can be
written with the 26 characters of the alphabet? For the first letter of word we
have a choice among 26 different character. For the second letter we have
the same choice, that is, 26 x 26 = 262 possibilities. For the third letter we
have again a choice among the 26 characters. Hence the total number of
three letter words is 262 x 26 = 263 . For a five letter word we have then
265. In general for n sorts of objects when an unlimited number of objects of
each sort is available, the total number of ways we can find k distinct spaces,
each with one object is given by
k
n xn x… xn = n

Now let’s look at k distinct spaces and n different objects without repetition
and assume that n>= k. The first space can be filled in n different ways. For
the second space, only (n-1) objects are available and the first two spaces
can be filled in

n ( n – 1 ) ways
For the third space, we have ( n - 2 ) remaining objects for each consecutive
space the number of available objects decreases by 1. For the kth space, the
choice is among

n–k+1

objects. The total number of possibilities to fill the k spaces with n objects is
therefore

n Pk = n ( n –1 ) ( n –2 ) … (n – k +1 ) (1)

If the number n objects is equal to the number of spaces, we obtain an

important special case. Each arrangement is simply called a permutation of
the n objects. From (1) it follows that they are

n Pn = n ( n-1 ) ( n –2 ) … (3)(2)(1)

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 =n! (2)

! is the mathematical symbol for factorial and n ! is read as "n factorial”

Note: By definition 0 ! = 1

Example 1: How many possible orderings are there in the letters a,b,c?

n= 3 and the permutation of 3 letters is calculated from equation (2)

3!=3x2x1=6

The six orders are listed below

abc acb bac bca cab cba

Each of these arrangements is called a permutation of the letters, a, b, c.

Suppose we want to find the number of ways to arrange the three letters
a,b,c in different two-letter groups where ab is different from ba and there
are no repeated letters?
Because order matters, we are finding the number of permutations of size 2
that can be taken from a set of size 3. We can list them as:

ab, ba, ca, ac, bc, cb

An arrangement of a set of n objects where order is important is called a

permutation of the n objects. An arrangement of k<= n objects in a given
order is called a permutation of n objects taken k at a time.

Multiplying equation (1) by ( n - k )( n –k –1 ) … 3. 2. 1 which is the same

as ( n – k ) !, we have

n Pk ={n ( n - 1 )… ( n –k + 1) ( n – k )…2.1 }/ ( n – k ) !

= n!/(n–k)! (2)

Example 2: Determine the number of permutations of seven objects taken

five at a time .

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 7P 5 = 7! / (7 – 5) ! = (7 x 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1)/(2 x 1)

= 7x6x5x4x3

= 2,520

Note: the slash shown here is the division sign. For example 9 ! / 5 ! is read
9 factorial divided by 5 factorial

We have seen in the previous discussion that permutations take into account
the order of objects in a group. However, when the order is not important,
we need to determine the number of combinations of n items taken k at a
time. A combination of n objects taken k at a time is any subset of k times
from the original n.In a study, participants are asked to select three letters
from a list of four letters. How many possible grouping of three letters could
a given participant select? To answer this, suppose we label the letters
W,X,Y and Z.

Then we can list the combinations as follows:

Combinations Permutations

W,X,Y WXY, WYX, XWY, XYW, YXW, YWX

W,X,Z WXZ, WZX, XWZ, XZW, ZXW, ZWX
W,Y,Z WYZ, WZX, ZWY, ZYW, YWZ, YZW
X,Y,Z XYZ, XZY, ZXY, ZYX, YXZ, YZX

We see that for each of the four possible combinations there are 3P3 = 3 ! = 6
permutations. Using notations for combinations like that for permutations
we get:
3 ! 4C 3 = 4 P3

To find the number of combinations without listing them, we use:

4C3 = 4P 3 / 3 !

= 24 / 6

= 4

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In general notation we have the following formula for combinations:

n Ck = n Pr / k ! = { n ! / ( n – k ) !} / k !

= n!/[k!(n – k )!] (3)

Example 3: How many ways can we select three letters from the letters of
RSTUV?
n=5 k=3

5C3 =5!/(3!(5–3)!)

= ( 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1) / ( 3 x 2 x 1 ( 2 x 1 )

= 10

and they are: RST, RSU, RSV, RTU, RTV, RUV, STU, SUV,TUV, and

TVU

Example 4: How many combinations of the letters a b c d e are there taken:

a) 5 at one time

5C5 = 5 ! / (( 5 – 5 ) !x 5 !) = 1

b) 2 at a time

5C2 = 5 ! / (( 5 – 2 ) x 2 !) = 5 x 4 / 2 = 10

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Example 5: In how many ways can 3 seven's come up in 8 spins of a roulette
wheel?

A typical configuration for three 7's might be the 1s t, 4th , and 6th spins of the
wheel. Here we are interested in 8 sets of slots which can be fitted by 7's.
Order is unimportant here, since, switching the seven's from the 1s t to the 6th
will not result in a different event. Hence, the number of combination is

8! 8x7x6
8C3 = = = 56
3 ! ( 8 -3 ) ! 3x2x1

Example 6: Find the probability of a full house (three of a kind and two of
another kind), say three kings and two aces

Let A be the event "full house" then P(A) = n A / n

Where A = the total probability of getting a "full house", n = the total

number of outcomes (of selecting 5 cards out of 52)

n = 52 ! / ( 5 ! ( 52 - 5 ) ! = ( 52 x 51 x 50 x 49 x 48 ) / (5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 )

= 2,598,960

The number of ways to be given three aces is 4C3 , that is

4 C3 = 4 ! / ( 3 ! ( 4 - 3 ) !

= (4x3x2x1)/(3x2x1)(4-3)

= 4

and the number of ways to be given two kings is 4C2 or

4C2 =4!/(2!(4 -2)!

= (4x3x2x1)/(2x1)(2x1)

14
 = 6

The combined number of ways to be given three aces and two kings is

4C3 x 4C2 = 6 x 4 = 24

P(a) = n A / n = k ( 4C3 x 4C2 ) / 52C5

Where k is the number of different types of full houses (three of a kind and
two of a kind),

With cards 2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10, J,Q,K,A

There are 13 x 12 possible types of full houses and k = 156

P(A ) = 156 x 4C3 x 4C2 / 52C5

= 156 x 24 / 2,598,960

= 0.00144

Slot Machines and Combinations

Looking at the front of a slot machine cabinet, a pay table and description of
winning combinations of symbols such as 7’s, Triple Bars, Double Bars,
single Bars, Blanks and Cherries are brightly displayed. This information is
crucial if we want to determine how pay out percentages are generated for a
given slot machine. There are many different playing machines and each
one has its own game characteristics and pay out tables for a winning
probabilities. In order to better understand the probabilities of getting a
winning combination of symbols on a single line, we will apply some of the
basic concepts of permutations and combinations we have discussed up to
this point.

15
Let’s say that on a three reel machine, the pay table for the symbol of
cherries is as follow:

Symbols pay out ( # of coins)

Ch Ch Ch 45

Any two Cherries 18

Any one Cherry 6

In how many ways can cherry symbols combine with any other symbols on
a three reel pay line machine?

There is only one way for all three cherries to appear on a single line.

Ch Ch Ch

The next possible arrangements of cherries is as follows: we have one item

to be displayed on three windows, that is, the total number of permutation is
given by n!

Here n=3 and using equation (1), we have 3 ! = 3 x 2 x 1 = 6

The six permutations are listed below:

Ch Ch Any
Any Any Ch
Ch Any Ch
Any Ch Any
Ch Any Any
Any Any Ch

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(Note: Any stands for any other symbols on the physical reel)

Hence, there are 6 ways that cherries align on the pay line

If we at look at bar symbols such as the TB (triple bar), DB (double bar),

SB (single bar), the total number of combinations for all three types of
symbols aligning on the pay line is listed below:

Single Bars Double Bars Triple Bars

R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3

SB SB SB DB DB DB TB TB TB
SB SB DB DB DB SB TB TB SB
SB DB SB DB SB DB TB SB TB
SB SB TB DB DB TB TB TB DB
SB TB SB DB TB DB TB DB TB
SB DB TB DB TB SB TB SB DB
SB TB DB DB SB TB TB DB SB
SB DB DB DB SB SB TB DB DB
SB TB TB DB TB TB TB SB SB

There are 27 ways of aligning any bars on the pay line.

Some slot machines, have a "wild" symbol added to the reels. These
symbols not only substitute for any other symbols on the line but can also
double or triple the pay out of the combination it is substituting for. These
“wild” symbols increase the number of ways symbols line up on a single
line:

Let us derive all the possible combinations for a slot machine containing a
“wild” symbols such as a 3X which triples the value of the win. First, let us
look at a pay table that has a 3X symbol and their corresponding winning
amounts :

17
 SYMBOLS PAY OUT

3X 3X 3X 2500
7 7 7 200
TB TB TB 80
DB DB DB 40
SB SB SB 20
Any Any Any
bar bar bar 10
Two 3X's blank 20
One 3X two blanks 4

Table I. Pay Out Table for Wild 3X symbols with two coins

Let’s start with similar symbols. As we said earlier. there will be only one
way to align three like symbols on a single line, that is,

3X 3X 3X

7 7 7

TB TB TB

DB DB DB
SB SB SB

Blank Blank Blank

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There are 3 ways of combining a 3X with a single bar

3X SB SB
SB 3X SB
SB SB 3X

And the same for two x 3X’s wild symbols,

3X 3X SB
3X 3X SB
SB 3X 3X

There are then six ways for any symbols to combine with a single 3X or two
3X symbols.

Applying the same concepts to the other symbols ( SB,DB,TB, 7’s and
blanks), we have 6 x 5 =30 combinations. Now we are ready to sum all
possible combinations:

A) Number of similar symbol combinations on a single line (6)

3X 3X 3X
7 7 7
TB TB TB
DB DB DB

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 SB SB SB
Blank Blank Blank
B) Number of combinations for any symbols with 3X’s (48)

Since there are 6 ways of combining 3X's with two SB's and two 3X's with
one SB:

3X SB SB 3X 3X SB
SB 3X SB 3X SB 3X
SB SB 3X SB 3X 3X

With 5 different symbols (7,TB,DB,SB,and Blank), the total number of

combinations is just

6 x 5 = 30

In addition, any two bars can also combine with a 3X symbols as well, that
is:

3X SB DB SB 3X DB SB DB 3X
3X DB SB DB 3X SB DB SB 3X

3X DB TB DB 3X TB DB TB 3X
3X TB DB TB 3X DB TB DB 3X

3X SB TB SB 3X TB SB TB 3X
3X TB SB TB 3X SB TB SB 3X

The total number of ways 3X's that can combine with any two bars
is 18. The total number of combinations for any symbols with a 3 X
is 48.

20
C) Number of combinations for any bars (24)

Single Bars Double Bars Triple Bars

SB SB DB DB DB SB TB TB SB
SB DB SB DB SB DB TB SB TB
SB SB TB DB DB TB TB TB DB
SB TB SB DB TB DB TB DB TB
SB DB TB DB TB SB TB SB DB
SB TB DB DB SB TB TB DB SB
SB DB DB DB SB SB TB DB DB
SB TB TB DB TB TB TB SB SB

In this example , we have shown that there are 78 ways of arranging any
winning symbols listed on the pay out table. This information will be
necessary in deriving calculations of pay out percentages. It is interesting to
note that today's slot machines make it possible to use the many
combinations of symbols possible by using random numbers to select the
pay out probabilities and adding an unlimited number of "virtual" stops to
map these winning combinations.

The next analysis will deal with the calculation of a percentage pay out
based on Table I and the symbols we have created above. A physical reel
strip generally consists of 22 positions or “stops”. The symbols on the reel
are placed to correspond with certain Stop positions. Between each symbol
is a space referred to as a “Blank”. Blanks are treated as symbols. Referring
to our pay y table for the 3X slot machines, there will be 11 “Blank” with the
rest of our symbols making up the remaining 11 Stops for a total of 22
Stops.

21
Our reel strips will have the following Stops:

Stop Reel 1 Reel 2 Reel 3

1 Blank Blank Blank

2 3X 3X 3X
3 Blank Blank Blank
4 7 7 7
5 Blank Blank Blank
6 TB TB TB
7 Blank Blank Blank
8 DB DB DB
9 Blank Blank Blank
10 Blank Blank Blank
11 SB SB SB
12 Blank Blank Blank
13 SB SB SB
14 Blank Blank Blank
15 DB DB DB
16 Blank Blank Blank
17 TB TB TB
18 SB SB SB
19 Blank Blank Blank
20 SB SB SB
21 DB DB DB
22 Blank Blank Blank

Next we determine the number of possible hits for every combination

in order to calculate the pay outs in one cycle. We do this by setting up a
table that will describe the number of hits per reel and pay out per cycle of
play. We are using the pay table containing the wild symbol 3X. Blanks do
not return any coins.

22
 Pay Table Calculation Sheet

WIINNING COMBINATIONS HITS PER REEL HITS PAYS TOTAL

3X 3X 3X 1 1 1 1 2500 2500
7 7 7 1 1 1 1 200 200
3X 3X 7 1 1 1 1 1800 1800
7 3X 3X 1 1 1 1 1800 1800
3X 7 3X 1 1 1 1 1800 1800
3X 3X TB 1 1 2 2 720 1440
TB 3X 3X 2 1 1 2 720 1440
3X TB 3X 1 2 1 2 720 1440
3X 3X DB 1 1 3 3 360 1080
DB 3X 3X 3 1 1 3 360 1080
3X DB 3X 1 3 1 3 360 1080
3X 3X SB 1 1 4 4 180 720
SB 3X 3X 4 1 1 4 180 720
3X SB 3X 1 4 4 4 180 720
3X 7 7 1 1 1 1 600 600
7 3X 7 1 1 1 1 600 600
7 7 3X 1 1 1 1 600 600
3X TB TB 1 2 2 4 240 960
TB 3X TB 1 1 1 1 240 960
TB TB 3X 2 2 1 4 240 960
3X DB DB 1 3 3 9 120 1080
DB 3X DB 3 1 3 9 120 1080
DB DB 3X 3 3 1 9 120 1080
3X SB SB 1 4 4 16 60 960
SB 3X SB 4 1 4 16 60 960
SB SB 3X 4 4 1 16 60 960
3X BLANK 3X 1 11 1 11 20 220
3X 3X BLANK 1 1 11 11 20 220
BLANK 3X 3X 11 1 1 11 20 220
3X BLANK BLANK 1 11 11 121 10 1210
BLANK 3X BLANK 11 1 11 121 10 1210
BLANK BLANK 3X 11 11 1 121 10 1210
3X ANY BAR ANY BAR 9 9 9 729 30 21870
BLANK BLANK BLANK 11 11 11 1331 0 0
ANY BAR 3X ANY BAR 9 9 9 729 30 21870
ANY BAR ANY BAR 3X 9 9 9 729 30 21870
TB TB TB 2 2 2 8 40 320
DB DB DB 3 3 3 27 20 540
SB SB SB 4 4 4 64 10 640

23
Total 4,346 15,200 107,310

Pay Out Percentage:

With 22 stop positions on each reel, there will be a total of

22 x 22 x 22 = 10,648 cycles generated by the mechanical
slot machine. The pay out percentage is calculated as follow:

Cycle: 10,648

Pays = 107,310

Pay Out Percentage = ( pays/cycle) x 100

= (107,310/10,648)X 10

= 1008 %

Hold Percentage = 100- Pay Out Percentage

= 100 - 1008

= -908 %

The hit frequency is calculated to be

Number of hits: 168

Hit Frequency = (Number of Hits/ Number of Cycle) x 100

= (4,346/10,648) x 100

24
 = 40.8 %

The Win Frequency is equal to one divided by the Hit Frequency

Win Frequency = 1/(Hit Frequency)

= (1/ 40.8 ) x 100

= 2.451

With this type of machine, the player will win and the casino will loose
money. The pay out is greater than the number of cycles and the slot
machine will generate no profit for the casino, unless the pay out is
drastically reduced. In order to make money, the number of cycles will have
to be increased. For this to happen and maintain the look and feel of a real
mechanical slot machine, the industry came up with an electro-mechanical
device, that is, a slot machine that controls the winning percentage for the
casino.

This is achieved with a computer inside the slot machine which controls the
actual slot game as well as the theoretical pay out percentage. High tech
stepper motors, similar to those used in the space industry, operate the reels.
A stepper motor is a special type of motor that is capable of stopping at a
precise, predetermined point in its rotation. It is this ability that makes the
modern slot machine possible. The reel symbols come to rest at their exact
location as determined by the MPU control board. Mechanical devices
inside the machine enable physical reels to spins and control the pay out of
coins and reject invalid coins. A detailed discussion of the inside of slot
machine will be introduced in the next chapter.

As we have seen, the mechanical slot machine with 22 physical stops has not
enough cycles to generate a high pay out and is further limited by its
physical size. Larger machines and increased number of reels have shown to
be unpopular and perceived to have an unfair advantage. Microprocessor
have changed the nature of slot machines and have created an unlimited
amount of stops per reel, regardless of physical limitations.

Returning to our pay table as a reference, the only way to increase the hit
frequency and lower the win frequency is to add more cycles to the reel.

25
This can be readily achieved by extending our physical reel to include "soft
stops" or virtual stops. The microprocessor must randomly generate a
number that will fall between two physical stops. This is easily done with
random number generators. The standard stops per reel in the industry are
32, 64, 72, 128 and 256. The table below give the number of cycles
generated by different number of virtual stops.

No. of Stops per Reel Number of Cycles

(32x32x32) 32,768

(64x64x64) 262,144

(72x72x72) 373,248

(128x128x128) 2,097,152

(256x256x256) 16,777,216

Win Combinations for Virtual Reels

Thus far, we have shown how to calculate the percentage pay out for a
mechanical slot machine having 22 stops per reel. In this section we will
look at a physical reel that has 128 virtual stops. These multiple positions
within the virtual reel are assigned to the same position upon the actual reel.
A virtual reel table provides a mechanism for varying the odds of occurrence
for an actual reel position by assigning different numbers of virtual reel
positions to each actual reel position. For instance, the jackpot " 3X" may be
assigned to one virtual reel position, that is one random number. During the
operation, the virtual reel obtains a number from the random number
generator and uses this number as an index into the virtual reel table to
obtain a corresponding actual reel position. The standard physical reel within
the machine is stopped at the indexed actual reel position. This process is
repeated for every reel within the machine and the outcome is then
determined from the chosen reel positions. Again, referring to our original
pay table (see Table I), we generate all possible win combinations for a 128
virtual reel stops.

26
 Pay Table Calculation Sheet

R1 R2 R3 # of Hits TOTAL PAY TOTAL

Per Reel
HITS
3X 3X 3X 1 1 1 1 2500 2500
7 7 7 6 8 7 336 200 67200
3X 3X 7 1 1 7 7 1800 12600
7 3X 3X 6 1 1 6 1800 10800
3X 7 3X 1 8 1 8 1800 14400
3X 7 7 1 8 7 56 600 33600
7 3X 7 6 1 7 42 600 25200
7 7 3X 6 8 1 48 600 28800
3X 3X TB 1 1 8 8 720 5760
TB 3X 3X 8 1 1 8 720 5760
3X TB 3X 1 8 1 8 720 5760
3X TB TB 1 8 8 64 240 15360
TB 3X TB 8 1 8 64 240 15360
TB TB 3X 8 8 1 64 240 15360
3X 3X DB 1 1 14 14 360 5040
DB 3X 3X 14 1 1 14 360 5040
DB 3X 3X 14 1 1 14 360 5040
3X DB DB 1 13 14 182 120 21840
DB 3X DB 14 1 14 196 120 23520
DB DB 3X 14 13 1 182 120 21840
3X 3X SB 1 1 25 25 180 4500
SB 3X 3X 25 1 1 25 180 4500
3X SB 3X 1 21 1 21 180 3780
3X SB SB 1 21 25 525 60 31500
SB 3X SB 25 1 25 625 60 37500
SB SB 3X 25 21 1 525 60 31500
3X SB DB 1 21 14 294 30 8820
SB 3X DB 25 1 14 350 30 10500
SB DB 3X 25 13 1 325 30 9750
3X DB SB 1 13 25 325 30 9750
DB 3X SB 14 1 25 350 30 10500
DB SB 3X 14 21 1 294 30 8820
3X SB TB 1 21 8 168 30 5040
SB 3X TB 25 1 8 200 30 6000
SB TB 3X 25 8 1 200 30 6000
3X TB SB 1 8 25 200 30 6000
TB 3X SB 8 1 25 200 30 6000
TB SB 3X 8 21 1 168 30 5040
3X DB TB 1 13 8 104 30 3120
DB 3X TB 14 12 8 1344 30 40320
DB TB 3X 14 8 1 112 30 3360
3X TB DB 1 8 14 112 30 3360
TB 3X DB 8 1 14 112 30 3360
TB DB 3X 8 13 1 104 30 3120
TB TB TB 8 8 8 512 80 40960
DB DB DB 14 13 14 2548 40 101920
SB SB SB 25 21 25 13125 20 262500

27
 3X 3X BLANK 1 1 73 73 20 1460
BLANK 3X 3X 74 1 1 74 20 1480
3X BLANK 3X 1 77 1 77 20 1540
3X BLANK BLANK 1 77 73 5621 4 22484
BLANK 3X BLANK 74 1 73 5402 4 21608
BLANK BLANK 3X 74 77 1 5698 4 22792
3X BLANK SB 1 77 25 1925 4 7700
SB 3X BLANK 25 1 73 1825 4 7300
BLANK SB 3X 74 21 1 1554 4 6216
3X SB BLANK 1 21 73 1533 4 6132
BLANK 3X SB 74 1 25 1850 4 7400
SB BLANK 3X 25 77 1 1925 4 7700
3X BLANK DB 1 77 14 1078 4 4312
DB 3X BLANK 14 1 73 1022 4 4088
BLANK DB 3X 74 13 1 962 4 3848
3X DB BLANK 1 13 73 949 4 3796
BLANK 3X DB 74 1 24 1776 4 7104
DB BLANK 3X 14 77 1 1078 4 4312
3X BLANK TB 1 77 8 616 4 2464
TB 3X BLANK 8 1 73 584 4 2336
BLANK TB 3X 74 8 1 592 4 2368
3X TB BLANK 1 8 73 584 4 2336
BLANK 3X TB 74 1 8 592 4 2368
3X 7 SB 1 8 25 200 4 800
3X SB 7 1 21 7 147 4 588
3X 7 DB 1 8 14 112 4 448
3X DB 7 1 13 7 91 4 364
3X 7 TB 1 8 8 64 4 256
3X TB 7 1 8 7 56 4 224
7 3X SB 6 1 25 150 4 600
SB 3X 7 25 1 7 175 4 700
7 3X DB 6 1 14 84 4 336
DB 3X 7 14 1 7 98 4 392
7 3X TB 6 1 8 48 4 192
TB 3X 7 8 1 7 56 4 224
SB 7 3X 25 8 1 200 4 800
7 SB 3X 6 21 1 126 4 504
DB 7 3X 14 8 1 112 4 448
7 DB 3X 6 13 1 78 4 312
7 TB 3X 6 8 1 48 4 192
TB 7 3X 12 8 1 96 4 384
SB SB DB 25 21 14 7350 10 73500
DB SB SB 14 21 25 7350 10 73500
SB DB SB 25 13 25 8125 10 81250
SB SB TB 25 21 8 4200 10 42000
TB SB SB 8 21 25 4200 10 42000
SB TB SB 25 8 25 5000 10 50000
DB DB TB 14 13 8 1456 10 14560

28
 TB DB DB 8 13 14 1456 10 14560
DB TB DB 14 8 14 1568 10 15680
DB DB SB 14 13 25 4550 10 45500
SB DB DB 25 13 14 4550 10 45500
DB SB DB 14 21 14 4116 10 41160
TB TB DB 8 8 23 1472 10 14720
DB TB TB 14 8 8 896 10 8960
TB DB TB 8 13 8 832 10 8320
TB TB SB 8 8 25 1600 10 16000
SB TB TB 25 18 8 3600 10 36000
TB SB TB 8 21 8 1344 10 13440
SB DB TB 25 13 8 2600 10 26000
DB SB TB 14 21 8 2352 10 23520
DB TB SB 14 8 25 2800 10 28000
SB TB DB 8 8 14 896 10 8960
TB SB DB 8 21 14 2352 10 23520
TB DB SB 8 13 25 2600 10 26000

TOTAL 1692 1579 1719 140811 16072 1941858

Pay Out Percentage:

With 128 virtual stop positions on each reel, there will be a total of
128 x 128 x 128 = 2,097,152 cycles. The pay out percentage is calculated as
follow:

Cycle: 2,097,152

Pays = 1,941,858

Pay Out Percentage = ( pays/cycle) x 100

= (1,941,858/2,097,152) x 100

= 92.60 %

The Hold Percentage by the casino is equal to

100- Pay Out Percentage

= 100 - 92.6

29
 = 7.40 %

The hit frequency is calculated to be

Number of hits: 140,811

Hit Frequency = (Number of Hits/ Number of Cycle) x 100

= (140,811/2,097,152) x 100

= 6.71 %

Win Frequency = 1/(Hit Frequency)

= (1/ 6.71) x 100

= 14.89

As we can see from this exercise, the casino will make a profit. We have
taken an hypothetical slot machine and determined its percentage pay out,
based on the number of virtual stops, the combinations of symbols aligning
on a single line and the pay out for each winning combination. In the last
section of this chapter, we will discuss random number generators and how
these numbers are used to determine a winning combination .

Random Number Generator

At the beginning of this chapter, we mentioned that the random number

generator is the most important part of the slot machine because it
determines the outcome of every game. All modern slot machines are
controlled by a computer, and one of the computer functions is to generate
random numbers. However, computers are not random in any way at all,
they follow a fixed sequence of instructions which is predictable. Starting
from a set of conditions a computer will generate exactly the same sequence
of random numbers time after time. In reality, there are very few things that

30
are truly random. Real random numbers are non-deterministic. A Geiger
counter generates a pulse every time it detects a radioactive decay. The time
between decays has a strong pure random component. The known
exponential distribution can be easily removed mathematically but the mean
time between decays in background radiation rises early in the morning and
falls at night. There are non random patterns lying hidden in the data which
could be exploited by an analyst attempting to reduce his uncertainty for the
next number in the sequence. An electronic slot machine needs a sequence
that is unpredictable to the left; that is, the player cannot determine the next
spin based on pattern analysis of previous spins. Unpredictability to the right
is not required since it makes no difference if the player could infer an
earlier sequence from a later sequence. Pure random numbers are found in
nature such as "quantum" events that happen inside individual atoms. For
example, the gas inside a laser which stores bundles of "quanta" of energy
and gives back as light. The time it takes for each atom to give back the
energy is a random quantum event. Signal noises are also pure random
events. In a slot machine, the random number generator is a mathematical
formula that produces a long sequence of numbers that appear as random.
Theoretically, if one knew the formula and what the last number was, one
could calculate the next one and so on. To avoid this possibility, the slot
machine runs its pseudo random number generator continually whether it is
played or not, so nobody has any idea what number it has generated at any
one time. The sequence for these numbers has a finite time and always
repeat itself. A 32 binary number (2 raised to the 32 power) produces 4.3
billion numbers. If the slot machine runs the RNG 1000 times a second, a
typical value, it will take 50 days to complete the sequence and start over.
There are three types of random number generation methods:

1. Toy generators provided by most programming languages and many

software packages. These RNG are used for small computer
simulations such as waiting times for a queuing network.
2. Serious generators which use 32 and 64 bits are found in video games
and in slot machines.
3. Truly random number generators which employ electronic circuits for
measurements of natural phenomenon. These are used in the field of
research (physics and even finance) and cryptography where security
is vital for national defense.

For our purpose, we will examine the serious random number generators.
Earlier, we said that most slot machines have 22 stop positions on each reel,

31
11 symbols and 11 spaces (blank). However, we saw that internally, they
have hidden virtual stops with many more positions. These positions are list
of numbers in the program of the computer. Each position is mapped to a
stop on the physical reel, and when a particular number is chosen, the
machine makes the physical reel stop at the corresponding place. When a
coin or coins are inserted into the machine, the reels begin to spin and the
computer pulls three numbers out of the subset of pseudo random numbers.
They are very large numbers, anywhere between 1 and 4.3 billion. These
numbers are then divided by the number of virtual stops and the remainder is
kept in a memory block. Using our slot machine with 128 virtual stops, an
"index" from 0 to 127 is used to look up a number in each virtual reel data
and map it on the physical reel. The reduction from 4.3 billion to 127 means
that every position on the virtual reel is pointed to by 34 million random
numbers. Dropping a coin or hitting the button happens at a random time
and the chances are very small that one can hit a particular number even if
you knew it was about to come because the computer is generating numbers
at a rate of about 1000 or more cycles per second.

The selection of numbers is taken from a computer program and using our
previous example, we have set up table pay out based on those selected
random numbers.

32
 R1 R2 R3 Weight Probability PAY
Subset
From To
BLANK BLANK BLANK 0 6341725 6341726 0.0236248 0
BLANK BLANK SB 6341726 12683451 6341726 0.0236248 0
BLANK BLANK DB 12683452 19025177 6341726 0.0236248 0
BLANK BLANK TB 19025178 25366903 6341726 0.0236248 0
BLANK SB 7 25366904 31708629 6341726 0.0236248 0
BLANK DB DB 31708630 38050355 6341726 0.0236248 0
BLANK DB TB 38050356 44392081 6341726 0.0236248 0
BLANK TB SB 44392082 50733807 6341726 0.0236248 0
BLANK TB DB 50733808 57075533 6341726 0.0236248 0
BLANK SB TB 57075534 63417259 6341726 0.0236248 0
BLANK TB TB 63417260 69758985 6341726 0.0236248 0
BLANK TB 7 69758986 76100711 6341726 0.0236248 0
BLANK DB BLANK 76100712 82442437 6341726 0.0236248 0
BLANK TB BLANK 82442438 88784163 6341726 0.0236248 0
BLANK SB BLANK 88784164 95125889 6341726 0.0236248 0
BLANK SB SB 95125890 101467615 6341726 0.0236248 0
3X 3X 3X 101467616 101467747 132 0.0000005 2500
7 7 7 101467748 101571876 104129 0.0003879 200
3X 3X 7 101571877 101583275 11399 0.0000425 1800
7 3X 3X 101583276 101594674 11399 0.0000425 1800
3X 7 3X 101594675 101606073 11399 0.0000425 1800
3X 7 7 101606074 101640730 34657 0.0001291 600
7 3X 7 101640731 101675387 34657 0.0001291 600
7 7 3X 101675388 101710044 34657 0.0001291 600
3X 3X TB 101710045 101738890 28846 0.0001075 720
TB 3X 3X 101738891 101767736 28846 0.0001075 720
3X TB 3X 101767737 101796582 28846 0.0001075 720
3X TB TB 101796583 101893935 97353 0.0003627 240
TB 3X TB 101893936 101991288 97353 0.0003627 240
TB TB 3X 101991289 102088641 97353 0.0003627 240
3X 3X DB 102088642 102153543 64902 0.0002418 360
DB 3X 3X 102153544 102218445 64902 0.0002418 360
DB 3X 3X 102218446 102283347 64902 0.0002418 360
3X DB DB 102283348 102456418 173071 0.0006447 120
DB 3X DB 102456419 102629489 173071 0.0006447 120
DB DB 3X 102629490 102802560 173071 0.0006447 120
3X 3X SB 102802561 102917941 115381 0.0004298 180
SB 3X 3X 102917942 103033322 115381 0.0004298 180
3X SB 3X 103033323 103148703 115381 0.0004298 180
3X SB SB 103148704 103494844 346141 0.0012895 60
SB 3X SB 103494845 103840985 346141 0.0012895 60
SB SB 3X 103840986 104187126 346141 0.0012895 60
3X SB DB 104187127 104884012 696886 0.0025961 30
SB 3X DB 104884013 105580898 696886 0.0025961 30
SB DB 3X 105580899 106277784 696886 0.0025961 30
3X DB SB 106277785 106974670 696886 0.0025961 30
DB 3X SB 106974671 107671556 696886 0.0025961 30
DB SB 3X 107671557 108368442 696886 0.0025961 30
3X SB TB 108368443 109065328 696886 0.0025961 30
SB 3X TB 109065329 109762214 696886 0.0025961 30

33
 SB TB 3X 109762215 110459100 696886 0.0025961 30
3X TB SB 110459101 111155986 696886 0.0025961 30
TB 3X SB 111155987 111852872 696886 0.0025961 30
TB SB 3X 111852873 112549758 696886 0.0025961 30
3X DB TB 112549759 113246644 696886 0.0025961 30
DB 3X TB 113246645 113943530 696886 0.0025961 30
DB TB 3X 113943531 114640416 696886 0.0025961 30
3X TB DB 114640417 115337302 696886 0.0025961 30
TB 3X DB 115337303 116034188 696886 0.0025961 30
TB DB 3X 116034189 116731074 696886 0.0025961 30
TB TB TB 116731075 116990680 259606 0.0009671 80
DB DB DB 116990681 117309891 319211 0.0011892 40
SB SB SB 117309892 117899128 589237 0.0021951 20
3X 3X BLANK 117899129 118488365 589237 0.0021951 20
BLANK 3X 3X 118488366 119077602 589237 0.0021951 20
3X BLANK 3X 119077603 119666839 589237 0.0021951 20
3X BLANK BLANK 119666840 122798843 3132004 0.0116676 4
BLANK 3X BLANK 122798844 125930847 3132004 0.0116676 4
BLANK BLANK 3X 125930848 129062851 3132004 0.0116676 4
3X BLANK SB 129062852 132194855 3132004 0.0116676 4
SB 3X BLANK 132194856 135326859 3132004 0.0116676 4
BLANK SB 3X 135326860 138458863 3132004 0.0116676 4
3X SB BLANK 138458864 141590867 3132004 0.0116676 4
BLANK 3X SB 141590868 144722871 3132004 0.0116676 4
SB BLANK 3X 144722872 147854875 3132004 0.0116676 4
3X BLANK DB 147854876 150986879 3132004 0.0116676 4
DB 3X BLANK 150986880 154118883 3132004 0.0116676 4
BLANK DB 3X 154118884 157250887 3132004 0.0116676 4
3X DB BLANK 157250888 160382891 3132004 0.0116676 4
BLANK 3X DB 160382892 163514895 3132004 0.0116676 4
DB BLANK 3X 163514896 166646899 3132004 0.0116676 4
3X BLANK TB 166646900 169778903 3132004 0.0116676 4
TB 3X BLANK 169778904 172910907 3132004 0.0116676 4
BLANK TB 3X 172910908 176042911 3132004 0.0116676 4
3X TB BLANK 176042912 179174915 3132004 0.0116676 4
BLANK 3X TB 179174916 182306919 3132004 0.0116676 4
3X 7 SB 182306920 185438923 3132004 0.0116676 4
3X SB 7 185438924 188570927 3132004 0.0116676 4
3X 7 DB 188570928 191702931 3132004 0.0116676 4
3X DB 7 191702932 194834935 3132004 0.0116676 4
3X 7 TB 194834936 197966939 3132004 0.0116676 4
3X TB 7 197966940 201098943 3132004 0.0116676 4
7 3X SB 201098944 204230947 3132004 0.0116676 4
SB 3X 7 204230948 207362951 3132004 0.0116676 4
7 3X DB 207362952 210494955 3132004 0.0116676 4
DB 3X 7 210494956 213626959 3132004 0.0116676 4
7 3X TB 213626960 216758963 3132004 0.0116676 4
TB 3X 7 216758964 219890967 3132004 0.0116676 4
SB 7 3X 219890968 223022971 3132004 0.0116676 4
7 SB 3X 223022972 226154975 3132004 0.0116676 4

34
 DB 7 3X 226154976 229286979 3132004 0.0116676 4
7 DB 3X 229286980 232418983 3132004 0.0116676 4
7 TB 3X 232418984 235550987 3132004 0.0116676 4
TB 7 3X 235550988 238682991 3132004 0.0116676 4
SB SB DB 238682992 239922677 1239686 0.0046182 10
DB SB SB 239922678 241162363 1239686 0.0046182 10
SB DB SB 241162364 242402049 1239686 0.0046182 10
SB SB TB 242402050 243641735 1239686 0.0046182 10
TB SB SB 243641736 244881421 1239686 0.0046182 10
SB TB SB 244881422 246121107 1239686 0.0046182 10
DB DB TB 246121108 247360793 1239686 0.0046182 10
TB DB DB 247360794 248600479 1239686 0.0046182 10
DB TB DB 248600480 249840165 1239686 0.0046182 10
DB DB SB 249840166 251079851 1239686 0.0046182 10
SB DB DB 251079852 252319537 1239686 0.0046182 10
DB SB DB 252319538 253559223 1239686 0.0046182 10
TB TB DB 253559224 254798909 1239686 0.0046182 10
DB TB TB 254798910 256038595 1239686 0.0046182 10
TB DB TB 256038596 257278281 1239686 0.0046182 10
TB TB SB 257278282 258517967 1239686 0.0046182 10
SB TB TB 258517968 259757653 1239686 0.0046182 10
TB SB TB 259757654 260997339 1239686 0.0046182 10
SB DB TB 260997340 262237025 1239686 0.0046182 10
DB SB TB 262237026 263476711 1239686 0.0046182 10
DB TB SB 263476712 264716397 1239686 0.0046182 10
SB TB DB 264716398 265956083 1239686 0.0046182 10
TB SB DB 265956084 267195769 1239686 0.0046182 10
TB DB SB 267195770 268435455 1239686 0.0046182 10

TOTAL 268435456 1.0000000 16072

35
The fundamental function of a random number generator can be shown in
FIG. 1. At any time instant when the start button is actuated, a random
number is sampled. The sampled value is in turn referred to a winning
probability table to generate a request. Then referring to the symbol
arrangement table and the winning table, each reel R1 to R3 is controlled so
as to provide a win corresponding to the request.

Internal Controls

Gaming Control Boards (GCB) have developed strict planning and rigorous
internal control of casino audits. Because of limited documentation of casino
revenues, analytical reviews are used to test casino revenues. This is
accomplished by comparing slot machines theoretical hold results to the
actual results. As we mentioned earlier, theoretical hold or win as computed
by reference to its payout schedule and reel setting are used as standards for
the casinos. Deviation of the actual hold from theoretical hold percentage is
a sign of either mechanical electrical or other performance problems. Some
of the minimum requirements include testing of the following:

1) Coin in meter is functioning correctly

2) Coin in meter is read at least weekly and review for correctness
3) Theoretical/actual hold comparison made once a month
4) Statistical report reviewed by slot managers monthly
5) Any variation are to be investigated and resolved in a timely manner

These internal control are established by casinos in order to comply with

GCB inspectors and if not followed, casinos may loose their license.
Our next chapter will take us inside the slot machine and provide the reader
with a detail description of the many components that make up a modern
three reel slot machine. Our next chapter will take us inside the slot machine
and provide the reader with a detail description of the many components that
make up a modern electronic slot machine.

36
 Random
Number
Generation
Winning
Start Probability
Lever Sampling Comparison
Table

Request
Generation
Symbol
Arrangement Winning
Table
Table

Reel
R1

Reel
Stop Reel
Control R2

Reel
R3

FIG. 1 Block diagram showing the functions of a random generator in a slot

Machine

37
 CHAPTER III

The Electronic Three Reel Single Line Slot Machine

Standard Model

A slot machine is essentially an electro-mechanical device. FIG 2. shows the

basic external components of a slot machine. First we have the slot machine
cabinet which comes in various styles and sizes, from tall upright machines
to low narrow body machines. The top part of the cabinet is named the top
box . This is where the Pay Table Glass (FIG. 3) is located and winning
combinations are displayed. A bright light illuminates the Pay Table. Below
the top box and covering the front of the machine we have the slot door
which protects the inside of the machine. The lock is well secure so it will
not easily be opened. There are two other illuminated display glasses, the
reel glass and the called belly glass (FIGS. 4 & 5). The reel glass covers the
reels of the machine, indicating a single line or multiple lines where the reel
symbols have to line up to make a winning combination. The belly glass is a
decorative display glass which advertises the type of game being played.
Located between the reel glass and the belly glass is a button panel where
the buttons are situated as well as the coin insert mouth. Most machines have
a bet one button, a max button, a spin button and a coin attendant button.
The size of the coin insert mouth varies according to the size of the coins
played. A bill acceptor is situated next to or above the belly glass, enabling
one to insert bills instead of coins. Also, a play card insert is located for the
player to keep a running count of the number of cycles played on that
machine. The coin tray is located below the belly glass. To the right of the
slot machine, we find the handle which operates the same spin button found
between the reel glass and the belly glass. The handle is there for cosmetic
reason only and does not influence the outcome of the game in any way.
On top of the cabinet, we have the tower light. This light has two shades of
color. One is for the jackpot and the other is for malfunctions which requires
the assistance of a floor attendant. The colors also describes the type of coin
denomination being played.

Operation

38
To understand the basic operation of modern slot machine we will be using
block diagrams throughout this section. A picture is worth a thousands
words and hopefully this method will greatly simplify our task without
going to detail technical descriptions. Upon opening the door of a slot
machine, we find a neat arrangement of electronic and mechanical
components. Modern three reel-type slot machines evolved from
mechanical type machines wherein mechanical clutches were relied on to
stop spinning display reels at random locations to display a game result to
today's machine where a microprocessor randomly selects a game result. If
we remember that by generating a greater number of random numbers than
the number of available sets of different symbol combinations, and by
varying the sizes of the subsets of random numbers which correspond to
each different set of game symbols then the probability of a particular game
result can be predetermined for the machine. The random number generator
is the brain of the slot machine.

The basic operation of a slot machine is functionally illustrated in FIG. 6.

Coins are inserted into the slot (1) and detected by the coin acceptor (2). The
coins pass along a conduit into a coin payout hopper (3). The level of coins
in the payout hopper is sensed by a detector which when full causes the coin
diverter mechanism (4) to deflect a paddle and divert the coins recorded into
a coin counter to come to rest in a coin drop box (5). When the coins have
been accepted, a signal energizes the game to start. If multiple coins are fed
into the machine a circuit detects this fact and signals the control and payout
logic of the number of coins inserted. Once the play button is pressed or the
handle is pulled (6), a shaft is rotated to power the reel mechanism (7). A
random number generator (8) programs selected position, causes the
individual reel to stop and determines a payout. When the payout is
complete, a signal passes to the main control unit and a new game is
activated. The control operation is illustrated in FIG. 7.

The hopper (3) is responsible for the paying out of coins into the coin tray. A
hopper is a strong motor that turns a metal wheel. The wheel is a solid
circular plate with raised pins that are spaced evenly apart towards the outer
edge of the wheel. The distance between the pins is determined by the size
of the coins that the hopper is required to pay out. The inner section of the
wheel is also raised to enable a coin to rest on the wheel without slipping
off. This wheel is large enough to hold up to a thousand coins. All the coins
are controlled by the MPU , that is, how many coins are needed to be paid
out. An optical sensor counts the coins as they leave the hopper. When the

39
last coin has been counted, the computer sends a signal to the hopper motor
brake to engage and instantly forces the motor to stop. The machine accepts
the coins and verifies that they correct. This is done using a coin comparator.
The coin is compared with a sample coin. Using magnetic coils, an
electronic measurement can be determined to assess the magnetic properties
of the inserted coins to that of the sample coin. Usually, there will be three
coils placed strategically near the coin insert mouth. The sample coin will
register a magnetic signal and when a coin is inserted, its property will be
compared and information send to an electronic comparator. If the two
signals are identified, then the coin will be allowed to pass through and start
the game, otherwise a negative output will activate a solenoid to block the
path of the coin and send it to the coin tray. Once, the coin is accepted, it
will travel down and pass through two optical sensors. One sensor measures
direction and the other time of travel. Should the direction change or the
time vary from a predetermined time, the machine will activate an alarm and
require the assistance of an attendant to rectify the situation.

FIG. 8 illustrates the process in selecting a random number. The random

number generator selects a random number within a predetermined range of
random numbers. For example, in a 32 bit system the number may be one of
4,294,967,396 numbers in a range of 0 to 4,294,967,396. Then, this number
is utilized in conjunction with a stored look-up table in an memory device
called an EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory) to select a
game result comprising the three reel symbols S1,S2,S3. Next all three reels
are made to spin. The first reel continues to spin for a first predetermined
free spin period, typically one second, and upon completion a stopping
procedure is initiated whereby signals developed by the game selected
virtual stop are compared with signals corresponding to the desired game
symbol S1. The stepper motor is interrupted and a stop routine is initiated to
stop the display reel with the desired symbol displayed. In the mean time the
second display reel continues to spin, and upon completion of a second
predetermined spin period, also around one second, the signals generated by
the symbol on reel 2 are compared with signals corresponding to the desired
game symbol S2 and upon acceptance, a stop routine is initiated causing
reel 2 to stop. Similarly, the third reel continues to spin for about a second
and again a predetermined symbol initiates the stop. In the event of a spin
error, the position of any one of the three reels, either as a result of the
stepper motor slipping or failing to stop in response to a stepper pulse, an
alarm is sounded and the game is stopped. If there are no spin errors, a
determination is made whether the game results constitute a win and if so the

40
hopper mechanism is actuated to provide a pay out.

Thus far, we have gone through the operation of a slot machine and have a
better understanding of how all the components fit together. The question a
reader may have at this point of this book is how can we use this knowledge
to increase our odds at playing slots. Well, there is a way to theoretically
increase our odds in winning a jackpot. First, we need to have a detail record
of a given machine. Specifically, a knowledge of the payout that has gone
for the life cycle of this machine, since theoretically a given hold percentage
will eventually bottom out and a winning number will appear. This period of
time will depend on how long the machine has been active and the cycle of
the machine. A machine with a low cycle will take a shorter time to
complete a cycle than one with a larger cycle. For instance a slot machine
with a 32 stop per reel being played six times a minute, 24 hours a day will
take

(32 x 32 x32 ) / { 6 play/min x 60 min/hr x 24/day } = 3.79 days

to complete a full cycle, while a machine with 128 stops per reel
will take

(128 x 128 x 128 ) / { 6 play/min x 60 min/hr x 24 hr/day}=242.7 days

and for a machine with 256 stops per reel will take 5.32 years to complete its
cycle of 16,777,216 combinations. Unfortunately, this information is
available only to casino owners.

The Law of Averages

One of the most important results in probability theory is the law of

averages, also known as the law of large numbers. This mathematical law
provides an important connection between theoretical probabilities and
observed rules of random events. The law is summarized as follow:

In repeated, independent trials of the same experiment, the

observed fraction of occurrences of an event eventually
approaches its theoretical probability

41
Basically it says that if you repeatedly play an "unfavorable" game, even
though you are uncertain of the results of an individual play, in the long run
you will surely be a looser. How can we then make slot playing a profitable
game. Well, the answer is found in common sense and here are simple rules
that one can follow and reduce the odds of being a looser. The following
guidelines will be helpful:

1) Play a high denomination machine if you can afford it for the

higher the denomination the higher the payout percentage.
2) Keep your winnings from your buy-in amount, i.e. any money that
you win keep aside with the only money you bet with being the
money you budgeted for.
3) Play machine with a lower cycle. There is no way of knowing which
machine has a short cycle but the machines with lower jackpot
amounts generally have lower cycles.
4) Play machines that have "wild" symbols such as Double Diamonds,
Triple Diamonds, Five Times Pay. These are the most popular
machines among players and can increase you pay off.

42
Technological Advancements and Future Development

Computer technology is growing rapidly giving the slot machine industries

new opportunities for creating better graphics, better sounds and easier to
use interactive games. Multigame machine make switching between games
and challenge levels as easy as the touch of a finger. With upgraded
machines electronics, state of the art video game machine offer many
choices to the players. From simulated spinning reels to video blackjack,
players have numerous choices within a single machine. Another innovation
to come out as a result of new technology is the bonus game. These are
available on both spinning and video machines. The attraction lies in the
overall game experience with exciting bonus opportunities for the players.
Combining multimedia features, digital stereo sound, and interactive game
play, machines like Wheel of Fortune, Elvis and the Adams Family are
taking games to a new level.

The next wave of technology will feature a coin less system that pays out in
vouchers instead of coins. This will be a great saving to casino owners.
There will no longer be a need for employees to empty machines night after
night, count and sort coins, and reduce the number of attendants who take
care of hopper fills and coin jams. The only set back for the player is that the
game will be played faster and your risk will increase.

Players will be attracted by these new electronic gaming and it will become
more important than ever to learn how to become in control of the game.
This will be presented in the next chapter.

43
 Tower Light

Pay Table Glass

Reel Glass

Handle Bar

Button Panel

Belly Glass

FIG. 2 Electro-Mechanical Slot Machine

44
FIG. 3 Pay Table Glass

45
FIG. 4 Reel Glass and Button Panel

FIG. 5 Belly Glass

46
 Reel Mechanism
1 Reels with Index
and Symbols
7
Handle Index Mechanism
Coin In Coin In Sensor 6 Mechanism

8
Reel Spin Detector
2
Game Initialize
Coin
Acceptor Lockout Control Release Random Number Selector

Display
Credit Function Control
Coin Diverter - Sequence
And Control Unit - Cash Flow
- Release Coin
Handle
4 3
- Motor control
- fill verification
Hopper

Coin Out Tray Measure & Register

- Meters
- Coin in Coin out
- Coin Drop
- Hopper Levels
- Handle Pulls
5 - Fill verification
Electrical /Signals

Coin Path

Drop Box

FIG. 6 Basic Operation of Electronic Slot Machine

47
 Enabling
Device
Allow Random
Play number
Coin Button Generator
Acceptor Or
Pull
Handle
Coin Multi Coin Reel
Diverter Logic Mechanism
Mechanism Counter

Coin Reel Stop

Counter Mechanism

Coin Control
Payout &
Hopper Payout
Logic
Hopper Reel Stopped
Coin Position
Coin
Drop Detector Detector
Box

Payout
Completed

FIG. 7 Control system Diagram

48
 COIN IN

SELECT RANDOM
SPIN REEL 2
NUMBER FROM COMPLETE
PREDERTERMINED
?
SET

y
SELECT REEL 1. MATCH Y
REEL2, REEL 3 SYMBOLS ON
FROM PREDET REEL 2 S2
SUBSET

STOP
REEL 2
SPIN REELS

SPIN REEL 3
SPIN REEL 1 COMPLETE
COMPLETE
?

y
MATCH
SYMBOLS ON y
REEL 1 S1

STOP REEL 1

FIG. 8 Diagram of Reel Selection y

49
 CHAPTER IV

Slot Machines and Human Behavior

Conditioning and Reinforcement

As a result of technological advances and a variety of reasons, slot machines

have become the most popular form of casino-style gambling in the United
States and in many other countries over the past two decades. This is
reflected in both revenues and total number of machines. In 1997, there were
nearly a half million slot machines in the United States. (Salomon Smith
Barney, 1998). The rise of popularity with slot machines may be found in
the machines’ potent control over the individual player. According to
psychologists studying this problem, slot machine gambling demonstrate the
principle of conditioning and superstitious behavior that contributes to the
effectiveness of slot machines. The behavior generated by slot machines is
so potent that it is often regarded as addictive. We will examine some of
these controlling factors and learn how we can help our self to stay in
control and be one step ahead of the game.

When we play a slot machine, we find that it generates a high rate of

behavior for a long period of time. The machine’s sole purpose is to be
operated. Other machines either produce a product or help us to complete
tasks more quickly, easily and accurately. In contrast, slot machines are
simply there to be operated and meet their owner’s objective. The first
question we must ask is what makes this machine so successful?

The successful slot machine must be attractive, induce operation and

maintain the player’s behavior even though the player is operating at a loss.
In the late nineteenth century, slot machines were works of art. The exquisite
tool work, vivid colors and visible jackpot all draws the potential player to
the machine. Today’s technology offers stereo sound, super graphics and
interactive choices which induces the operation of the slot machine and
maintains the player’s interest even further. The players behavior is induced
by the pay out and the possibility of winning big. People travel to Las Vegas
in search of hitting the jackpot. Once, the action is initiated, the player
maintains this action by hoping that the next outcome will bring him fortune.

50
As we have seen in Chapter III, winning combinations of symbols are
predetermined and in general small pay out maintain the action. Getting two
out of three jackpot symbols on the pay line is exciting. The player has been
reinforced at no cost to the machine owner. We must also mentioned the
way in which reels stop enhances the reinforcement. If the first reel stops on
a potential winner, a heightened state of arousal occurs. Symbols above and
below the pay line also condition the mind of the player. Not only is the
machine conditioning the mind, but the environment of the casino as well.
People near us and around us are engaged in the same behavior and they all
are interested in the same outcome, a jackpot. The screams of joy and
excitement can be heard whenever jackpots are announced. All these
produce stimuli that maintain the schedule of reinforcement.

Superstition is another great generator of behavior reinforcement. Players

develop strange ways of pulling the handle, standing, putting money in the
coin slot, rubbing the side of the machine, etc. From Chapter III, we know
that no such behavior can influences the outcome of the game but in a
player’s mind these actions reinforce his or her conviction that the machine
will hit. Another form of slot conditioning is playing more than one machine
simultaneously. When this happens, not only slot playing is reinforced but so
is switching. Soon, every response becomes a switching response and again
the need to continue to play is reinforce.

Environmental Factors

Casino floors are carefully created to attract gamblers. Sounds of bustling

players, casino employees, loud machines, ringing bells, shouts of joys,
bright lights, all contribute indirectly in shaping the players’ behavior and
habits. So, if you are going to gamble with slot machines, take time to
observe your surroundings and learn to read the pay schedule . As we
pointed out in Chapter III, the higher the jackpot pay out, the higher the
number of virtual stops on a reel and a lower probability of hits. Look for a
machine that has a lower jackpot pay out, for example, a machine that has a
jackpot of 20,000 coins for a three coin play will more likely have a lower
probability of hits than one that has 2500 coins jackpot. Popular machines
such as IGTs Double Diamond and Triple Diamonds is a good beginning
for a novice slot player. Playing the maximum coins guarantees a higher
return if you win but also depletes your bank roll at a faster rate. If your goal
is to extend your playing time, then play coins one at a time followed by a
perhaps a few and in between maximum coin play. Remember, the computer

51
is randomly selecting a 1000 numbers per second and there are millions of
numbers to choose from and the occurrence of a big jackpot win is possible
but unlikely for the time you spend near the machine. One must remember
that the length of time it takes for a full cycle to complete may be as short as
a week or as long as five years. Since a winning combination is solely
determined from a selection of a random number, it is possible for a jackpot
to appear back-to-back although this may be rare.

We initially said that the better machines, those that have a higher
percentage pay out may be placed near the doors or restaurants to attract
attention and bring more players, the reality is that these machines
placement’s are done first for appearances. All slots machines produce
reports on a regular basis and machines that are not getting enough play will
be moved to a different location, hoping to improve the number of plays.
Therefore, placement is not based on a machine’s percentage or payback
percentage. It is based on how well a game is getting played, that is, the
number of coins that are dropped into the machine. It is worth reminding the
reader that changing any machine’s configuration such as the pay out table is
very time consuming and expensive to the casino owners and for this reason,
the placement of machines is based strictly on the return of the machines
rather than percentage.

Remarks

An electronic slot machine returns between 85 and 100 percent, depending

on the type of game and coin denomination. The average house advantage is
calculated to be around nine percent for all machines. Some may pay more
and some less. The first lesson for anyone gambling with a slot machine is
to read and become familiar with the glass pay table schedule and recognize
the symbols that constitute a jackpot. Always play the maximum bet
whenever you can because this gives you the best odds of winning long-term
if you get a good hand and also with progressive jackpots the maximum bet
is required to have any chance of collecting the jackpot if you are lucky
enough to hit it.

Slot playing is very easy and no skills are required except for machine
identification. For example, you may see two similar machines, one offers a
progressive jackpot while the other pays a standard pay out schedule. The
right choice that comes to mind is to select the progressive machine because
it offers a higher jackpot but when you consider the probability of hitting the

52
jackpot and the number of virtual stops per reel, you may want to think again
and play the standard slot machine.

As you soon find out when you enter a casino, machines with a 99 percent
payback are advertised and can be spotted on the floor with ease. Be
careful, when you play these machines. There are only a “selected” number
of these machines and may be limited to only a single bank of machines. It is
your responsibility to find them and all you need to do is just ask a slot
employee to locate one for you.

Play responsibly, that is, play what you can afford. If dollar slots are too
much for your budget, drop down to a quarter machine. It’s always a better
value to play four quarters versus one dollar or five nickels instead of a
quarter. Again, read all the posted material on a slot machine. It is your
responsibility to fully understand all printed information concerning the
number of coins to insert, lines needed to be lit and prizes or awards. If a
machine is cold, that is, does not hit, move to another one even if it’s your
favorite. The longer you stay on any slot machine, the more time the
machine’s built in mathematical advantage has to work against you.
Remember to set a limit when you are playing slots. Discipline yourself and
use only your bankroll and save your winnings. If you are ahead one dollar,
you have won. Avoid using your credit cards. They will only sink you
further in debts. It is always important to know what you are playing for so
study the machine’s pay chart. Play the maximum coins for best return
whenever possible.

In summary, the key to winning is quitting while you are ahead. Even
though a slot machine seems to be paying off, the longer you play, the more
money you will loose, because it is programmed to do this. Remember, if
you can leave with more money than you started with, even if it’s a dollar,
you have won.

53
 CHAPTER V

Conclusion

Now that we have a good idea of how slot machines work, the question we
must ask is " Can you win ? ". In my judgment, the answer is " YES ". Of all
the hundreds of people playing inside a casino, there will be a few winners
and many losers. Even though, the probability is small that you will hit a
jackpot whenever you insert a coin in the machine, the thing to remember
about slot machines is that the random number inside the machine, controls
your outcome. If you happen to hit a winning combination, it is the random
number that predetermined your win, and no matter how small your chances
are, there is still a finite probability that it can happen to you. Again, it is the
game of chance and taking risks that controls the situation.

To test this concept, the author took a trip to Las Vegas, NV. in the spring of
2001 and spend two days and nights at the MGM Grand Resort and Casino.
The first night, while playing a five coins quarter IGT Double Diamond
machine, I hit a jackpot worth 3200 coins or $800.00. This luck was
primarily due to playing this machine at the right time and place. This
occurred about 11:00 PM near the main lobby of the MGM where traffic is
high and the machine was at the end of an aisle. Again, the theory that so
called "loose slots" are located near high traffic and at the end of the aisles
has some validity to it, but, through observations, I noticed that "loose slots"
are placed randomly and pay frequent but small payoffs. I also believe, that
the random number selection process may have more to do with it than mere
location. The cycle of pay for that machine was higher than usual and for
this reason, I continued to play and the jackpot was hit. The next day, I
played again at the MGM and won several small wins consisting of 40 to
100 dollars, all with quarters. Outside the hotel, the weather was beautiful, a
clear blue sky and temperatures in the mid sixties so I decided to check the
other casinos and try my luck. I walked to the New York, New York casino,
just across the MGM, and played there for an hour. Unfortunately, after
loosing a hundred fifty dollars, I decided to move on to other hotels and
casinos. Each time, I moved from place to placer, my losses increased with
each move. Eventually, I sought refuge back to the MGM and took a lunch
break.

54
 Lesson learned #1: If you are going to play slot machines, refrain from
hopping casinos to casinos, looking for that big hit. All slot machines
function on the same principle even though payoff probabilities differ from
one machine to another, I recommend that you find your favorite casino and
play there. It will save you a lot of walking and frustration.On the next day, I
continued to play and just as the mathematics have predicted, the longer you
play, the quicker you will deplete your earnings.

Lesson learned #2: Put away your winnings and play only with your initial
bank roll. The best way to keep from spending your money is to know, at all
times, where you stand. Limit the number of play per machine without a
win. I have experienced slot machines spin 30 times before a win came up
and usually it was a small payoff. On the other hand, if the machine is
paying off more than usual, stay with it until it stops paying after ten spins.
In the two days of playing slots feverishly, I found myself winning and
loosing. The temptations were high and disciplining yourself to stop playing
was even harder.

Lesson learned #3: If you are on a loosing streak, STOP, and take time
out. This is the only way you can gain control of yourself and the ' One
Armed Bandit'. Do not try to justify your playing to regain your losses.
Remember, the longer you play, the more you will loose.

Lesson leared #4: Play the right slots. Whatever denomination you choose
to play, stick to the 2 coins, 3 reel non-progressive, single-pay line slot with
the lowest top jackpot (1000 to 5000 coins). The lowere the top jackpot, the
more frequency the smaller paybacks and the better the odds.

Lesson learned #5: Don't play with the jackpot in mind. To win the
jackpot, you must always bet the maximum coins which will run you out of
money very fast. Your goal should be to find a slot that gives you the longest
playing time and smaller but more frequent paybacks, The longer you can
make your bankroll and playing time last, the better chance you have of
finding the right slot machine at the right time. Learn to be satisfied with any
win you can get.

Lesson learned #6: Know which slot locations to try. Every casinos wants
players to see other players winning. It's good advertising and enhances the
client to play even more often. The better-paying machines are often putin
heavy traffic, highly visible locations with room for crowds to gather and

55
cheer winners on. Such locations include crosswalls, elevated carousels, and
banks of slots near the casino bar, lounges, change booth and coffee shops. It
works most of the time.

Lesson learned #7: Luck. There is no "right" or "wrong" way to bet on a slot
machine. If like most people, you go to a casino to get away from every day
stress, it doesn't matter how you bet: maximum, minimum, or a combination
of both. Ignore any "expert" or casino know-it-all who say to always bet
maximum coins. It's your money and you are in control of how that money
is being waged. Remember the law of large numbers. The l;onger you play
the more likely you will loose your winning.

Finally, my experience in playing slots was gratifying and exciting. I started

out with one thousand dollars and was able to pay off all my expenses and
still keep two hundred dollars. All this playing, approximately twenty hours,
accumulated 1700 points on the MGM Grand Directors Card. This was a lot
of playing and a great experience that will last for a while. To summarize,
playing slot machines is exciting and fun but the game is costly and should
be done only when the means for playing are there and for most of us, this
translates into a few casinos trips a year.

56
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Stirzaker, David. Probability and Random Variables a beginner's guide.

Cambridge University Press, 1999.

Packel, Edward. The Mathematics of Games and Gambling. The

Mathematical Association of America 1981

United States patent Number 5,785,595 " Method for the determination of
stop position of rotating reel bodies of a game display device of a gambling
machine" Michael Gauselmann, Espelkamp, Germany, July 28,1998

United States Patent Number 4,573,681 "Slot machine with random number
generator" Kazuo Okado, Tokyo, Japan, March 4, 1996

United States Patent Number 4,448,419 "Electronic gaming device utilizing

a random number generator for selecting the reel stop positions"
Telnaes;Inges S. May 15, 1984

References retrieved from the internet

" The One-Armed Behavior Technician" www.users.csbsju.edu

"Slot Machines" www.thewizardofodds.com

"Are Slot Machines Honest?" www.americancasinoguide.com

"Slots", www.casinogaming.com

"The Psychological Edge" www.chancemag.com

57