MODULE 12

SKELETAL SYSTEM

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The skeletal system consists of bones and other structures that make up the joints of the
skeleton. The types of tissue present are bone tissue, cartilage, and fibrous connective
tissue, which forms the ligaments that connect bone to bone.

FUNCTIONS OF THE SKELETON

1. Provides a framework that supports the body; the muscles that are attached to bones
move the skeleton.
2. Protects some internal organs from mechanical injury; the rib cage protects the heart
and lungs, for example.
3. Contains and protects the red bone marrow, the primary hemopoietic (blood-forming)
tissue.
4. Provides a storage site for excess calcium. Calcium may be removed from bone to
maintain a normal blood calcium level, which is essential for blood clotting and proper
functioning of muscles and nerves.

TYPES OF BONE TISSUE

 Bone cells are called osteocytes, and the matrix of bone is made of calcium salts
and collagen.
 The calcium salts are calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and calcium phosphate
(Ca3(PO4)2), which give bone the strength required to perform its supportive and
protective functions.
 Bone matrix is non-living, but it changes constantly, with calcium that is taken
from bone into the blood replaced by calcium from the diet.
 the function of osteocytes, to regulate the amount of calcium that is deposited in,
or removed from, the bone matrix.
 two types of bone tissue:
 Compact bone looks solid but is very precisely structured.
 Compact bone is made of osteons or haversian systems,
microscopic cylinders of bone matrix with osteocytes in concentric
rings around central haversian canals. In the haversian canals are
blood vessels; the osteocytes are in contact with these blood
vessels and with one another through microscopic channels
(canaliculi) in the matrix.

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  The second type of bone tissue is spongy bone, which does look rather like
a sponge with its visible holes or cavities. Osteocytes, matrix, and blood
vessels are present but are not arranged in haversian systems. The cavities
in spongy bone often contain red bone marrow, which produces red blood
cells, platelets, and the five kinds of white blood cells.

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CLASSIFICATION OF BONES
1. Long bones—the bones of the arms, legs, hands, and feet (but not the wrists
and ankles). The shaft of a long bone is the diaphysis, and the ends are called
epiphyses The diaphysis is made of compact bone and is hollow, forming a canal
within the shaft. This marrow canal (or medullary cavity) contains yellow bone
marrow, which is mostly adipose tissue. The epiphyses are made of spongy bone
covered with a thin layer of compact bone. Although red bone marrow is present
in the epiphyses of children’s bones, it is largely replaced by yellow bone marrow
in adult bones.
2. Short bones—These bones are usually grouped in pairs; they are strong and
compact. Often they are found in parts of the body where little movement is
needed. Examples of short bones include the carpal bones of the wrist and the
tarsal bones of the foot.
3. Flat bones—These are thin bones that are found where there is a need for
muscle attachment or for protection of soft or important aspects of the body.
Their broad flat surface allows for extensive muscle attachment. Examples of flat
bones are the sternum, ribs, scapula, some bones of the skull and some bones of

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 the pelvis. These bones are often curved and are made up of compact tissues
enclosing a layer of cancellous bone.
4. Irregular bones—These bones do not fit into the categories described above as
they have a number of different characteristics. As the name suggests, they are
irregular, different and peculiar. These bones consist of spongy bone that is
enclosed by thin layers of compact bones. These bones include the vertebrae,
coccyx, sphenoid, zygomatic and the ossicles of the ear.
5. Sesamoid bones- The patella is a sesamoid bone, although some of the bones
of the wrist or ankle could be classed as sesamoid. Sesamoid bones are bones
within tendons; they are small and round, and assist in the functioning of
muscles.

 Short, flat, and

irregular bones are
all made of spongy
bone covered with a
thin layer of
compact bone.
 Red bone marrow is
found within the
spongy bone.
 The joint surfaces of
bones are covered
with articular
cartilage, which
provides a smooth
surface.
 Covering the rest of the bone is the periosteum, a fibrous connective tissue
membrane whose collagen fibers merge with those of the tendons and ligaments
that are attached to the bone.
 The periosteum anchors these structures and contains both the blood vessels
that enter the bone itself and osteoblasts that will become active if the bone is
damaged.

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 EMBRYONIC GROWTH OF BONE
 During embryonic development, the skeleton is first made of cartilage and
fibrous connective tissue, which are gradually replaced by bone.
 Bone matrix is produced by cells called osteoblasts(a blastcell is a “growing”
or “producing” cell, and osteo means “bone”). In the embryonic model of the
skeleton, osteoblasts differentiate from the fibroblasts that are present.
 The production of bone matrix, called ossification, begins in a center of
ossification in each bone.
 Also in bones are specialized cells called osteoclasts (a clastcell is a
“destroying” cell), which are able to dissolve and reabsorb the minerals of
bone matrix, a process called resorption. Osteoclasts are very active in
embryonic long bones, and they reabsorb bone matrix in the center of the
diaphysis to form the marrow canal. Blood vessels grow into the marrow
canals of embryonic long bones, and red bone marrow is established. After
birth, the red bone marrow is replaced by yellow bone marrow. Red bone
marrow remains in the spongy bone of short, flat, and irregular bones.

Bone formation and growth (ossification)

 The strength of bone comes from the protein matrix, which provides it with
resilience and elasticity. This allows bone to give a little as it is comes under
pressure. Within the bone are a number of minerals that have been deposited
there; these add to the strength of bone, protecting it and supporting it as
pressure and force are applied. It is important to understand how bone develops,
as this can help understand its strengths and boundaries.
 By the end of the third month of pregnancy the skeleton of a foetus is completely
formed. Most of the skeleton at this stage is primarily cartilage; the formation of
bone takes place as the pregnancy develops. The process of bone formation is
known as ossification. Bone formation takes place during various phases of a
person’s life.

THE SKELETON

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  There are 206 named bones in the adult human skeleton. For classification
purposes the skeleton is divided into two parts:
o The axial skeleton: The axial skeleton forms the central axis of the body
and consists of 80 bones. This part of the skeleton supports the head
(including the bones in the ear), neck and the torso (this is also referred to
as the trunk). It consists of the skull, the vertebral column, the ribs and the
sternum. The 80 bones in the axial skeleton.

o The appendicular skeleton: those bones of the upper and lower extremities
– the arms and the legs as well as the bones that attach them to the axial
skeleton. There are 126 bones in the appendicular skeleton, and these
bones.

Joints
 A joint is the point at which two or more bones meet.
 Joints are sometimes also called articulations.
 There are a number of ways of classifying joints; for example:

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 o fibrous
 Fibrous joints These joints are also called synarthrodial joints and
are held together by only a ligament, a dense irregular tissue that is
made up of collagen‐rich fibres. There is no synovial cavity in this
type of joint. Examples of synarthrodial joints are where the teeth
are held to their bony sockets; other examples include both the
radioulnar and tibiofibular joints.
o cartilaginous
 Cartilaginous joints These joints are also called synchondroses and
symphyses (singular symphysis). They occur where the connection
between the articulating bones is made up of cartilage with no
synovial cavity; for example, the joints occurring between vertebrae
in the spine. The synchondroses are temporary joints and are only
present in children until the end of puberty, by which stage the
hyaline cartilage converts to bone; for example, the epiphyseal
plates of long bones. Symphysis joints are permanent cartilagenous
joints that have an intervening pad of fibrocartilage; for example, the
symphysis pubis.

o Synovial
 Synovial joints, also called diarthrosis joints, are by far the most
common classification of joint within the human body. They are
extremely movable joints with a synovial cavity and all have an
articular capsule enclosing the whole joint, a synovial membrane
(the inner layer of the capsule) that produces synovial fluid (a
lubricating solution) and cartilage known as hyaline cartilage, which
pads the ends of the articulating bones. Synovial fluid is a thin film
that is usually viscous, clear or yellowish. This fluid helps to prevent
friction by providing the joint with lubrication, supplying nutrients
and removing waste products. If the joint becomes immobile for a
period of time the fluid becomes gel‐like, returning to its normal
viscous consistency when the joint begins to move again. There are
six types of synovial joints, and these are classified by the shape of
the joint and the movement available.

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