MINERALS IN LAYER NUTRITION

INTRODUCTION
Minerals are inorganic elements essential for numerous physiological processes in poultry,
ranging from bone development and eggshell formation to enzyme activation and immune
function. A comprehensive understanding of their sources, functions, optimal inclusion rates,
and deficiency symptoms is vital for successful poultry production.

Major Minerals

● Calcium (Ca)
Sources: Calcium is primarily obtained from limestone, oyster shells, and dicalcium
phosphate (DCP). Limestone is the most common source due to its cost-effectiveness
and bioavailability. Oyster shells offer higher bioavailability than limestone but are
more expensive. DCP is a highly bioavailable source derived from either bone or rock
phosphate.
○ Inclusion Rates:
■ Chicks (0-8 weeks): 0.9 - 1.0%
■ Growers (8-18 weeks): 0.8 - 0.9%
■ Layers (18+ weeks): 3.0 - 3.5% (higher during peak production)
○ Functions: Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body and is crucial
for bone mineralization, eggshell formation, blood clotting, muscle
contraction, nerve transmission, and enzyme activation.
○ Deficiency:
■ Chicks: Rickets (characterised by soft bones, lameness, and growth
retardation).
■ Layers: Cage layer fatigue (weakness and bone fractures), thin-shelled
eggs, reduced egg production, and decreased hatchability.
● Phosphorus (P)
○ Sources: The primary sources of phosphorus are dicalcium phosphate (DCP)
and bone meal. Plant-based ingredients like grains and oilseeds also contain
phosphorus, but a significant portion is bound as phytate and unavailable to
poultry unless supplemented with phytase enzyme.
○ Inclusion Rates:
■ Chicks (0-8 weeks): 0.45 - 0.55% (available P)
■ Growers (8-18 weeks): 0.35 - 0.45% (available P)
■ Layers (18+ weeks): 0.30 - 0.40% (available P)
○ Functions: Phosphorus works closely with calcium for bone development and
eggshell formation. It also plays vital roles in energy metabolism, acid-base
balance, and the synthesis of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA).
○ Deficiency: Phosphorus deficiency mirrors calcium deficiency, causing rickets
in young birds and poor eggshell quality, reduced egg production, and
decreased hatchability in layers.

● Sodium (Na) and Chloride (Cl)

○ Source: Common salt (sodium chloride) is the sole source of sodium and
chloride.
○ Inclusion Rates:
■ Chicks (0-8 weeks): 0.15 - 0.20%
■ Growers (8-18 weeks): 0.15 - 0.20%
■ Layers (18+ weeks): 0.20 - 0.35%
○ Functions: Sodium and chloride are essential electrolytes involved in
maintaining fluid balance, osmotic pressure, nerve transmission, and nutrient
absorption.
○ Deficiency: Sodium deficiency causes reduced growth, decreased feed intake,
cannibalism (feather pecking), and nervous disorders.
 ● Magnesium (Mg)
○ Sources: Magnesium is naturally present in limestone, dolomite, and various
feedstuffs. Magnesium oxide and magnesium sulphate are common
supplemental sources.
○ Inclusion Rates:
■ Chicks (0-8 weeks): 0.05 - 0.06%
■ Growers (8-18 weeks): 0.04 - 0.05%
■ Layers (18+ weeks): 0.04 - 0.05%
○ Functions: Magnesium is a cofactor for numerous enzymes involved in
energy metabolism, protein synthesis, and bone development. It also
contributes to eggshell quality.
○ Deficiency: Magnesium deficiency leads to poor growth, nervous disorders
(tremors, convulsions), leg weakness, and reduced egg production.

● Potassium (K)
○ Sources: Potassium is abundant in most grains and oilseeds, making
supplementation unnecessary in typical diets. Potassium chloride can be used
if needed.
○ Inclusion Rates: Not typically supplemented.
○ Functions: Potassium maintains electrolyte balance, nerve function, and
muscle contraction. It also plays a role in enzyme activation and acid-base
regulation.
○ Deficiency: Potassium deficiency is rare but can result in reduced growth,
weakness, nervous disorders, and decreased egg production.

Trace Minerals

● Iron (Fe)
○ Sources: Iron is naturally present in feedstuffs, but its bioavailability can be
low. Supplemental sources include ferrous sulphate (most common), ferrous
carbonate, and iron chelates.
 ○ Inclusion Rates:
■ Chicks (0-8 weeks): 60-80 mg/kg
■ Growers (8-18 weeks): 40-60 mg/kg
■ Layers (18+ weeks): 30-50 mg/kg
○ Functions: Iron is a crucial component of haemoglobin, the protein
responsible for oxygen transport in red blood cells. It also plays a role in
various enzyme systems involved in energy metabolism.
○ Deficiency: Iron deficiency results in anemia (reduced red blood cell count),
pale comb and wattles, lethargy, and impaired growth.

● Zinc (Zn)
○ Sources: Zinc oxide and zinc sulphate are the most common supplemental
sources. Zinc methionine, an organic form, is also available and boasts higher
bioavailability.
○ Inclusion Rates:
■ Chicks (0-8 weeks): 50-70 mg/kg
■ Growers (8-18 weeks): 40-60 mg/kg
■ Layers (18+ weeks): 30-50 mg/kg
○ Functions: Zinc is a cofactor for over 300 enzymes involved in growth,
immune function, feathering, and reproduction. It also plays a role in DNA
synthesis and cell division.
○ Deficiency: Zinc deficiency manifests as poor growth, feather abnormalities,
skin lesions (parakeratosis), impaired immune function, and reduced egg
production and hatchability.

● Manganese (Mn)
○ Sources: Manganese oxide and manganese sulphate are the primary
supplemental sources.
○ Inclusion Rates:
■ Chicks (0-8 weeks): 60-80 mg/kg
■ Growers (8-18 weeks): 40-60 mg/kg
■ Layers (18+ weeks): 40-60 mg/kg
○ Functions: Manganese is involved in bone development, carbohydrate and
lipid metabolism, and the formation of eggshell membranes. It also activates
several enzymes.
 ○ Deficiency: The classic sign of manganese deficiency is perosis (slipped
tendon), characterised by enlarged hock joints and leg deformities. Other
symptoms include reduced growth, poor eggshell quality, and decreased
hatchability.

● Copper (Cu)
○ Sources: Copper sulphate is the most common supplemental source. Copper
chelates are also available and offer improved bioavailability.
○ Inclusion Rates:
■ Chicks (0-8 weeks): 8-12 mg/kg
■ Growers (8-18 weeks): 6-10 mg/kg
■ Layers (18+ weeks): 6-10 mg/kg
○ Functions: Copper is a component of several enzymes involved in iron
metabolism, connective tissue formation, and pigmentation. It also plays a role
in immune function and antioxidant defence.
○ Deficiency: Copper deficiency leads to anemia, bone abnormalities, aortic
rupture, and depigmentation of feathers.

● Iodine (I)
○ Sources: Potassium iodide (KI) or calcium iodate are the primary
supplemental sources.
○ Inclusion Rates:
■ All ages: 0.35 - 0.50 mg/kg
○ Functions: Iodine is essential for the synthesis of thyroid hormones, which
regulate metabolism, growth, and development.
○ Deficiency: Iodine deficiency results in goiter (enlarged thyroid gland), poor
growth, and reduced feathering. In breeding birds, it can lead to decreased
fertility and hatchability.

● Selenium (Se)
○ Sources: Sodium selenite and selenium yeast are common supplemental
sources. Organic selenium (selenomethionine) is also available and more
bioavailable.
○ Inclusion Rates:
■ All ages: 0.15 - 0.30 mg/kg
 ○ Functions: Selenium is a component of the antioxidant enzyme glutathione
peroxidase, which protects cells from oxidative damage. It also plays a role in
immune function and muscle development.
○ Deficiency: Selenium deficiency causes exudative diathesis (fluid
accumulation under the skin), muscular dystrophy, and pancreatic
degeneration. It can also impair immune function and reduce hatchability.

CONCLUSION
Minerals, both major and trace, are indispensable for poultry health, growth, and production.
Adequate provision of these essential nutrients through a balanced diet is paramount for
achieving optimal flock performance. The consequences of mineral deficiencies can be
severe, leading to reduced growth rates, poor eggshell quality, skeletal abnormalities,
impaired immune function, and even mortality.Understanding the functions of each mineral,
their dietary sources, and appropriate inclusion rates is crucial for formulating balanced
rations. The interplay between minerals is also important, as imbalances can lead to
secondary deficiencies or toxicities. Regular monitoring of flock health and production
parameters, coupled with periodic feed analysis, is essential to ensure that mineral
requirements are being met.

While commercial mineral premixes can be a convenient way to provide essential minerals,
it's important to consult with a poultry nutritionist to ensure that the chosen premix aligns
with the specific needs of the flock. Factors like age, breed, production stage, and
environmental conditions can influence mineral requirements. Customising mineral
supplementation based on these factors can optimize poultry health, productivity, and
profitability. Remember, the goal is not just to prevent deficiencies but to provide minerals in
a way that maximizes the genetic potential of the birds. By paying close attention to mineral
nutrition, poultry producers can ensure healthy, productive flocks that contribute to a
sustainable and profitable industry. The inclusion rates stipulated here are general figures
used in composition of poultry diet. To get the actual values for your specific situation, kindly
contact a poultry nutritionist.
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