Ashoka it is ?

Dr Uday Dokras

According to some early Buddhist sources, the Buddha himself had suggested this treatment, and
when asked what a stupa was, had demonstrated the basic design: he folded his robe on the
ground, placed his begging-bowl upside down on it, with his staff above that.
Ashoka achievements are touted for the large spread of Buddhist symbols across the world. He
was able to rule over the vast and diverse Mauryan empire through a centralized policy of
dharma that favoured peace and tolerance and that administered public works and social welfare.
Likewise hepatronized the spread of Buddhism and art throughout the empire. Ashoka promoted
Buddhist expansion by sending monks to surrounding territories to share the teachings of the
Buddha. Not resting at that he sent missionaries abroad to preach the Buddha Dharma.
A wave of conversion began, and Buddhism spread not only through India, but also
internationally. The pillars and edicts represent the first physical evidence of the Buddhist faith.
The inscriptions assert Ashoka's Buddhism and support his desire to spread the dharma
throughout his kingdom. The pillars of Ashoka are a series of monolithic columns dispersed
throughout the Indian subcontinent, erected or at least inscribed with edicts by
the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka during his reign from c. 268 to 232 BCE. Ashoka used the
expression Dhaṃma thaṃbhā (Dharma stambha), i.e. "pillars of the Dharma" to describe his own
pillars. These pillars constitute important monuments of the architecture of India, most of them
exhibiting the characteristic Mauryan polish. Of the pillars erected by Ashoka, twenty still
survive including those with inscriptions of his edicts. Only a few with animal capitals survive of
which seven complete specimens are known. Two pillars were relocated by Firuz Shah
Tughlaq to Delhi. Several pillars were relocated later by Mughal Empire rulers, the animal
capitals being removedAveraging between 12 and 15 m (40 and 50 ft) in height, and weighing up
to 50 tons each, the pillars were dragged, sometimes hundreds of miles, to where they were
erected.
Buddhist missions
In the Sri Lankan tradition, Moggaliputta-Tissa – who is patronised by Ashoka – sends out nine
Buddhist missions to spread Buddhism in the "border areas" in c. 250 BCE. This tradition does
not credit Ashoka directly with sending these missions. Each mission comprises five monks, and
is headed by an elder. To Sri Lanka, he sent his own son Mahinda, accompanied by four other
Theras – Itthiya, Uttiya, Sambala and Bhaddasala. Next, with Moggaliputta-Tissa's help, Ashoka
sent Buddhist missionaries to distant regions such as Kashmir, Gandhara, Himalayas, the land of
the Yonas (Greeks), Maharashtra, Suvannabhumi, and Sri Lanka.
The Sri Lankan tradition dates these missions to Ashoka's 18th regnal year, naming the following
missionaries:

 Mahinda to Sri Lanka

 Majjhantika to Kashmir and Gandhara

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  Mahadeva to Mahisa-mandala (possibly modern Mysore region)
 Rakkhita to Vanavasa
 Dhammarakkhita the Greek to Aparantaka (western India)

 Maha-dhamma-rakkhita to Maharashtra
 Maharakkhita to the Greek country
 Majjhima to the Himalayas
 Soṇa and Uttara to Suvaṇṇabhūmi (possibly Lower Burma and Thailand)

Sri Lanka has been a centre of Buddhist scholarship and practices since the introduction of Buddhism in the third
century BCE preserving the vast Pāli Canon. Throughout its history, Sri Lankan kings have played a major role in
the maintenance and revival of the Buddhist institutions of the island.

During the reign of Kithsirimevan (301–328 CE), Sudatta, the sub-king of Kalinga, and Hemamala brought
the Tooth Relic of the Buddha to Sri Lanka.This Relic soon became one of the most sacred objects in the country,
and a symbol of Sinhala Buddhist kingship. It was housed and promoted by the Abhayagiri tradition.

When the Chinese monk Faxian visited the island in the early 5th century, he noted 5000 monks at Abhayagiri, 3000
at the Mahāvihāra, and 2000 at the Cetiyapabbatavihāra. The main architectural feature of Sri Lankan Buddhism at
this time was the dome-shaped stupa, which enshrined Buddhist relics and were objects of veneration. In
Anuradhapura, the five most important stupas were: the Thuparama (part of the Mahāvihāra complex),
the Mirisavati, the Ruvanvalisaya (also known as the Mahastupa), the Abhayagiri and the Jetavana (the largest stupa
in the capital, and probably the largest in the Buddhist world at the time of construction).

Ruwanwelisaya Stupa in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka

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Jetavanaramaya | Jethawanaramaya of Anuradhapura Kingdom |A Dagoba in Sri Lanka /z
See the human figures that shout out the size of the structure

Abhayagiri Vihāra became a major monastery site of Mahayana, Theravada and Vajrayana Buddhism that was
situated in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. It is one of the most ‘extensive’ ruins in the world and one of the most sacred
Buddhist pilgrimage cities in the nation.

The pillars of Ashoka are among the earliest known stone sculptural remains from India. Only
another pillar fragment, the Pataliputra capital, is possibly from a slightly earlier date. It is
thought that before the 3rd century BCE, wood rather than stone was used as the main material
for Indian architectural constructions, and that stone may have been adopted following
interaction with the Persians and the Greeks. A graphic representation of the Lion Capital of
Ashoka from the column there was adopted as the official State Emblem of India in 1950.
All the pillars of Ashoka were built at Buddhist monasteries, many important sites from the life
of the Buddha and places of pilgrimage. Some of the columns carry inscriptions addressed to the
monks and nuns. Some were erected to commemorate visits by Ashoka. Major pillars are present
in the Indian States of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and some parts of Haryana.

1. Ashoka was not only a Master Builder

2. A prolific Builder
3. But contributed to simplifying the design given the tremendous task he had of adding so
many structures.

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Ashoka pillar at Vaishali, Bihar, India/Lion Capital of Ashoka from Sarnath, with Wheel of the Moral Law
(reconstitution). 3rd century BCE/Left image: Vaishali lion of Ashoka. Right image: Assyrian relief of a lion
at Nineveh (circa 640 BCE). Many stylistic elements (design of the whiskers, the eyes, the fur etc...) point to
similarities.

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 Broken pillar at Sanchi
Mounds for the relics of the Buddha (5th century BCE)

The Piprahwa stupa is one of the earliest surviving stupas

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Religious buildings in the form of the Buddhist stupa: History of Stupas

The stupa is the oldest Buddhist religious monument. In prehistoric times,

stupas were simply mounds of earth and stones (tumuli) – places to bury
important kings away from the village. Twenty-five-hundred years ago, at the
time of Shakyamuni Buddha’s death, a change came about in the way stupas
were regarded.

The Buddha requested that his relics be placed in a familiar stupa, but with a
shift in emphasis. Instead of being just a place of honor where the bones or
relics of a cremated king were placed, the stupa was to be located at four
corners (i.e., a crossroads), to remind people of the awakened state of mind.
So, the stupa evolved from a mound of dirt (stup, Skt., “to heap up, pile,
raise aloft, elevate”), to a king’s burial tomb, to a religious monument.
After the Buddha’s death, stupas evolved from being used as shrines to the
dead and into places to honor the living. They were erected to remind people
far into the future that they, while living, had the seed of enlightenment.

The Tibetan word for “stupa” is choten, meaning a receptacle for offerings
and implying support for lay people to express devotion and connection to
the Buddha mind.The design of a stupa is intended to stop you in your
tracksfor it represents the entire Buddhist path- architecturally. The body,
speech and mind of an enlightened teacher is contained therein – a reminder
of a timeless quality which one senses in old monuments.

Reasons for building Stupas: There are three basic reasons for building
stupas.

Burial stupas hold relics from the funeral pyre. Commemorative stupas mark
the place of an event or occasion in the Buddha’s life.
And, votive stupas are erected to make a dedication of good will or to
accumulate merit.

In the past, it was primarily the laity who were involved in constructing
stupas and in that sense it was a co-operative monument. The Votive type
being the perfect outlet for lay people to connect with the Buddhadharma.

A dome shaped started to be used in India as commemorative monuments associated with

storing sacred relics of the Buddha. After the parinirvana ( passing away) of the Buddha, his
remains were cremated and the ashes divided and buried under eight mounds with two further
mounds encasing the urn and the embers. According to some early Buddhist sources, the Buddha
himself had suggested this treatment, and when asked what a stupa was, had demonstrated the
basic design: he folded his robe on the ground, placed his begging-bowl upside down on it, with
his staff above that. The relics of the Buddha were spread between eight
stupas, Kapilavastu, Allakappa, Ramagrama, Pava, Kushinagar-and Vethapida.
The Piprahwa stupa also seems to have been one of the first to be built. Lars Fogelin stated that

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the Vaisali relic stupa and Nigali Sagar stupa are likely the earliest archaeologically known
stupas.
Guard rails —consisting of posts, crossbars, and a coping— became a feature of safety
surrounding a stupa. The Buddha had left instructions about how to pay homage to the stupas:
"And whoever lays wreaths or puts sweet perfumes and colours there with a devout heart, will
reap benefits for a long time". This practice would lead to the decoration of the stupas with stone
sculptures of flower garlands in the Classical period.

An
early stupa, 6 meters (20 ft) in diameter, with fallen umbrella on side at Chakpat, near Chakdara; probably
Maurya, 3rd century BCE

Amaravati Stupa/ Butkara Stupa

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The Ahin Posh stupa was dedicated in the 2nd century CE under the Kushans, and contained coins of Kaniska
I/Manikyala stupa, from the period of Kaniska I. A model resembling the Saidu Sharif Stupa,with square base
and four columns (1st century CE)

Loriyan Tangai decorated stupa, in the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara (2nd century CE).

Expansion under Ashoka (250 BCE)

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According to Buddhist tradition, Emperor Ashoka (rule: 273—232 BCE) recovered the relics of
the Buddha from the earlier stupas (except from the Ramagrama stupa), and erected 84,000
stupas to distribute the relics across India. In effect, many stupas are thought to date originally
from the time of Ashoka, such as Sanchi or Kesariya, where he also erected pillars with his
inscriptions, and possibly Bharhut, Amaravati or Dharmarajika in Gandhara. Ashoka also
established the Pillars of Ashoka throughout his realm, generally next to Buddhist stupas.The
first known appearance of the word "Stupa" is from an inscribed dedication by Ashoka on
the Nigali Sagar pillar (spelled in Pali in the Brahmi script as "Thube"
Decorated stupas (from 125 BCE)
Stupas were soon to be richly decorated with sculptural reliefs, following the first attempts
at Sanchi Stupa No.2 (125 BCE). Full-fledged sculptural decorations and scenes of the life of the
Buddha would soon follow at Bharhut (115 BCE), Bodh Gaya (60 BCE), Mathura (125-60
BCE), again at Sanchi for the elevation of the toranas (1st century BCE/CE) and
then Amaravati (1st-2nd century CE). The decorative embellishment of stupas also had a
considerable development in the northwest in the area of Gandhara, with decorated stupas such
as the Butkara Stupa ("monumentalized" with Hellenistic decorative elements from the 2nd
century BCE) or the Loriyan Tangai stupas (2nd century CE).

The Great Stupa at Sanchi

The Great Stupa at Sanchi is one of the oldest stone structures in India, and an important
monument of Indian Architecture. It was originally commissioned by the Mauryan
emperor Ashoka the Great in the 3rd century BCE. Its nucleus was a simple hemispherical brick
structure built over the relics of the Buddha. It was crowned by the 'chhatra', a parasol-like
structure symbolising high rank, which was intended to honour and shelter the relics. The
original construction work of this stupa was overseen by Ashoka, whose wife Devi was the
daughter of a merchant of nearby Vidisha. Sanchi was also her birthplace as well as the venue of
her and Ashoka's wedding. In the 1st century BCE, four elaborately carved toranas (ornamental
gateways) and a balustrade encircling the entire structure were added. The Sanchi Stupa built
during Mauryan period was made of bricks. The composite flourished until the 11th century.
Ashoka ( c. 304 – 232 BCE), popularly known as Ashoka the Great, was a ruler of the Maurya
Empire of India during c. 268 to 232 BCE. His empire covered a large part of the Indian
subcontinent, stretching from present-day Afghanistan in the west to present-day Bangladesh in
the east, with its capital at Pataliputra. A patron of Buddhism, he is credited with playing an
important role in the spread of Buddhism across ancient Asia. Much of the information about
Ashoka comes from his Brahmi edicts, which are among the earliest long inscriptions of ancient
India, and the Buddhist legends written centuries after his death. Ashoka was a son of Bindusara,
and a grandson of the dynasty's founder Chandragupta. During his father's reign, he served as the
governor of Ujjain in central India. According to some Buddhist legends, he also suppressed a
revolt in Takshashila as a prince, and after his father's death, killed his brothers to ascend the
throne.

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Stupa of Sanchi. The central stupa was built during the Mauryas, and enlarged during the Sungas, but the
decorative gateway is dated to the later dynasty of the Satavahanas. It marks the beginning of the famous egg
shape of Buddhisr Stupa “Vimanas” ( See ‘Anda” above pic which means egg in Hindi)
Perceptions and historiography
The use of Buddhist sources in reconstructing the life of Ashoka has had a strong influence on
perceptions of Ashoka, as well as the interpretations of his Edicts. Building on traditional
accounts, early scholars regarded Ashoka as a primarily Buddhist monarch who underwent a
conversion from the Vedic religion to Buddhism and was actively engaged in sponsoring and
supporting the Buddhist monastic institution. Some scholars have tended to question this
assessment. Romila Thappar writes about Ashoka that "We need to see him both as a statesman
in the context of inheriting and sustaining an empire in a particular historical period, and as a
person with a strong commitment to changing society through what might be called the
propagation of social ethics."
The only source of information not attributable to Buddhist sources are the Ashokan Edicts, and
these do not explicitly state that Ashoka was a Buddhist. In his edicts, Ashoka expresses support
for all the major religions of his time: Buddhism, Brahmanism, Jainism, and Ajivikaism, and his
edicts addressed to the population at large (there are some addressed specifically to Buddhists;
this is not the case for the other religions) generally focus on moral themes members of all the
religions would accept. For example, Amartya Sen writes, "The Indian Emperor Ashoka in the
third century BCE presented many political inscriptions in favor of tolerance and individual
freedom, both as a part of state policy and in the relation of different people to each other".
However, the edicts alone strongly indicate that he was a Buddhist. In one edict he belittles
rituals, and he banned Vedic animal sacrifices; these strongly suggest that he at least did not look
to the Vedic tradition for guidance. Furthermore, many edicts are expressed to Buddhists alone;
in one, Ashoka declares himself to be an "upasaka", and in another he demonstrates a close
familiarity with Buddhist texts. He erected rock pillars at Buddhist holy sites, but did not do so
for the sites of other religions. He also used the word "dhamma" to refer to qualities of the heart

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that underlie moral action; this was an exclusively Buddhist use of the word. However, he used
the word more in the spirit than as a strict code of conduct.
Much of the knowledge about Ashoka comes from the several inscriptions that he had carved on
pillars and rocks throughout the empire. All his inscriptions present him as compassionate and
loving. In the Kalinga rock edits, he addresses his people as his "children" and mentions that as a
father he desires their good.

Impact of pacifism
After Ashoka's death, the Maurya dynasty declined rapidly. The various Puranas provide
different details about Ashoka's successors, but all agree that they had relatively short reigns. The
empire seems to have weakened, fragmented, and suffered an invasion from the Bactrian Greeks.

Some historians, such as H. C. Raychaudhuri, have argued that Ashoka's pacifism undermined
the "military backbone" of the Maurya empire. Others, such as Romila Thapar, have suggested
that the extent and impact of his pacifism have been "grossly exaggerated".

Ashoka's edicts state that during his eighth regnal year (c. 260 BCE), he
conquered Kalinga after a brutal war, and the destruction caused by the war made him repent
violence. This claim is omitted in his inscriptions found in the Kalinga region, possibly because
Ashoka considered it politically inappropriate to admit his remorse before the people of Kalinga,
or because the claims made in the edicts are not fully accurate and are meant to impress the
people of other regions. Ashoka subsequently devoted himself to the propagation of "dhamma"
or righteous conduct, the major theme of the edicts.

Construction of Stupas and Templesduring the Reign of the Buddhist Asahoka-

Mahavamsa and Ashokavadana : The Mahāvaṃsa -"Great Chronicle", written in the 5th
century CE) is the meticulously kept historical chronicle of Sri Lanka written in the style of an
epic poem written in the Pali language.It relates the history of Sri Lanka from its legendary
beginnings up to the reign of Mahasena of Anuradhapura (302 CE) covering the period between
the arrival of Prince Vijaya from India in 543 BCE to his reign (277–304 CE) and later updated
by different writers. It was composed by a Buddhist monk at the Mahavihara temple in
Anuradhapura about the 5th century CE. The Ashokavadana -"Narrative of Ashoka" on the
othetr hand, is an Indian Sanskrit-language text that describes the birth and reign of
the Maurya Emperor Ashoka. It contains legends as well as historical narratives, and glorifies
Ashoka as a Buddhist emperor whose only ambition was to spread Buddhism far and wide.
Ashokavadana, also known as Ashokarajavadana, is one of the avadana texts contained in
the Divyavadana (Divyāvadāna, "Divine Narrative"), an anthology of several Buddhist legends
and narratives. According to Jean Przyluski, the text was composed by the Buddhist monks of
the Mathura region, as it highly praises the city of Mathura, its monasteries and its monks.
The text describes in detail the efforts of Ashoka towards the expansion of Buddhism: Ashoka
first converts his brother Vitashoka to Buddhism, and teaches his minister Yashas to honor the
Buddhist monks. Next, he meets Upagupta and goes on a pilgrimage to the holy places
associated with the Gautama Buddha's life, accompanied by Upagupta. He then visits the Bodhi
Tree in Bodh Gaya, where the Buddha was enlightened. Every five years, he holds a great

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festival to entertain Buddhist monks. During the festival, he meets Pindola Bharadvaja,
an arhat (enlightened saint) who personally knew the Buddha and had extended his lifespan
using supernatural powers to propagate Buddha's teachings.

84,000 Stupas built by Ashoka

Both Mahavamsa and Ashokavadana state that Ashoka constructed 84,000 stupas or
viharas. According to the Mahavamsa, this activity took place during his fifth–seventh regnal
years. The Ashokavadana states that Ashoka collected seven out of the eight relics of Gautama
Buddha, and had their port ions kept in 84,000 boxes made of gold, silver, cat's eye, and crystal.

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He ordered the construction of 84,000 stupas throughout the earth, in towns that had a population
of 100,000 or more. He told Elder Yashas, a monk at the Kukkutarama monastery, that he
wanted these stupas to be completed on the same day. Yashas stated that he would signal the
completion time by eclipsing the sun with his hand. When he did so, the 84,000 stupas were
completed at once. The rediscovered Vajrasana, or "Enlightenment Throne of the Buddha", at
the Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya. It was built by Ashoka to commemorate the
enlightenment of the Buddha, about two hundred years before him.

The Mahavamsa states that Ashoka ordered construction of 84,000 viharas (monasteries) rather
than the stupas to house the relics. Like Ashokavadana, the Mahavamsa describes Ashoka's
collection of the relics, but does not mention this episode in the context of the construction
activities. It states that Ashoka decided to construct the 84,000 viharas when Moggaliputta Tissa
told him that there were 84,000 sections of the Buddha's Dhamma. Ashoka himself began the
construction of the Ashokarama vihara, and ordered subordinate kings to build the other viharas.
Ashokarama was completed by the miraculous power of Thera Indagutta, and the news about the
completion of the 84,000 viharas arrived from various cities on the same day

Stupa of Sanchi. The central stupa was built during the Mauryas, and enlarged during the Sungas, but the decorative
gateway is dated to the later dynasty of the Satavahanas./. Illustration of the original Mahabodhi Temple temple built by
Asoka at Bodh Gaya. At the center, the Vajrasana, or "Enlightenment Throne of the Buddha", with its supporting
columns, being the object of adoration. A Pillar of Ashoka topped by an elephant appears in the right
corner. Bharhut relief, 1st century BCE.

The construction of following stupas and viharas is credited to Ashoka:

 Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh, India

 Dhamek Stupa, Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh, India
 Mahabodhi Temple, Bihar, India
 Barabar Caves, Bihar, India
 Nalanda Mahavihara (some portions like Sariputta Stupa), Bihar,
India
 Taxila University (some portions like Dharmarajika Stupa and
Kunala Stupa), Taxila, Pakistan
 Bhir Mound (reconstructed), Taxila, Pakistan
 Bharhut stupa, Madhya Pradesh, India
 Deorkothar Stupa, Madhya Pradesh, India

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  Butkara Stupa, Swat, Pakistan
 Sannati Stupa, Karnataka, India
 Mir Rukun Stupa, Nawabshah, Pakistan

The simplistic design of the stupa belies a deep significance that is epitomized in every
element. The architectural fabric links the stupa back to cosmogonic codes and themes of
kingship. In doing so it imbues with a sacrality and symbolism that transcends religious
constructs and links it to the realm of ageless principles. The stupa is an “imago mundi” a
representation of the cosmos on earth. It is the realm of the chakravartin (chakravartikshetra),
albeit a supra-terristrial one . The decorative motifs imbue it with terrestrial life forces – the
potency of nature, of indigenous vitality . It is under the union of this primeval energy and
universal principles that stupa formalizes and executes it basic purpose , and wherein lies its
importance and centrality– that of a “magical structural milieu” which evokes the buddha and
allows the devotee to commune with him in a sacred, ordered, potent, divine world, and chart his
own progress to spiritual salvation.

This art also spelt the democratization of the stupa complex, not only were the narratives
mass in their appeal, their collective commissioning transformed the stupa to a participative,
shared entity. This art stood for “the art of the people, used for the glorification of the religion.”
The stupa became a veritable punyakshetra (a field of spiritual merit) where votive reliefs of
pious devotees could win them karmic merit.

East Gateway and Railings of Bharhut Stupa. Sculptured railings: 115 BCE, toranas: 75 BCE/’Sanchi Stupa
No.2, the earliest known stupa with important displays of decorative reliefs, circa 125 BCE

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The Great Stupa at Sanchi Decorated toranas built from the 1st c. BCE to the 1st c. CE

This theme of democratization is also evident in the profusion of images of nagas vriskha
devatas, yakshas and yakshinis . These indicate the assimilatory efforts of the religion which
resulted in an amalgamation of pre-buddhistic folk traditions and authochotonous cults into its
folds. The stupa became a vertitable showpiece for ancient motifs and in turn gets charged with
the symbolism and mythology of these primitive expressions and beliefs. This integration
powerfully signals the inclusiveness of the religion, the reconciliation of antagonistic
principles. Its a magical, harmonious union , a force that charges the railings and gateways with
deeper meaning and primeval energy. With the incorporation of the nagas came the life force of
fertility and birth. These guardians of the sustaining, nourishing terrestrial waters kept a
protective watch over the stupa and its devotees. With the yakhas, the soil genii of fertility,
riches and prosperity, the stupa was imbued with notions of abundance, growth and fertility and
these benign, munificent creatures poured their blessings over those who passed through the
gates into the holy enclosure. The pre-aryan cult of tree worship , the pre-buddhistic goddess
gaja laxmi ,among other traditions found a place on the stupa portals. The emphasis accorded to
them demonstrates that they were no less important than the buddhistic precepts in the scheme of
the stupa. They were all “ parts of one and the same vital process” .

Bodhi Tree and the Temple

The Bodhi tree at Bodhgaya is directly connected to the life of the historical Buddha, Siddhartha
Gautama, who attained enlightenment or perfect insight when he was meditating under it. The
temple was built directly to the east of the Bodhi tree, supposedly a direct descendant of the
original Bodhi Tree. According to Buddhist mythology, if no Bodhi tree grows at the site, the
ground around the Bodhi tree is devoid of all plants for a distance of one royal karīsa. Through
the ground around the Bodhi tree no being, not even an elephant, can travel.According to
the Jatakas, the navel of the earth lies at this spot, and no other place can support the weight of
the Buddha's attainment. Another Buddhist tradition claims that when the world is destroyed at
the end of a kalpa, the Bodhimanda is the last spot to disappear, and will be the first to appear
when the world emerges into existence again. Tradition also claims that a lotus will bloom there,
and if a Buddha is born during the new kalpa, the lotus flowers in accordance with the number of
Buddhas expected to arise. According to legend, in the case of Gautama Buddha, a Bodhi tree
sprang up on the day he was born.

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While Asoka is considered the Mahabodhi temple's founder, the current pyramidal structure
dates from the Gupta Empire, in the 5th–6th century CE. It's identical to the architectural styles
of Hindu temples still being constructed in India.
However this may represent a restoration of earlier work of the 2nd or 3rd century: a plaque
from Kumrahar dated 150–200 CE, based on its dated Kharoshthi inscriptions and combined
finds of Huvishka coins, already shows the Mahabodhi Temple in its current shape with a
stepped truncated pyramid and a small hemispherical stupa with finals on top. This is confirmed
by archaeological excavations in Bodh Gaya.
Mahabodhi Temple is constructed of brick and is one of the oldest brick structures to have
survived in eastern India. It is considered to be a fine example of Indian brickwork, and was
highly influential in the development of later architectural traditions. According to UNESCO,
"the present temple is one of the earliest and most imposing structures built entirely in brick
from Gupta period" (300–600 CE).[7] Mahabodhi Temple's central tower rises 55 metres (180 ft),
and were heavily renovated in the 19th century. The central tower is surrounded by four smaller
towers, constructed in the same style.
The Mahabodhi Temple is surrounded on all four sides by stone railings, about two metres
high. The railings reveal two distinct types, both in style as well as the materials used. The older
ones, made of sandstone, date to about 150 BCE, and the others, constructed from unpolished
coarse granite, are believed to be of the Gupta period. The older railings have scenes such
as Lakshmi, the Hindu/Buddhist goddess of wealth, being bathed by elephants; and Surya, the
Hindu sun god, riding a chariot drawn by four horses. The newer railings have figures
of stupas (reliquary shrines) and garudas (eagles). Images of lotus flowers also appear
commonly. Images of the site include Avalokiteśvara (Padmapani,
Khasarpana), Vajrapani, Tara, Marichi, Yamantaka, Jambhala and Vajravārāhī.

Shape of the Bodhi Temple at Gaya

It is thought that the temple in the shape of a truncated pyramid was derived from the design of
the stepped stupas which had developed in Gandhara. The Mahabodhi Temple adapted the
Gandharan design of a succession of steps with niches containing Buddha images, alternating
with Greco-Roman pillars, and top by a stupa, as seen in the stupas of Jaulian. The structure is
crowned by the shape of an hemispherical stupa topped by finials, forming a logical elongation
of the stepped Gandharan stupas.This truncated pyramid design also marked the evolution from
the aniconic stupa dedicated to the cult of relics, to the iconic temple with multiple images of the
Buddha and Bodhisattvas. This design was very influential in the development of later Hindu
temples. The "shikhara" tower with an amalaka near the top is today considered more
characteristic of Hindu temples.The Temple was restored by the British and India post
independence.
The construction of following stupas and viharas is credited to Ashoka:

 Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh, India

 Dhamek Stupa, Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh, India
 Mahabodhi Temple, Bihar, India

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  Barabar Caves, Bihar, India
 Nalanda Mahavihara (some portions like Sariputta Stupa), Bihar,
India
 Taxila University (some portions like Dharmarajika Stupa and
Kunala Stupa), Taxila, Pakistan
 Bhir Mound (reconstructed), Taxila, Pakistan
 Bharhut stupa, Madhya Pradesh, India
 Deorkothar Stupa, Madhya Pradesh, India
 Butkara Stupa, Swat, Pakistan
 Sannati Stupa, Karnataka, India
 Mir Rukun Stupa, Nawabshah, Pakistan
Propagation of Dhamma
Ashoka's rock edicts suggest that during his eighth–ninth regnal years, he made a pilgrimage to
the Bodhi Tree, started propagating dhamma, and performed social welfare activities. The
welfare activities included establishment of medical treatment facilities for humans and animals;
plantation of medicinal herbs; and digging of wells and plantation of trees along the roads. These
activities were conducted in the neighbouring kingdoms, including those of the Cholas, the
Pandyas, the Satiyaputras, Tamraparni, the Greek kingdom of Antiyoka.
The edicts also state that during his tenth–eleventh regnal years, Ashoka became closer to the
Buddhist sangha, and went on a tour of the empire that lasted for at least 256 days.
By his 12th regnal year, Ashoka had started inscribing edicts to propagate dhamma, having
ordered his officers (rajjukas and pradesikas) to tour their jurisdictions every five years for
inspection and for preaching dhamma. By the next year, he had set up the post of the dharma-
mahamatra.
During his 14th regnal year, he commissioned the enlargement of the stupa of Buddha
Kanakamuni.
Third Buddhist Council
The Sri Lankan tradition presents a greater role for Ashoka in the Buddhist community. In this
tradition, Ashoka starts feeding monks on a large scale. His lavish patronage to the state
patronage leads to many fake monks joining the sangha. The true Buddhist monks refuse to co-
operate with these fake monks, and therefore, no uposatha ceremony is held for seven years. The
king attempts to eradicate the fake monks, but during this attempt, an over-zealous minister ends
up killing some real monks. The king then invites the elder monk Moggaliputta-Tissa, to help
him expel non-Buddhists from the monastery founded by him at Pataliputra. 60,000 monks
(bhikkhus) convicted of being heretical are de-frocked in the ensuing process. The uposatha
ceremony is then held, and Tissa subsequently organises the Third Buddhist council, during the
17th regnal year of Ashoka. Tissa compiles Kathavatthu, a text that reaffirms Theravadin
orthodoxy on several points.
The North Indian tradition makes no mention of these events, which has led to doubts about the
historicity of the Third Buddihst council.
Buddhist missions

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In the Sri Lankan tradition, Moggaliputta-Tissa – who is patronised by Ashoka – sends out nine
Buddhist missions to spread Buddhism in the "border areas" in c. 250 BCE. This tradition does
not credit Ashoka directly with sending these missions. Each mission comprises five monks, and
is headed by an elder. To Sri Lanka, he sent his own son Mahinda, accompanied by four other
Theras – Itthiya, Uttiya, Sambala and Bhaddasala. Next, with Moggaliputta-Tissa's help, Ashoka
sent Buddhist missionaries to distant regions such as Kashmir, Gandhara, Himalayas, the land of
the Yonas (Greeks), Maharashtra, Suvannabhumi, and Sri Lanka.
The Sri Lankan tradition dates these missions to Ashoka's 18th regnal year, naming the following
missionaries:

 Mahinda to Sri Lanka

 Majjhantika to Kashmir and Gandhara
 Mahadeva to Mahisa-mandala (possibly modern Mysore region)
 Rakkhita to Vanavasa
 Dhammarakkhita the Greek to Aparantaka (western India)

 Maha-dhamma-rakkhita to Maharashtra
 Maharakkhita to the Greek country
 Majjhima to the Himalayas
 Soṇa and Uttara to Suvaṇṇabhūmi (possibly Lower Burma and Thailand)

The tradition adds that during his 19th regnal year, Ashoka's daughter Sanghamitta went to Sri
Lanka to establish an order of nuns, taking a sapling of the sacred Bodhi Tree with her.
The North Indian tradition makes no mention of these events. Ashoka's own inscriptions also
appear to omit any mention of these events, recording only one of his activities during this
period: in his 19th regnal year, he donated the Khalatika Cave to ascetics to provide them a
shelter during the rainy season. Ashoka's Pillar Edicts suggest that during the next year, he made
pilgrimage to Lumbini – the place of Buddha's birth, and to the stupa of the Buddha
Kanakamuni.
The Rock Edict XIII states that Ashoka's won a "dhamma victory" by sending messengers to five
kings and several other kingdoms. Whether these missions correspond to the Buddhist missions
recorded in the Buddhist chronicles is debated. Indologist Etienne Lamotte argues that the
"dhamma" missionaries mentioned in Ashoka's inscriptions were probably not Buddhist monks,
as this "dhamma" was not same as "Buddhism".Moreover, the lists of destinations of the
missions and the dates of the missions mentioned in the inscriptions do not tally the ones
mentioned in the Buddhist legends.
Other scholars, such as Erich Frauwallner and Richard Gombrich, believe that the missions
mentioned in the Sri Lankan tradition are historical. According to these scholars, a part of this
story is corroborated by archaeological evidence: the Vinaya Nidana mentions names of five
monks, who are said to have gone to the Himalayan region; three of these names have been
found inscribed on relic caskets found at Bhilsa (near Vidisha). These caskets have been dated to
the early 2nd century BCE, and the inscription states that the monks are of the Himalayan
school. The missions may have set out from Vidisha in central India, as the caskets were

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discovered there, and as Mahinda is said to have stayed there for a month before setting out for
Sri Lanka.
According to Gombrich, the mission may have included representatives of other religions, and
thus, Lamotte's objection about "dhamma" is not valid. The Buddhist chroniclers may have
decided not to mention these non-Buddhists, so as not to sideline Buddhism. Frauwallner and
Gombrich also believe that Ashoka was directly responsible for the missions, since only a
resourceful ruler could have sponsored such activities. The Sri Lankan chronicles, which belong
to the Theravada school, exaggerate the role of the Theravadin monk Moggaliputta-Tissa in
order to glorify their sect.
Some historians argue that Buddhism became a major religion because of Ashoka's royal
patronage. However, epigraphic evidence suggests that the spread of Buddhism in north-western
India and Deccan region was less because of Ashoka's missions, and more because of merchants,
traders, landowners and the artisan guilds who supported Buddhist establishments.

Buddhist Architecture and Stone Architecture

In The Outline of History (1920), H. G. Wells wrote, "Amidst the tens of thousands of names of
monarchs that crowd the columns of history, their majesties and graciousnesses and serenities
and royal highnesses and the like, the name of Ashoka shines, and shines, almost alone, a star."
Besides the various stupas attributed to Ashoka, the pillars erected by him survive at various
places in the Indian subcontinent.
Ashoka is often credited with the beginning of stone architecture in India, possibly following the
introduction of stone-building techniques by the Greeks after Alexander the Great. Before
Ashoka's time, buildings were probably built in non-permanent material, such as
wood, bamboo or thatch. Ashoka may have rebuilt his palace in Pataliputra by replacing wooden
material by stone, and may also have used the help of foreign craftmen. Ashoka also innovated
by using the permanent qualities of stone for his written edicts, as well as his pillars with
Buddhist symbolism. Ashokan capitals were highly realistic and used a characteristic polished
finish, Mauryan polish, giving a shiny appearance to the stone surface. Lion Capital of Ashoka,
the capital of one of the pillars erected by Ashoka features a carving of a spoked wheel, known
as the Ashoka Chakra. This wheel represents the wheel of Dhamma set in motion by the
Gautama Buddha, and appears on the flag of modern India. This capital also features sculptures
of lions, which appear on the seal of India.

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Rediscovery
Ashoka had almost been forgotten, but in the 19th century James Prinsep contributed in the
revelation of historical sources. After deciphering the Brahmi script, Prinsep had originally
identified the "Priyadasi" of the inscriptions he found with the King of Ceylon Devanampiya
Tissa. However, in 1837, George Turnour discovered an important Sri Lankan manuscript
(Dipavamsa, or "Island Chronicle" ) associating Piyadasi with Ashoka:
"Two hundred and eighteen years after the beatitude of the Buddha, was the inauguration of
Piyadassi, ....who, the grandson of Chandragupta, and the son of Bindusara, was at the time
Governor of Ujjayani."

— Dipavamsa

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Since then, the association of "Devanampriya Priyadarsin" with Ashoka was confirmed through
various inscriptions, and especially confirmed in the Minor Rock Edict inscription discovered
in Maski, directly associating Ashoka with his regnal title Devanampriya ("Beloved-of-the-
Gods"):
[A proclamation] of Devanampriya Asoka.
Two and a half years [and somewhat more] (have passed) since I am a Buddha-Sakya.
[A year and] somewhat more (has passed) [since] I have visited the Samgha and have shown
zeal.
Those gods who formerly had been unmingled (with men) in Jambudvipa, have how become
mingled (with them).
This object can be reached even by a lowly (person) who is devoted to morality.
One must not think thus, – (viz.) that only an exalted (person) may reach this.
Both the lowly and the exalted must be told : "If you act thus, this matter (will be) prosperous
and of long duration, and will thus progress to one and a half.

— Maski Minor Rock Edict of Ashoka

Another important historian was British archaeologist John Hubert Marshall, who was director-
General of the Archaeological Survey of India. His main interests were Sanchi and Sarnath, in
addition to Harappa and Mohenjodaro. Sir Alexander Cunningham, a British archaeologist and
army engineer, and often known as the father of the Archaeological Survey of India, unveiled
heritage sites like the Bharhut Stupa, Sarnath, Sanchi, and the Mahabodhi Temple. Mortimer
Wheeler, a British archaeologist, also exposed Ashokan historical sources, especially the Taxila.

DESIGN ANALYSIS of the STUPA at SANCHI

The monuments at Sanchi today comprise a series of Buddhist monuments starting from
the Mauryan Empire period (3rd century BCE), continuing with the Gupta Empire period (5th
century CE), and ending around the 12th century CE. It is probably the best preserved group of
Buddhist monuments in India. The oldest, and also the largest monument, is the Great Stupa also
called Stupa No. 1, initially built under the Mauryans, and adorned with one of the Pillars of
Ashoka. During the following centuries, especially under the Shungas and the Satavahanas, the
Great Stupa was enlarged and decorated with gates and railings, and smaller stupas were also
built in the vicinity, especially Stupa No.2, and Stupa No.3.

Simultaneously, various temple structures were also built, down to the Gupta Empire period and
later. Altogether, Sanchi encompasses most of the evolutions of ancient Indian architecture and
ancient Buddhist architecture in India, from the early stages of Buddhism and its first artistic
expression, to the decline of the religion in the subcontinent.

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General view of the Stupas at Sanchi by F.C. Maisey, 1851 (The Great Stupa on top of the hill, and
Stupa 2 at the forefront)

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 Plan of the monuments of the hill of Sanchi, numbered 1 to 50.

The Stupa No. 2 at Sanchi /Sanchi II, is one of the oldest existing Buddhist stupas in India, and
part of the Buddhist complex of Sanchi in Madhya Pradesh. It is of particular interest since it has
the earliest known important displays of decorative reliefs in India, probably anterior to the
reliefs at the Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya, or the reliefs of Bharhut. It displays what has
been called "the oldest extensive stupa decoration in existence". Stupa II at Sanchi is therefore
considered as the birthplace of Jataka illustrations.

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FOUNDATION

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Stupa No. 2 is located in the Buddhist complex of Sanchi. It was probably founded later than the
Great Stupa (Stupa number 1) at Sanchi, but it contained reliquaries dated to the Mauryan
Empire period (323-185 BCE), and it was the earliest to receive decorative reliefs, about a
century earlier than Stupa Nb 1. One of the key indicators to date Sanchi Stupa No.2 has been the
similarity of its architectural motifs with those of Heliodorus pillar, which is datable to circa 113
BCE due to its establishment during the rule of Indo-Greek Antialcidas, as well as similarities of
the paleography of the inscriptions. The Stupa is located outside of the main complex of Sanchi,
about 300 meters to the west, on the slope of Sanchi hill. It is located in a lower position than
Stupa 1 because the relics it contained, are those of church dignitaries from the time of Ashoka,
who were considered as worthy of a lower position than the Buddha himself in Stupa number 1,
or his disciples in Stupa number 3.

The Stupa contained a relic box with four small caskets of steatite inside, containing human
bones. An inscription in early Brahmi was found on the relic box, mentioning that it contained
"the relics of all teachers, including Kasapagota and Vachi-Suvijayita". [4] Besides, ten saints were
mentioned on the caskets, who either participated to the Third Buddhist Council held
under Ashoka, or were sent as emissaries to the Himalayas to preach the Buddhist doctrine.
Among them is a "Mogaliputa", who may be Mogaliputa Tissa, who presided the Third Buddhist
Council, but this is disputed.

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Map of Sanchi hill, with Stupa II at the extreme left, to the west
Typically, the earliest medallions at Sanchi are dated to 115 BC, while the more extensive pillar
carvings are dated to around 80 BC, or almost a century later than the first ones, around 15 BCE
Early period (circa 115 BCE
These reliefs from the early period of Sanchi II (circa 115 BCE) are the earliest known examples
of Indian stone reliefs.

Sunga period railings were initially blank (left: Sanchi Great Stupa), and only started to be decorated circa
115 BCE with Stupa No.2 (right). In the next chapter I have discussed the role of the Railing in Design of the
Stupa.

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These first attempts at narrative art are aniconic, as they do not represent the Buddha directly, but
only his appearance in previous lives, or his symbols.
These are altogether 455 medallions and half-medallions, or which 293 consist in lotus flowers,
and 126 in a lotus with another motif. Only 36 of the medallions have another subject. For the
first time, clearly Buddhist themes are represented, particularly the four events in the life of the
Buddha that are: the Nativity, the Enlightenment, the First Sermon and the Decease. Some
authors consider these reliefs as the prelude (the "prolegomenon") of the iconography of the
reliefs in Bharhut (100-80 BCE) and of the later and much more evolved depictions on the
toranas of the Great Stupa in Sanchi (1st century BCE/CE).

Influence from the northwest

It is thought that the earliest reliefs from the last quarter of the 2nd century BCE were produced
by craftsmen from the area of Gandhara in northwestern Indian, a central Indo-
Greek region, because they left mason's marks in Kharoshthi (a script used around the area of
Gandhara), as opposed to the local Brahmi script. This seems to imply that these foreign workers
were responsible for some of the earliest and sometimes quite foreign motifs and figures that can
be found on the railings of the stupa.

Around the time of the first reliefs at Stupa II, in 115 BCE, the embassy of Heliodorus from
the Indo-Greek king of Taxila named Antialkidas, visited the court of
the Sungas king Bhagabhadra in Vidisha, about 6 km away from Sanchi. In Vidisha, Heliodorus
established the Heliodorus pillar in a dedication to Vāsudeva. This would indicate that relations
between the Indo-Greeks and the Sungas had improved by that time, that people traveled
between the two realms, and also that the Indo-Greeks readily followed Indian religions.

Stupa No. 3 was built during the time of the Shungas, who also built the railing around it as well as the
staircase. The Relics of Sariputra and Mahamoggallana, the disciples of the Buddha are said to have
been placed in Stupa No. 3, and relics boxes were excavated tending to confirm this.The reliefs on the
railings are said to be slightly later than those of Stupa No. 2.The single torana gateway oriented to the
south is not Shunga, and was built later under

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