FAULTS Faults cause the operation of a power system may to depart from normal, giving rise to abnomual conditions such as excessive curreats and voltages at certain points on the system. Thes are usually guarded against with various types of protective equipment. Types of Faults Faults in 3-phase power systems are mainly classified into two types. namely open-circuit and stort civeult faults which can be symmetrical or - unsymmetrical faults.Open circuit faults are also called as series faults, These are unsymmetrical or unbalanced types of faults except three phase open circuit fault. The most common causes of open circuit faults include joint failures of cables and overhead lines, and failure of one or more phases of circuit breaker and also due to melting of a fuse or conductor in one or mote phases. The figure below illustrates open circuit faults. a) Single-phase open-cet b) Two-phase open-cet ¢) Three-phase open-cetE.iieets of apem chrewit ‘salt - Abnonmal operation of system, ~ Danger to the personnel, + Voliages beyoud normal values in certain parts of the network, which further leads to insulation failures and shon circuit faults. Although open circuit faults can be tolerated for longer periods than short circuit faults, they must be removed as soon as possible to reduce the greater damage.A short circuit can be defined a an abnormal connection of very low impedance between two points of different potentials, whether made intentionally of accidentally. These ave the most common and severe kind of faults, resulting in the Now of sbeormal high currents through equipment or traasmission lines. If these faults persist, even for a short period, it cau lead 10 extensive damage to the equipment, Short circuit faults are also called shunt faults. r =: a) Single-phase to earth b) Phase-to-phace ¢)Double-phase to earth { Ee d) 3-phase clear of eath J. ¢) 3ephase to earth aWy be due to intemal or external effects Internal effects include beesktows of transinission lines c¢ equipment, aging insulation, deterioration of insulatiow in gecerstor. tionaformer swt other electrical eqvipineut, ianproper i Eternal effects sich ailstions and sardequate design overlords nautstion failure dye to Lightainz svrges end mechanical damage by public Effects of short ciremit (9 HArcing faults can lead to fire and explosion in equipment 2 civcuit breakers 93 teantformers sad 2) Abnovmal curtents ease equipment to overheat, which fends to the reduction of Ife pra of th tion nO, ¢ voltages of the system ean go heloss oF above their rated valves jeoprnhiriig the service rentered by the power syste: 4) Power How is severely restricted or even. npletely Blocked 9s tous foult persistsFAULT STUDY A fault study includes: L Determination of the maximura and minimum three-phase short-circuit currents Determination of unsymmetrical fault currents, as in single line-to-ground, double fine-to-ground,linetoline, and open-circuit faults, Determination of the ratings of required circuit breakers Investigation of schemes of protective relaying Determination of voltace levels at stratezic points during a foultSYMMETRICAL FAULT ANALYSIS Abwonmalsystenn behaviour under conditions of syurunetsical short-circuit (synnetsical three phase foul) ern emnee + insulation fsilore of equipment or + Alashover of lin tinted by a lightoing stroke of + accident fulty operation The systeun mat be protected against flow of leavy short-cizeuit everentetwhich exa eau ce permanent damage to major equipment by dissonseeting the faulry pan ef the vstein by the use of cirvit breakers epersted by protective relaying. Fer proper chsice ofeireult breaters andprotcenve relen ing. the w.agniruse of correats that would flow vader short circuit conditions must be estimatedMost system faults are aot 3-phase faults but fruits eavolving one line ts groend of occasionally two lines 10 ground These are unsymmetrice! faults requiring special analysis tools like symmetncal components Symmetcal fault analysis i simpler to carry out Though the symmetrical fauits are rare, they generally lead to most severe fault current and so symmetncal fault analysis must be carned out A power network comprises syochronous generators, transformess, lines and loads. Though operating conditions at the time of fault are important, the loads can be neglected during fault, as voltages dip so Sow that curreats drawa by loads can be neglected in comparison to fault currents.A power network comprises generators, transformers, lines and losds. Though operating conditions at the time of fault ere important, the loads can be neglected 1p so low that currents drawn by loads are very low in during fault, as voltages comparison to fault currents. Generation Transmissionfre. The following reactance iatenar ef'a Unter tenty te, short elsvit eondioas, the aemture sesctica ef themtor proces a eesargnetits circuit, eau be ifentified ith the induced ext Center (eneymuemeremirece Cyiggrensuenarenl tere Glaeoeseuntrateny dayorsaasors— “Wimsmpestsesent OSE IEE ayes f.93 aeConsider now the sudden short ciuit (ree-phase) of a syochrosces ‘generator initially operating under open cicuit conditions. The machine eee eee ee ee rca oal eee mee eaImmediately in the event of a short cireuit, the symmetrical short Cizcuit current is limited only by the leakage redctance of the machine. Since the air gap flux cannot change instantazecusly (theorem of constant fizz linkages), to counter the demagnetization of the acaature short circuit cement, camects appear in the field winding 2s well as in the damper winding in a direction to help the main flux. These currents decay in 2ccozdance with the winding time constants. The time constant of the damper winding which hes low leakage inductance is much less than that of the field winding, which bas high lexkage inductance, Thus during the initial Lew of the short circuit, ne Comper and field their rcectances =X, sar eee ingamllel with 3 (Fie. 938) Uely tum ratio is 5 memes here. Fe 04 tikgmess ore re ory Seraetrest? ex ont‘The reactance presented by the machine in the initial period of the short circuit, X} is the Subiransleénf reactance of the machine Le. 1 1X) +UX,,) Xp= X+ fia a TF (9.5) ‘The reactance clfective after the damper winding currents have died out is Xy= Xp + (X,0X) (9.6) X", is the transient reactance of the machine. Of course, the reactance under steady conditions is the synchronous reactance of the machine. Obviously X"}< X}< X, The machine thus offers a time-varying reactance which changes from X"4 to XY and finally to Xy.The envelope of the current wave shape is plotted in Fig. 9.4b. iepotated Gurvemtenvelopt sea syatate current ig 7 Fig. 9.4(0) Envelope of syncmioncus machine symmetneal shew excust extent If the transient envelope is extrapolated backwards in time, the difference between the transient and subtransient cnvelopes is the cument Qe" (c1 sponding to the damper winding current) which decays fast according to the ce damper winding time constant. Similarly, the difference Ai’ between the st steady state and transient envelopes decays in accordance with the field time constant, SSEIf the transient envelope is extrapolated backwards in time, the difference between the trunsicnt and sublrensient envelopes is the current Av" (cont- sponding to the damper winding current) which decays fast according to the damper winding time constant. Similarly, the difference Ai’ between the steady skate and transient envelopes decays in accordance with the field time constant. state current (ims) 4 Current (rms) excluding DC compenect ta) insient current (rms) excluding DC cemperect X= ditect auis synchronous reactPig, 9.4 (2) Spprmenicat thon eeu ermotine tuirend in eyreivencnn mnehie In terms of the oscillogram, the currents and reactonoes: ar where we Sas (9.72) ‘= sesdy state carret (pms) te ‘Pi = transient curreat (rms) excioding DC compecest Wie a (9.7) "i= sabtransieat coment (ra) exclading DC curmpeneat \c X,-2 direct ats synchyoncus ractusce a SE ew coker We yay O70X)= direct axis transient reactance X'/= direct avis subtransient reactance 11 = per phase no load voltage (rms) 0a,0b,Oc = intercepts shown in Figs. 9.4a and b. ‘The intercept Ob for finding transient reactance can be determined accurately by means of a logarithmic plot. Both di’ and Ar’ decay exponentially as Ai = Ail} exp (- ry.) Ai’ = Aig exp (- 7) where 7, and 7 are respectively damper, and field winding time constants with Tuy <1 Altime ty». 7,,, di” practically dies out and we can write log (A+, n= log At = = AigExample 9.2 A 25 MVA, Il kV generator with X} = 20% is connected through 2 transformer, line and a ensformer to a bus that supplies three identical motors as shown in Fig. 9.8 Each motor has Xj = 25% and Xj, = 30% on a base of 5 MVA, 6.6 kV. The three-phase rating of the step-up transformer is 25 MVA, 11/66 kV with a leakage reactance of 10% 2nd that of the step-dows transformer is 25 MVA, 66/6.6 KV with a leakage reactance of 10%. The 625 voltage at the motors is 6.6 kV when 2 three-phase fault cecurs at the point F. For the specified fault, calculate (a) the subtransient current in the fault, (b) the subtransient current in the breaker B, (c) the momentary curtent in breaker 3, and (d) the current to be interrupted by breaker B ia five cycles. Given: Reactance of the transmission line = 15% on a base of 25 MVA, 66 kV. Assume that the system is operating on ao load when the (Gul: occurs. | a3ge 3 oO io Tee SFP] Comes 11765 V evagay - £0)ion Choose a system base of 25 MVA. For a generator vollage base of 11 KV, line voltage base is 66 kV and moter voltage base is 6.6 kV. eae (a) For cach motor y cae pe Line, transformers and generator rezctances are already given on proper base values. The circuit model of the system for fault calculations is given in Fig. 9.93. ‘The system being initially on no load, the generator and motor induced emfs are identical. The circuit can thezefore be reduced to that of Fig. 9.9b and then to Fig. 9.9c. Now 1 Ise = 3x = j4.22 pu jl25 > 0.55 Base current in 6.6 KV circuit = Ise = 4.22 x 2,187 = 9,229 AIs¢(Circuit breaker) (c) (3) Fig. 9.9 (b) From Fig. 9.9c, current through circuit breaker B is 1 I 5 Isc(B) = 2% —— + —— = -j3.42 sc(B) = 2x E+ sg I = 3.42 x 2,187 = 7,479.5 A