22 November 2024 10:22 PM

➢ Pre-History Source of Ancient History

➢ Proto-History(2600-1900 BC) 1. WRITTEN RECORDS.
➢ History(4 centuary BC E) ○ Vedas.
○ Upanishads.
○ Puranas.
○ Epics: Mahabharat and Ramayan.
○ Buddhist literature.
• Pre-History: The period before the advent
of writing. ○ Jain literature.
• Proto-History (2600–1900 BC): The
○ Royal biographies.
transitional period when writing was known ○ Account of foreigner travellers.
but not fully deciphered (e.g., the Indus
Valley Civilization).
• History (4th century BCE onward): The
2. ARCHEOLOGY: Study of material remains
period marked by written records. like tools, pottery, and monuments.
3. NUMISMATICS : Study of coinage
4. EPIGRAPHY : Study of inscriptions
5. POPULATION Genetics :Study of genetic
variations to trace ancient populations.

We can classify Indian Stone Age on the basis of

1. Geological age
2. Stone tools
3. Subsistence base

Pre-history can be divided into three phases

1. Palaeolithic
○ Lower palaeolithic(2 mya - 100,000BC)
○ Middle palaeolithic(100,000 - 40,000 BC)
○ Upper palaeolithic(40,000 - 10,000 BC)

2. Mesolithic :Transition phase with microlithic tools.

3. Neolithic: Marked by agriculture and settled life

Few general features of Palaeolithic Age

⚫ Early humans lived in foothills of mountains, close to rivers that were narrow and easy
to cross compare to planes.
⚫ Caves were the natural place for residence.
⚫ Survival depended on hunting animals and gathering food.
⚫ Stone tools evolved, becoming smaller and sharper over time.
⚫ Dead persons were left without performing rituals.

Important Palaeolithic Sites in India

1. Sohan River Valley – Punjab
2. Lidder River Valley – Kashmir.

New Section 2 Page 1

22 November 2024 10:37 PM

3. Didwana – Rajasthan
4. Munger and Rajgir – Bihar
5. Kurnool Caves – Andhra Pradesh
6. Polavaram – Tamil Nadu

Mesolithic Age (10,000–6,000 BCE)

The Mesolithic Age marks a transition between the Palaeolithic and Neolithic ages.

Key Features
1. Use of Microliths: Smaller, finely finished stone tools.
2. Shift in Subsistence: Transition from hunting and gathering to animal
domestication and early agriculture.
3. Domestication of Plants and Animals: Beginnings of organized food
production.
4. Early Pottery: Evidence of early clay pots.
5. Burials: Disposal of the dead, indicating a belief system.
6. Artistic Expression: Abstract art found at various sites.
7. Construction of Artificial Homes: Made of bamboo and grass.

Important Mesolithic Sites in India

1. Bagor (Rajasthan): Evidence of microlithic tools and domesticated animals.
2. Adamgarh (Madhya Pradesh): Rock shelters with evidence of early agriculture.
3. Bhimbetka Caves (Madhya Pradesh): Famous for rock art depicting daily life.
4. Lakhudiyar Caves (Uttarakhand): Known for prehistoric rock paintings.
5. Kaimur Region (Mirzapur, Uttar Pradesh): Evidence of early human settlement.

Neolithic Age (6,000–3,000 BCE)

The Neolithic Age is characterized by the development of agriculture, permanent
settlements, and polished stone tools.
Key Features
1. Agriculture: Became the main economic activity.
2. Larger-Scale Domestication: Plants and animals were domesticated
extensively.

New Section 2 Page 2

22 November 2024 10:48 PM

3. Polished Stone Tools: More advanced tools for farming and daily life.
4. Pottery: Used for storing food grains.
5. Permanent Settlements: First village settlements emerged.

Important Neolithic Sites in India

1. Mehrgarh (Pakistan): Considered the first village of the subcontinent,
showcasing evidence of early farming and domestication.
2. Burzahom (Kashmir): Known for pit dwellings and burials where domestic
dogs were buried along with their masters.
3. Chirand (Bihar): Evidence of polished stone tools and agriculture.
4. Maski and Hallur (Karnataka): Early settlements with tools and pottery.
5. Mahagara (Uttar Pradesh): Evidence of early domestication of cattle.

New Section 2 Page 3

10 November 2024

EARLY CENTRES OF AGRICULTURE IN THE SUBCONTINENT

New Section 2 Page 4

CHALCOLITHIC PHASE (3000 to 500 BC)
22 November 2024 11:02 PM

Key Features
1. Emergence of Metal Usage:
○ Copper was the first metal used alongside stone tools.
○ In some regions, the Chalcolithic phase is associated with pre-Harappan
cultures, while in others, it follows the Harappan Civilization.

2. Agriculture and Cattle Rearing:

○ Agriculture became widespread, accompanied by large-scale cattle
rearing.

3. Village Settlements:
○ Well-developed village settlements emerged during this period.

4. Art, Craft, and Religious Practices:

○ Development of art and craft.
○ Worship of gods and goddesses became prevalent.

5. Jewelry:
○ Jewelry made of shells and bones was common.

Important Chalcolithic Sites in India

1. Ahar (Banas Valley, Rajasthan): Known for advanced copper tools and
agriculture.
2. Gilund (Rajasthan): Evidence of pottery and chalcolithic habitation.
3. Daimabad (Maharashtra): Notable for bronze artifacts and large settlements.
4. Malwa (Madhya Pradesh): Known for painted pottery and agriculture.
5. Sonpur (Bihar): Evidence of cattle rearing and burial practices.
6. Nashik (Maharashtra): Known for agricultural tools and pottery.
7. Jorwe (Maharashtra): Famous for Jorwe culture, characterized by painted black
and red pottery.

New Section 2 Page 5

22 November 2024 11:33 PM

New Section 2 Page 6

HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION / INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION
22 November 2024 11:09 PM

Harappan Civilisation, a divide into three phases:

1. Early Harappan Phase (3300 BC - 2600 BC)
2. Mature Harappan Phase (2600 BC - 1900 BC)
3. Late Harappan Phase (1900 BC - 1300 BC)

Early Harappan Phase: Represents rural settlements. Many of these

settlements, as well as new sites, evolved into cities during the Mature Harappan
Phase. The Late Harappan Phase signifies the decline of the Indus Valley
Civilization and the re-emergence of rural settlements.
• The Harappans had a well-developed script that has not yet been deciphered.
• Archaeology remains the most important source of information about this
civilization.

Urban Planning and Infrastructure

• The urban planning of Harappan cities reflects an efficient municipal
government that prioritized planned development, hygiene, and public
infrastructure.
• Houses were constructed with baked bricks and had access to a proper water
supply system and an elaborate drainage network.
• Many settlements featured citadels, central areas of the city fortified with
defensive structures. The cities also had an efficient trash collection system.
• Significant investments were made in public infrastructure, including granaries,
public baths, and other civic facilities.
• Roads intersected at right angles, ensuring systematic city planning, and every
house was connected to the wastewater drainage system.

Privacy and Architectural Features

• The Harappans displayed a strong concern for privacy.
○ Doors of houses did not open directly onto main roads.
○ Windows were strategically placed to prevent visibility into the interior of
houses, ensuring privacy for the residents.

New Section 2 Page 7

22 November 2024 11:33 PM

Innovation and Technological Developments

1. Measurement Systems:
○ The Harappans demonstrated great accuracy in their systems and tools for
measuring length and mass.
○ They used standardized weights in multiples of units, showcasing
advanced metrology.

2. Bricks and Construction:

○ Fire-baked bricks were uniform in size, moisture-resistant, and highly
durable, surviving for thousands of years.

3. Seal Carving:
○ The Harappans are renowned for seal carving, with seals featuring
intricate designs and animal motifs such as elephants, tigers, buffaloes,
and unicorns.
○ These seals were used to identify property and to stamp clay on trade
goods, facilitating trade and property authentication.

4. Metallurgy:
○ The Harappans developed advanced techniques in metallurgy, working
with copper, bronze, lead, and tin.

5. Trade Networks:
○ They participated in a vast maritime trade network extending from
Central Asia to West Asia.
○ Harappans were referred to as Meluha by contemporary civilizations.
○ Advances in transport technology, including the use of carts and boats,
facilitated this large-scale trade.

6. Craftsmanship:
○ Harappans engaged in shell working, producing goods that have been
found in other contemporary civilizations, indicating active cultural
exchange.

Religion and Culture

• Since the Harappan script remains undeciphered, little is known about
their religious practices.

New Section 2 Page 8

 22 November 2024 11:33 PM

• It is suggested that the Harappans worshipped a Mother Goddess, symbolizing

fertility, particularly related to agricultural fertility.
• The presence of animal motifs, including mythical creatures like unicorns, may have
had religious significance.
• A seal found in Mohenjo-Daro is often interpreted as depicting a proto-Shiva or
Pashupati, a precursor to the later Hindu god Shiva.
• Numerous artifacts such as sculptures, pottery, gold jewelry, detailed terracotta
figurines, bronze statues, and precious stones like lapis lazuli have been
discovered, shedding light on their cultural and artistic achievements.
Power Hierarchy
• Although Harappan society was not characterized by extreme inequality, the citadels
in cities likely represented the center of authority.
• It remains unclear whether Harappan settlements were part of a larger, centralized
empire or if they operated as independent city-states.

Decline of Harappan Civilization

• One theory suggests that nomadic Indo-European tribes invaded and conquered
the Harappan Civilization. However, this theory has been contradicted by many
historians.
• The most widely accepted theory is that the civilization perished due to climate
change, including the drying up of the Saraswati River. Tectonic events, which
disrupted river systems, may have also contributed to the decline of the civilization.
• By 1700 BC, most Harappan cities were abandoned. It is believed that the Harappans
may have migrated to the Ganga Basin or the southern regions, where they
established new villages and isolated forms of settlement.

New Section 2 Page 9

 VEDIC AGE
22 November 2024 11:37 PM

Vedic age can be divided into Two phases

1. Early Vedic age (1500-100 BC).
2. Late Vedic age (1100-600 BC).

• The most important source for understanding the Vedic age is the Vedas. The Vedas
are considered a type of Shruti literature (Eternal Truth).
• Shruti means "that which has been heard" and refers to knowledge believed to
have existed eternally, received by the Rishis (sages) during a state of deep
meditation.
• Each Veda consists of four parts:
1. Samhitas: Collections of hymns.
2. Brahmanas: Explanations of the Samhitas, focusing on rituals and sacrificial
practices.
3. Aranyakas: Known as "forest books," these interpret sacrificial rituals in
symbolic and philosophical ways.
4. Upanishads: These are philosophical texts that explore ideas related to sacrifice,
the body, the Atman (soul), and the universe.

• The Early Vedic Age is marked by the compilation of the Samhitas, particularly the
Rigveda.
• During the Late Vedic Age, the Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda were
compiled.

New Section 2 Page 10

IDENTITY OF INDO-ARYANS
22 November 2024 11:37 PM

• The term Aryans is primarily used as a linguistic term today, referring to people who
spoke languages that share similarities. For example, there are notable linguistic
similarities between the Rig Veda and the Zend Avesta (the religious text of
Zoroastrianism).
• The Aryans were known for their domestication of horses and the use of spoked
wheels, a significant technological advancement compared to the earlier solid wheels.
• Cult worship was central to Aryan religious practices, including the Cult of Fire and
the Cult of Soma—a plant believed to have healing properties.
• Animal sacrifices, including the sacrifice of horses, were important in Aryan rituals, and
the swastika was a symbol often associated with their culture.

Early Vedic Period or Rig Vedic Age (1500-1000 BCE)

• The early settlers referred to India as Sapta Sindhu (Land of Seven Rivers), which
mainly covered the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent.
• The Seven Rivers mentioned in the Rig Vedic texts are:
1. Indus (Sindhu)
2. Jhelum (Vitasta)
3. Chenab (Askini)
4. Ravi (Parushni)
5. Beas (Bipah)
6. Sutlej (Shutudri)
7. Saraswati

New Section 2 Page 11

22 November 2024 11:37 PM

Tribes and Wars (Rig Vedic Period)

• Around 30 tribes are mentioned in the Rig Veda. Five of the prominent tribes
are known as the Paanch Jana:
1. Yadu
2. Turvasha
3. Puru
4. Anu
5. Dhruyu
• The Puru and Bharat tribes were the most dominant.
○ The Puru king was Trishadasyu.
○ The Bharat king was Divodasa.
• There were many conflicts between the Aryan tribes and the Dasa and Dasyu
tribes, whose origin is still unclear.
• Simyu and Kikat were also enemies of the Aryas.
• One of the most significant battles mentioned in the Rig Veda is the Battle of
Ten Kings (Dasarajna). In this battle, the Bharat chief Sudas defeated a
confederacy of ten tribes on the banks of the Parushni (Ravi) river.
• The Bharat tribe allied with the Kuru tribe, and this alliance came to be known
as the Kuru. The Kuru and their allies, the Panchalas, ruled the region of
Aryavrat for many years.

New Section 2 Page 12

22 November 2024 11:52 PM

Economy of Early Vedic Age

• Pastoralism was the most important economic activity, although there was an
advanced understanding of agriculture.
• The horse (Ashva) was the most significant animal, with the cow (Go) being the
second most mentioned animal in the Rig Veda. Most wars were fought over
cows, and the term for war, Gavisthi, literally means "search for cows."
• Land was not considered private property.
• Copper and bronze were used extensively, and these materials were referred to
as Ayas.
• The primary mode of economic transaction was the barter system.

Polity (Political Structure)

• In the Early Vedic Age, the political system was based on tribal chiefdom. The
chief was known as the Rajan (King), and the position was typically hereditary.
However, the Rajan's power was limited by tribal assemblies:
○ Sabha: An assembly of the elites.
○ Samiti: An assembly of the people.
○ Vidhata: An assembly of the tribes.
• Women participated in these assemblies.
• The Senani (commander of the army) held the second-most important position
after the Rajan.
• The Rajan did not maintain a standing army, but during wartime, the tribe
would come together to support him. People offered Bali (voluntary offerings)
to the Rajan.
• The spoils of war were shared among the entire tribe.
• Various divisions, such as Jana, Vis, Grama, and Gana, were present, with the
primary loyalty of the people being to their Jana (tribe), not to a particular
territory. The term Jan-pada (territorial state) was not mentioned in the Vedic
texts.

Social Hierarchy
• The 10th Mandala of the Rig Veda contains the Purusha Sukta, which
mentions four social categories:
1. Brahmans (priests)
2. Rajanya (Kshatriyas, warriors)
3. Vaishyas (merchants)
4. Shudras (servants)

New Section 2 Page 13

 23 November 2024 12:00 AM

• The term Varna (meaning color) was not used in the Purusha-Sukta. However, this
distinction became more pronounced in later texts, suggesting that social
differences were not rigid during the early Vedic period.
• Social mobility was possible during this time.
• Widow remarriage was allowed, and child marriage was not practiced.
• Women were allowed to participate in assemblies.

Religion
• The Aryans were nature worshippers and primarily worshipped gods like Indra (the
king of gods) and Agni (the fire god).
○ Indra was also called Purandara, the "breaker of forts."
○ Varuna personified water, and Marut represented wind.
○ Goddesses such as Usha, Saraswati, and Aditi were also worshipped.
• The main forms of worship were recitation of prayers and performing sacrifices.
• The Aryans sought Praja (children), Pashu (cattle), food, and wealth from the gods.
• The birth of a son was highly desirable in society.
• The society was patriarchal, with the father as the head of the family.

Late Vedic Age (1100-600 BCE)

• The Late Vedic Age is based on the later compilations of the Vedas that were
completed after the Rigveda.
• The Aryans expanded into the entire Ganga-Yamuna Doab region.
• The Kuruks occupied the Delhi region and nearby areas, with Hastinapur
becoming their capital.
• The Panchals also rose to power during this period.
• The use of Iron became widespread, particularly Shyam Ayas and Krishna
Ayas (iron types).
• Agriculture became the central economic activity, and the Sabha and Samiti
continued to exist but were increasingly controlled by the ruling and priestly
classes. Territorial kings emerged, and kings performed various sacrifices to
assert their authority.

New Section 2 Page 14

23 November 2024 12:00 AM

Sacrifices (Yajnas)
Several important sacrifices were performed during this period:
1. Rajasuya: Performed during the coronation of a king to confirm his supreme
power.
2. Ashvamedha: Performed to show unquestioned control over a region; the king
would send out a royal horse, and any area the horse entered would belong to
the king.
3. Vajpeya: A chariot race where the royal chariot of the king was made to win
against his kinsmen.
• Kings still did not maintain a standing army, but the practice of voluntary Bali
(offerings) became obligatory.

Social Structure and Changes

• The Varna system became more rigid during this period, with the upper three
Varnas (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas) allowed to undergo Upanayana,
signifying their Dvija status (twice-born).
• The Shudras were denied the Upanayana ceremony.
• Two notable sages had different views regarding the spread of Aryan culture:
○ Vashistha was conservative.
○ Vishwamitra was more liberal and allowed non-Aryans to chant the
Gayatri Mantra and join the Aryan fold.
• Women were denied both Upanayana and the Gayatri mantra.
• The institution of Gotra emerged, which referred to the lineage or clan,
originally signifying the place where cattle were kept for a clan. It later came to
signify descent from a common ancestor. Gotra endogamy (marriage within
the same clan) was not allowed.

Four Ashrams (Stages of Life)

The concept of the four Ashrams (stages of life) emerged during the Late Vedic
Age:
1. Brahmacharya: The stage of acquiring education and learning.
2. Grihastha: The stage of married life.
3. Vanaprastha: The stage of partial renunciation, where individuals gradually
detach from worldly pleasures.
4. Sannyasa: The stage of complete renunciation, where individuals dedicate
themselves fully to spiritual pursuits.

New Section 2 Page 15

23 November 2024 12:00 AM

Religion in the Late Vedic Age

• The cult of sacrifice became more important than reciting prayers, and Indra
and Agni lost their prominence.
• New gods emerged, including Prajapati, Rudra, and Vishnu.
• Some social groups had specific duties; for example, Shudras worshipped
Pushan, the god who was believed to tend to cattle.
• Towards the end of the Late Vedic Age, there was a strong reaction against
priestly domination. The Upanishads were compiled, which criticized rituals
and emphasized the importance of right belief and knowledge over mere
rituals.

New Section 2 Page 16

EMERGANCE OF MAHAJNAPADAS (6th C.BC -3rd century BC)
23 November 2024 12:00 AM

Sources of Information
1. Mahabharata and Ramayana
2. Puranas
3. Buddhist Literature:
○ Tripitakas:
a. Sutta Pitaka
b. Vinaya Pitaka
c. Abhidhamma Pitaka
○ Jataka Stories
4. Jain Literature:
○ Siddhanta or Agam Literature

5. Ashtadhyayi by Panini (5th/4th Century BCE):

○ Panini, a renowned grammarian from the Gandhara region, studied at the
University of Taxila (Takshashila).
○ Ashtadhyayi is a remarkable work of grammar that also provides insights
into ancient life, including:
▪ People
▪ Places
▪ Customs
▪ Coins
▪ Weights and measures
6. Greek Narratives:
○ Accounts after Alexander’s invasion provide additional information.

Key Developments Leading to the Emergence of Mahajanapadas

• Agricultural Surplus: By the 6th century BCE, regular agricultural surplus
became common.
• Taxation: The surplus enabled the collection of regular taxes.
• Use of Iron: Extensive use of iron tools and weapons facilitated agricultural
expansion and state-building.
• Evolution of States:
○ Janas (tribes) transformed into Janapadas (territories).
○ Some Janapadas further expanded into Mahajanapadas (large territorial
states).

New Section 2 Page 17

23 November 2024 10:13 PM

New Section 2 Page 18

Pali Text Mentions 16 Mahajanapadas
23 November 2024 10:11 PM

1. Anga:
○ Region: Bhagalpur and Monger (Bihar), near the Champa River.
○ Capital: Champa.
○ Later annexed to the Magadha Kingdom.
2. Asmaka:
○ Region: Near the Godavari River.
○ Capital: Podana (or Potali).
○ Located near Mulaka, whose capital was Pratishthana.
3. Avanti:
○ Region: Central India (Malwa region).
○ Capitals: Mahishmati and Ujjayini.
○ Notable Ruler: Pradyota.
4. Chedi (Cedi):
○ Region: Bundelkhand (Central India).
○ Capital: Sothivathi Nagar.
5. Gandhara:
○ Region: Modern Peshawar and Rawalpindi.
○ Capital: Taxila, an ancient learning center.
○ Conquered by Darius I (Persians) in the 6th century BCE.
6. Kamboja:
○ Region: Hazara District (Pakistan) and Kafiristan (Afghanistan).
7. Kashi:
○ Region: Bound by Varuna and Asi Rivers (hence, Varanasi).
8. Kosala:
○ Region: Divided by the Sarayu River.
○ Capital: Shravasti.
○ Notable Cities: Ayodhya and Saketa.
○ Extended power over the Shakyas of Kapilavastu.
9. Kuru:
○ Ruled by the Yuddhithilla family.
○ Capital: Indraprastha.
10. Magadha:
• Region: Included areas of Patna and Gaya (Bihar).
• Rivers: Bounded by Ganga, Son, and Champa Rivers.
• Emerged as the most powerful Mahajanapada.

New Section 2 Page 19

 23 November 2024 10:13 PM

11. Malla:
• Power Centers: Kushinara and Pava.

12. Matsya:
• Region: Near Jaipur (Rajasthan).
• Capital: Virat Nagar, named after its founder.

13. Panchala:
• Region: Rohilkhand, divided by the Ganga River.
• Capitals: Ahichhatra (Northern Panchala) and Kampilya (Southern Panchala).
• Kanyakubja (Kannauj) was part of the Panchala Kingdom.

14. Shurasena:
• Capital: Mathura.
• Known for its close ties with Avanti.

15. Vajji:
• Region: Eastern India.
• Governance: Confederacy of 8 clans, with Licchavis as the most powerful.
• Capital: Vaishali.
• Leader: Chetak, brother of Trishala (mother of Mahavira).

16. Vatsa:
• Known for its fine cotton textiles.
• Capital: Kaushambi.
• Notable Ruler: Udayana, who married Vasavadatta (daughter of Pradyota).
• Romantic Dramas: Ratnavali and Priyadarsika by Harsha were inspired by this story.

Key Points
• Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa, and Avanti were the most powerful Mahajanapadas.
• Political Systems in Janapadas/Mahajanapadas:
1. Monarchy: Absolute authority of a king.
2. Oligarchy: Rule by a small group of elites (e.g., in ganas or sanghas).

New Section 2 Page 20

Rise of Magadha Empire
23 November 2024 10:13 PM

1. Geographical and Resource Advantages:

○ Located in the fertile plains of the Ganga River, ensuring agricultural
surplus.
○ Rich availability of iron from the Chhota Nagpur Plateau, aiding in
making tools and weapons.

2. Military Strength:
○ Use of elephants in the army gave Magadha a strategic advantage in
warfare.

3. Strategic Capitals:
○ Rajgir (Rajagriha):
▪ The earlier capital, protected by hills, provided a natural defense.
○ Pataliputra:
▪ The later capital had a natural water fort surrounded by rivers,
enhancing its defense system.

4. Trade and Economic Strength:

○ Access to the port of Tamralipti facilitated control over inland and
maritime trade routes.

5. Political Stability:
○ The monarchical system of governance in Magadha provided stability
and strong leadership for expansion.

6. Cultural Integration:
○ Initially, Kirats and Magadhas were considered to have a low status in
Vedic society.
○ After becoming Vedicized, they showed greater zeal for expansion and
actively worked to strengthen and grow their kingdom.

New Section 2 Page 21

Haryanka Dynasty (544 BCE – 412 BCE)
23 November 2024 10:13 PM

1. Haryanka Dynasty (544 BCE – 412 BCE)

Important Kings:
• Bimbisara
• Ajatashatru
• Udayin

Bimbisara (544 BCE – 492 BCE)

• First major king of Magadha.
• Contemporary of Buddha and Mahavira.
• Contributions:
○ Maintained a standing army.
○ Initiated matrimonial alliances to strengthen his empire.
○ Fought with Pradyota Mahasena (King of Avanti).
○ Sent his royal physician Jeevaka to treat Pradyota when he suffered from
jaundice.
• Downfall: Killed by his son Ajatashatru.

Ajatashatru (492 BCE – 460 BCE)

• More ambitious than his father.
• Expanded the territory of Magadha significantly.
• Contemporary of Buddha and Mahavira.
• Contributions:
○ Convened the First Buddhist Council at Rajagriha (483 BCE) after
Buddha’s death.
○ Used advanced war weapons like:
▪ Maced Chariot (Rathamusala).
▪ Catapult mechanism to hurl large stones (Mahashila Kuntaka).

Udayin (460 BCE – 444 BCE)

• Son of Ajatashatru and the last major ruler of the Haryanka Dynasty.
• Contributions:
○ Shifted the Magadha capital from Rajgir to Pataliputra for strategic
reasons.

New Section 2 Page 22

23 November 2024 10:34 PM

2. Sisunaga Dynasty (412 BCE – 344 BCE)

• Founder: Sisunaga, a minister under the last Haryanka ruler Nagadasaka.
• Establishment: Overthrew Nagadasaka and established his own dynasty.
• Achievements:
○ Destroyed the power of Avanti.
○ Brought further stability to Magadha.
Kalashoka:
• Son of Sisunaga.
• Contributions:
○ Convened the Second Buddhist Council at Vaishali.

3. Nanda Dynasty (344 BCE – 321 BCE)

• Founder: Mahapadma Nanda.

Mahapadma Nanda:
• Overthrew the Sisunaga king Kalashoka to establish the Nanda Dynasty.

• Titles:
○ "Sarva Kshatrantaka" (Destroyer of all Kshatriyas).
○ "Ekrat" (Sole Sovereign).

• Achievements:
○ Expanded the empire considerably.
○ Even Alexander the Great avoided advancing eastward after his invasion
of Punjab, intimidated by Nanda's power.

Dhanananda:
• Son of Mahapadma Nanda.
• Known for:
○ Unpopular due to oppressive taxation policies.
○ Insulted Chanakya, a learned Brahmin.
▪ Chanakya took this insult as a challenge and vowed to overthrow
Dhanananda, ultimately aiding Chandragupta Maurya in founding the
Maurya Dynasty.

New Section 2 Page 23

Foreign Invasions in India
23 November 2024 10:34 PM

1. Persian Invasion
• Invasion by Darius I (Achamenian Empire):
○ Around 516 BCE, Persian ruler Darius I invaded northwest India.
○ He annexed Gandhara and made it a province (satrapy) of the Persian Empire.
○ Gandhara became one of the most prosperous provinces of the Persian
Empire.

• Impact of Persian Contact:

○ Development of the Kharoshthi script in India, influenced by Aramaic.
○ Introduction of new trade routes, facilitating commercial activities for
merchants.

New Section 2 Page 24

2. Greek Invasion
23 November 2024 10:34 PM

• Alexander the Great’s Invasion (326 BCE):

○ Alexander of Macedonia defeated the Persian Empire and advanced into
India.
○ In 326 BCE, Alexander entered northwest India.

• Submission of Taxila:
○ The ruler of Taxila, Ambhi, voluntarily submitted to Alexander.

• Battle with Porus (King of Paurava):

○ Alexander’s army faced fierce resistance from Porus (Puru) near the
Jhelum River (called Hydaspes in Greek accounts).
○ Porus ruled the territory between the Jhelum and Chenab Rivers
(Chenab = Acesines in Greek accounts).

• Outcome:
○ Impressed by Porus’s bravery, Alexander reinstated him as Satrap
(Governor) of his territory.

• Retreat of Alexander’s Army:

○ Alexander’s army, exhausted and unwilling to fight further, retreated
without attacking Magadha.
○ This marked the first direct contact between India and Europe.

Significance of the Greek Invasion:

• Cultural Exchange:
○ Alexander’s invasion aroused European interest in India, leading to
cultural and commercial interactions.

• Accounts by Greek Scholars:

○ Geographers and historians like Megasthenes, Strabo, and others who
accompanied Alexander documented their observations.
○ These accounts provide valuable insights into the political, economic,
and social conditions of India during that time.

New Section 2 Page 25

Mauryans Empire
23 November 2024 10:34 PM

Mauryans (323 BCE – 185 BCE)

Sources
1. Arthashastra by Kautilya
• Author:
○ Written by Kautilya (Chanakya/Vishnugupta), the key
advisor to Chandragupta Maurya.
• Nature of the Work:
○ A theoretical treatise on statecraft, governance, and
administration.
○ Does not provide descriptive information about the
Mauryan dynasty, Chandragupta, or Pataliputra.
• Philosophy:
○ "Artha" (Material well-being) is considered superior to:
▪ Dharma (Spiritual well-being).
▪ Kama (Sensual pleasures).
○ It emphasizes that Dharma and Kama depend on Artha for
their sustenance.

• Perspective:
○ The entire text is written from the viewpoint of a "Vijigishu" (Future
Conqueror), focusing on expansion, strategy, and consolidation of power.

2. Megasthenes' Indica
• Original Work:
○ Lost; historians rely on interpretations by later Greek writers like Plutarch,
Strabo, Pliny, and Arrian.

• Mentions in Indica:
○ Chandragupta Maurya is referred to as Sandrocottus.

New Section 2 Page 26

 23 November 2024 10:34 PM

○ Bindusara is referred to as Amitrochates.

○ Pataliputra is called Palibothra.

3. Ashoka's Inscriptions
• Nature of Inscriptions:
○ Consist of 14 Major Rock Edicts, many Minor Rock Edicts, and
Pillar Edicts spread across the country.
○ Written mostly in Brahmi script and Prakrit language.
○ Some inscriptions are in Kharoshthi, Greek, and Aramaic
(Northwest India).

• Deciphering the Script:

○ James Prinsep deciphered the Brahmi script in 1837 AD from Ashoka's
inscriptions.
○ Ashoka is referred to as Devanampiyadasi in inscriptions.

• Identity of Ashoka:
○ Confirmed from Buddhist texts like Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa, which
use both Ashoka and Devanampiyadasi for him.

Chandragupta Maurya
• Origin:
• Two theories exist:
a. His mother, Mura, was a Shudra, hence the name Maurya.
b. He belonged to a ruling clan from Pipphalivana (modern Uttar
Pradesh).

• Conquests:
• Overthrew the last Nanda ruler to establish the Mauryan Empire,
uniting almost the entire Indian subcontinent.
• Fought and signed a treaty with Seleucus Nicator, Alexander's general.
○ Result:
▪ Mauryan Empire expanded to Baluchistan, Eastern
Afghanistan, and regions west of the Indus River.
▪ Chandragupta gave 500 elephants to Seleucus and married
his daughter, Helena.
○ Megasthenes was appointed as Greek ambassador to
Chandragupta's court.

New Section 2 Page 27

 23 November 2024 11:06 PM

• Religious Conversion:
○ Converted to Jainism under Bhadrabahu.
○ Died practicing Sallekhana (self-starvation) at Shravanabelagola.

Bindusara (297 BCE – 273 BCE)

• Territory:
○ Inherited a vast empire covering most of India, except Kalinga, the southernmost
territories, and the northeastern regions.

• Religious Patronage:
○ Patronized Ajivika sect, indicating the diversity of religious beliefs at the time.

• Foreign Relations:
○ Ambassadors from Antiochus I (King of Syria) and Ptolemy II (King of Egypt)
visited his court.
○ Requested Antiochus I for sweet wine, dried figs, and a sophist (philosopher).
○ Antiochus declined, citing Greek laws against the sale of sophists.

Ashoka the Great (268 BCE – 232 BCE)

• War and Transformation:
○ Ascended the throne after a brutal succession war.
○ Initially known for ruthlessness and conquests.
○ In the 9th year of his reign, he waged war on Kalinga.
▪ Outcome:
□ Ashoka won but was horrified by the massive casualties (~1,00,000
deaths).
□ Abandoned military conquest (Bherighosha) and adopted cultural
conquest (Dhammaghosha).

• Buddhism and Dhamma:

○ Converted to Buddhism and focused on spreading Dhamma (moral conduct).
○ Conducted the Third Buddhist Council in Pataliputra.

New Section 2 Page 28

 23 November 2024 11:08 PM

• Dhamma's Purpose:
○ Promoted peaceful coexistence and tolerance among various religions and
communities.
○ Dhamma Mahamatras (special officers) were appointed to spread this message.

Ashoka’s Inscriptions
• Language and Script:
○ Mostly in Prakrit and Brahmi script, with some in Greek, Aramaic, and Kharoshthi
(Northwest).

• Unique Mentions:
○ Ashoka's name appears only in:
1. Maski (Karnataka).
2. Udegolam (Karnataka).
3. Gujjara (Madhya Pradesh).
4. Nittur (Karnataka).

14 Major Rock Edicts of Ashoka

1. Major Rock Edict 1:
○ Prohibits animal slaughter, bans festive gatherings, and killing of animals
for sacrifice.
○ Ashoka mentions that in his kitchen, two peacocks and a deer were
previously killed, but he wished to discontinue these practices.

2. Major Rock Edict 2:

○ Talks about care for both humans and animals.
○ Describes the southern kingdoms of Chola, Chera, Pandya, and
Satyaputras.

3. Major Rock Edict 3:

○ Mentions Ashoka's generosity to Brahmins.
○ States that Yuktas (subordinate officers), Pradesikas (district heads), and
Rajukas (rural officers) should tour the kingdom every five years to
propagate Dhamma.

New Section 2 Page 29

 23 November 2024 11:08 PM

4. Major Rock Edict 4:

○ Highlights the shift from physical conquest (Bherighosha) to cultural conquest
(Dhammaghosha)
○ Discusses the positive impact of Dhamma on society.

5. Major Rock Edict 5:

○ Shows Ashoka’s concern for the welfare of slaves and servants.
○ Declares, "Every human is my child."
○ Appoints special officers called Dhamma Mahamatras to spread the principles
of Dhamma.

6. Major Rock Edict 6:

○ Talks about welfare measures and Ashoka’s desire to remain informed about
the condition of his people.

7. Major Rock Edict 7:

○ Emphasizes tolerance and harmony among all religions.

8. Major Rock Edict 8:

○ Describes Ashoka's first Dhamma Yatra (pilgrimage) to Bodh Gaya and the
Bodhi Tree.

9. Major Rock Edict 9:

○ Criticizes popular ceremonies and rituals.
○ Stresses performing ceremonies related to Dhamma.

10. Major Rock Edict 10:

○ Condemns the desire for fame and glory.
○ Stresses the importance of spreading Dhamma.

11. Major Rock Edict 11:

○ Elaborates on Dhamma.
○ Emphasizes respect for elders and care for slaves and servants.

12. Major Rock Edict 12:

○ Advocates religious tolerance among various sects.
○ Mentions appointing Mahamatras for the welfare of women.

New Section 2 Page 30

 23 November 2024 11:08 PM

13. Major Rock Edict 13:

○ The largest and most significant inscription.
○ Describes Ashoka’s victory in the Kalinga War, highlighting the high number of
casualties.
○ States that Dhamma Vijay (victory through Dhamma) is superior to military
conquest.
○ Mentions relationships with foreign rulers such as Ptolemy III of Egypt, Magas of
Cyrene, and rulers of South India like the Cholas, Pandyas, and Sri Lanka (Ceylon).

14. Major Rock Edict 14:

○ Mentions the engraving of inscriptions in different parts of the empire to spread
Dhamma.

Some other Important Edicts

1. Allahabad/Prayagraj Edict (Queen’s Edict):
○ In this edict, Ashoka advised members of the Buddhist Sangha to avoid
causing divisions.
○ Contains inscriptions of Ashoka as well as Samudragupta from a later
period.

2. Rummindei Edict:
○ Mentions Lumbini (in Nepal), the birthplace of Buddha.
○ Declares that the village of Lumbini was exempted from Bali (a type of tax)
and had to pay only 1/8th of the Bhaga tax.

3. Barabar Cave Inscription:

○ These caves, such as the Lomas Rishi Cave, were built by Ashoka for the
Ajivika sect.

Mauryan Administration
The Mauryan administration was innovative, efficient, and structured as per Kautilya’s
Arthashastra. The concept of Saptanga Rajya (Seven Elements of a State) is
prominently discussed.

1. King (Svamin):
• The King was the supreme authority and the source of all power.
• Assisted by a council of ministers but retained the final decision-making
authority.

New Section 2 Page 31

 23 November 2024 11:08 PM

• Vigilance and intelligence networks were vital for the King’s safety. Spies, such
as Santhas (stationary spies), collected and reported intelligence.

2. Amatya (Officials):
• Included high-ranking ministers, executive heads, and counsellors.
• Important officials included:
○ Mahamatras (administrative officers)
○ Adhyakshas (department heads)
○ Mantri (chief advisors)
○ Purohit (chief priest)
○ Senapati (commander-in-chief)
○ Yuvaraj (crown prince).
• Nikayas (bodies of officials) managed administrative regions.

3. Janapada (Territory and Population):

• The Mauryan Empire was divided into four provinces, each governed by a viceroy:
1. Uttarapatha (Northwest) – Capital: Taxila
2. Dakshinapatha (South) – Capital: Suvarnagiri
3. Eastern India – Capital: Tosali
4. Avantiratha (West) – Capital: Ujjain
○ Kalinga had Tosali/Dhauli as its provincial capital.
• District Administration:
○ Groups of villages were managed by Sthanikas (tax collectors) and Gopas
(record keepers).
○ Villages were the lowest administrative unit, headed by Gramika in
consultation with village elders (Grama Vriddhas).
• City Administration: In Pataliputra, six committees with five members each
managed areas like trade, taxation, industry, and public welfare.

4. Durga (Fortified Capital):

• Focused on protecting the capital with moats filled with water, lotus flowers, and
crocodiles (Arthashastra).
• Megasthenes mentions different branches of the Mauryan army:
○ Navy (Board of Admiralty)
○ Infantry (headed by Padadhyaksha)
○ Cavalry (headed by Asvadhyaksha)
○ War Chariots (headed by Rathadhyaksha)

New Section 2 Page 32

 23 November 2024 11:29 PM

○ War Elephants (headed by Hastyadhyaksha)

○ Transport and Equipment

5. Kosha (Treasury):
• Taxes were collected in both cash and kind.
• Farmers paid 1/6th of their produce as Bhaga and an additional tribute as Bali.
• During emergencies, taxes could increase to 1/2 of the produce.
• Other taxes included:
○ Pindakara: Levied on a group of villages.
○ Hiranya: Paid in cash only.
○ Kara: Levied on gardens of fruits and flowers.
• Vishti (Forced Labour): Artisans and peasants worked for free as a form of tax.
• Sources of Revenue: Agriculture, textiles, mining, metallurgy, and trade.
• Coins: Punch-marked silver coins with symbols of peacocks and hills were widely
used.

6. Danda/Bala (Justice and Force):

• Two types of courts existed:
1. Dharmasthiyas: Dealt with civil cases.
2. Kantakasodhanas: Dealt with criminal cases.
• Judges were called Dharmasthas.
• Pradeshtris were responsible for suppressing crimes.

7. Mitra (Ally):
• Arthashastra describes six types of interstate policies (Shad-gunya):
1. Sandhi (peace) – If weaker than the enemy.
2. Vigraha (hostility) – If stronger than the enemy.
3. Asana (neutrality) – If equal in strength.
4. Yana (military expedition) – If much stronger.
5. Samshraya (seeking shelter) – If very weak.
6. Dvaidhibhava (dual policy) – Combine alliances and hostilities.

New Section 2 Page 33

 23 November 2024 11:29 PM

• Types of Conquests:
1. Asurvijaya: Demonic victory (plundering land and killing enemy families).
2. Lobhavijaya: Greedy victory (loot wealth but spare lives).
3. Dharmavijaya: Righteous victory (accept submission and show mercy).

Decline of the Mauryan Empire

1. Death of Ashoka: The empire began to decline after Ashoka's death (232 BCE).
2. Weak Rulers: Successors lacked the vision and strength to maintain the vast empire.
3. Foreign Invasions: Invasions by Greeks and Central Asian tribes weakened the
empire.
4. Emergence of Regional Kingdoms: Local rulers gained power and asserted
independence.
5. Assassination of Brihadratha: The last Mauryan ruler, Brihadratha, was assassinated
by his general Pushyamitra Shunga, marking the end of the Mauryan dynasty.

New Section 2 Page 34

Shunga dynasty (187-75B.C)
23 November 2024 11:29 PM

MAP 8.1 DYNASTIES OF INDIA AND CENTRAL ASIA, C. 200 BCE–300 CE

Key Points:
1. Establishment:
○ Pushyamitra Shunga, a Brahmin army chief, assassinated the last Mauryan
king, Brihadratha, during a military parade.
○ He established the Shunga Dynasty with Pataliputra as its capital. However,
the Shunga kingdom was much smaller than the Mauryan Empire.

2. Military Achievements:
○ Successfully repelled invasions by Greek kings such as Menander (Milinda)
and Demetrius.
○ Defeated an attack by Kharavela, the king of Kalinga.

New Section 2 Page 35

 23 November 2024 11:29 PM

3. Cultural Contributions:
○ Renovated Sanchi Stupa and Barhut Stupa.
○ As per some Buddhist texts, Pushyamitra was hostile towards Buddhism.

4. Religious Practices:
○ Pushyamitra revived Vedic rituals and sacrifices such as Ashvamedha, Rajasuya,
and Vajapeya.
○ Patronized Patanjali, the Sanskrit grammarian and author of Mahabhashya.

5. Succession:
○ His son, Agnimitra, succeeded him and became the hero of Kalidasa’s play
Malvikagnimitram.

6. Relations with Greeks:

○ The Besnagar (Vidisha) Pillar Inscription mentions Heliodorus, a Greek
ambassador of the Indo-Greek king Antialcidas, who erected the Garuda Pillar
in honor of Vasudeva (Krishna).
○ Heliodorus referred to himself as a Bhagavata (devotee of Vishnu).

Decline:
○ The last Shunga king, Devabhuti, was assassinated by his minister Vasudeva
Kanva, leading to the rise of the Kanva Dynasty.

Kanva Dynasty (74–28 BCE)

Key Points:
1. Establishment:
○ Founded by Vasudeva Kanva after assassinating Devabhuti, the last ruler of
the Shunga dynasty.
2. Territory:
○ The Kanva rulers controlled parts of North India, but their kingdom was
relatively small and short-lived.
3. Decline:
○ The last Kanva king, Susharman, was defeated and killed by the Satavahana
king, marking the end of the Kanva dynasty.

New Section 2 Page 36

Foreign Invasion
23 November 2024 11:29 PM

Foreign Invasion (2nd Century BCE - 1st Century CE)

Sources of Information:
• The primary sources include coins, Buddhist texts, and Chinese texts like the
Chien Han Shu and Hou Han Shu. These sources provide valuable information
about the migration and movements of people in Central Asia during this
period.

Groups Involved in Invasions:

From the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century CE, the following groups invaded or
settled in parts of India:
1. Greeks
2. Shakas
3. Parthians
4. Kushans

Indo-Greek Kingdom (2nd Century BCE - 1st Century CE)

1. Term "Yavana":
○ The term Yavana was used to refer to Greeks or people of Greek origin,
but it could also refer to people from outside the Indian subcontinent in
general.

2. Sources of Information:
○ Major information about the Indo-Greek kings comes from the coins they
issued. These coins often have Greek legends and sometimes feature
images of Indian deities.

3. Important Indo-Greek Ruler - Menander:

○ The most prominent ruler of the Indo-Greek Kingdom was Menander
(reigned 165 BCE to 130 BCE), who was the king of Bactria.
○ Menander is mentioned in the Milind Panho, a Buddhist text that records
a conversation between King Milinda (Menander) and the Buddhist sage
Nagasena. At the end of the conversation, King Milinda accepts
Buddhism.

4. Contributions of Indo-Greeks:
○ The Indo-Greeks were the first to issue gold coins in India, which had a
significant impact on Indian numismatics.

New Section 2 Page 37

 23 November 2024 11:29 PM

○ They also contributed to the art and architecture of the time, especially
through the Gandhara School of Sculpture, which displays many Greek artistic
elements.

5. Decline of the Indo-Greek Kingdom:

○ The Indo-Greek Kingdom eventually declined due to invasions by the Shakas,
followed by the Parthians and Kushans.

New Section 2 Page 38

Shakas
23 November 2024 11:54 PM

Shakas (Indo-Scythians)
1. Origins and Migration:
○ The Shakas, also known as Indo-Scythians or Shaka-Pahlavas, were a
group of nomadic pastoral tribes originally from Central Asia.
○ Due to the construction of the Great Wall of China, several nomadic
tribes from the Chinese region were forced to migrate. As a result, the
Shakas moved to different parts of the world, including India.
○ The Shakas who came into India are referred to as the Indo-Scythians.

2. Territory:
○ The Shakas established a much larger territory in India than the Indo-
Greeks.

3. Shaka Era:
○ The beginning of the Shaka Era is often associated with the ascension of
King Chashtana in 78 CE. However, many historians believe this era marks
the ascension of Kanishka.
○ The Shaka Era began in 78 CE and is used as one of the official calendars
by the Government of India.

4. Important Shaka Rulers:

○ Some important Shaka rulers include Maues, Azes I, and Azes II.
○ The most popular Shaka ruler in ancient India was Chashtana, who ruled
from Ujjain.

5. Western Kshatrapas:
○ A branch of the Shakas occupied Gujarat, and over time, this group
became independent, forming the Western Kshatrapas, who ruled the
region for several centuries.
○ The Western Kshatrapas were involved in conflicts with the Satavahana
rulers of the Andhra region.
○ Nahapana, a Western Kshatrapa ruler, was defeated by Satavahana King
Gautamiputra Satakarni. This victory is commemorated by the re-striking
of Nahapana's coins by Satakarni.

New Section 2 Page 39

 23 November 2024 11:54 PM

6. Rudradaman - The Greatest Western Kshatrapa:

○ The greatest ruler of the Western Kshatrapas was Rudradaman I (130–150 CE).
He was the grandson of Chashtana and took the title of Maha Kshatrapa after
defeating the Satavahana king.
○ Rudradaman I is known for his contributions, including the repair of the
Sudarshan Lake, as mentioned in the Junagadh Rock Inscription. The lake
was originally constructed by Pushyagupta, the governor during
Chandragupta Maurya's reign.

7. Decline of the Shakas:

○ A ruler from Ujjain, who defeated the Shakas and took the title of
Vikramaditya, further solidified the title's association with future kings.
○ After this, the title of Vikramaditya became highly coveted among Indian
rulers.
○ The Shaka rulers in the northwest faced decline due to attacks by the Parthians
and Kushans.
○ The rule of the Shakas in western India ended in the 4th century CE when the
last Kshatrapa ruler, Rudrasimha III, was defeated by Chandragupta II of the
Gupta Dynasty.

New Section 2 Page 40

Parthians
23 November 2024 11:54 PM

• The Parthians were a tribe from Iran.

• They established an independent kingdom around Takshila.
• In the 1st century CE, the most famous Parthian king was Gondophernes. It is
believed that St. Thomas visited India during his reign to propagate
Christianity.

Kushan Empire
• The Kushans belonged to the Yuechi Tribe, which lived near the Chinese
frontier. They moved toward India in the 1st century CE.
• The foundation of the Kushan Empire in India was laid by Kujula Kadphises. His
son, Vima Kadphises, expanded the territory and issued a large number of
gold coins.
• Vima Kadphises was a devotee of Lord Shiva.

Kanishka (1st–2nd Century CE)

• Kanishka was the son of Vima Kadphises and is regarded as one of the
greatest kings of ancient India.
• His kingdom included Punjab, Kashmir, parts of Magadh, Malwa, the Banaras
region, as well as Afghanistan, Pakistan, and parts of China.
• His primary capital was Purushpur (modern-day Peshawar), and his secondary
capital was Mathura.
• Kanishka became a great patron of Buddhism and convened the 4th Buddhist
Council in Kashmir.
• His court was adorned by many renowned scholars, including Ashvagosa,
Vasumitra, Charaka, Nagarjuna, and Parsvanatha.
• Kanishka was a significant patron of both art and architecture, with the
flourishing of the Gandhara and Mathura Schools of Sculpture during his
reign.
• Despite being a great patron of Buddhism, he was tolerant of all religions.
• He played a key role in spreading Mahayana Buddhism, especially in regions
such as China.

New Section 2 Page 41

23 November 2024 11:54 PM

Significance of the Kushans

• The Kushans were crucial middlemen along the Silk Route, which connected
China to Europe. This facilitated flourishing trade, and as a result, the Kushan
kingdom became very prosperous.
• The Kushans issued a large number of gold coins, which were of exceptionally
high quality.
• They also played a key role in propagating Buddhism via the Silk Route,
contributing to its spread to China, Korea, and Japan.
• Some aspects of modern clothing, such as overcoats and sherwanis, are
believed to have originated during the Kushan period.
• It is sad that Kushans period was a perfect for runner to the golden age of
Guptas
• With decline of trade Kushans kingdom also decline with early 3rd century
Kushans Empire disintegrated.

New Section 2 Page 42

Satavahana Empire (1st Century BC - 2nd century AD)
23 November 2024 11:54 PM

• Andhra is mentioned in ancient texts, and historians consider it to be the same

tribe that later formed the Satavahana Kingdom.
• The term Satavahana signifies "chariot of the son of God."
• The first king of the dynasty was Simuka. At its zenith, the Satavahana Kingdom
included Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Maharashtra, parts of Gujarat, Karnataka,
and Madhya Pradesh.
• The Satavahanas had different capitals at different times. The prominent ones were
Amravati and Pratishthana (Paithan).
• The kingdom expanded significantly under Satakarni I, who conquered Kalinga
after defeating the Chedi King Kharavela. He assumed the title "Lord of
Dakshinapatha" (Lord of the Deccan).

New Section 2 Page 43

23 November 2024 11:54 PM

Gautamiputra Satakarni (106–130 CE)

• The greatest ruler of the Satavahana dynasty was Gautamiputra Satakarni.
• He defeated the Kshatrap ruler Nahapana, and his kingdom extended from
the Krishna River in the South, Saurashtra in the North, the Berar region in
the East, and the Konkan in the West.
• According to the Nasik inscription, he is referred to as the "destroyer of
Shakas, Pahlavas, and Yavanas".
• He adopted the titles "Ekabrahmana" (Peerless Brahmana) and "Kshatriya-
dapa-Manmada" (Destroyer of the Pride of Kshatriyas).
• He was known for his land grants to Brahmins and Buddhist monks.
• Gautamiputra Satakarni was succeeded by Vashisthiputra Pulumavi.

Significance of the Satavahanas

1. Social and Religious Contributions
○ The Satavahanas identified themselves as Brahmins, and Gautamiputra
Satakarni emphasized maintaining the fourfold Varna system.
○ They initiated the practice of giving royal grants of land to Brahmins and
Buddhist monks.
○ Though Brahminical, they were tolerant of Buddhism and other religions.
○ The official language of the empire was Prakrit, and inscriptions were
written in the Brahmi script.
2. Cultural Achievements
○ The Satavahanas were patrons of Prakrit literature, more than Sanskrit.
○ Artisans and merchants were an important class in society, contributing
to the flourishing trade and commerce.
○ Gandhikas, a class of artisans, were known for making perfumes. Over
time, the term came to represent shopkeepers. The title "Gandhi" derives
from this term.
3. Administrative System
○ The empire was divided into districts called Ahara, with villages as the
smallest administrative unit.
○ The village headman was known as Gaulmika.
○ The Satavahana administration combined military and feudal elements,
unlike the highly bureaucratic Mauryan system.

New Section 2 Page 44

 24 November 2024 10:21 AM

4. Economy and Trade

○ Agriculture was the primary economic activity, supplemented by mining,
artisanship, and flourishing trade.
○ Merchants often took pride in naming themselves after their hometowns,
indicating the rise of trade and urbanization.
○ Satavahanas were the first native Indian kings to issue coins with the portrait
of the ruler. Their coins, made of copper, silver, and lead, often bore religious
symbols like the conch, lotus, and swastika.
5. Role of Women
○ Women were respected, as seen in the practice of naming kings after their
mothers (e.g., Gautamiputra Satakarni).
○ However, society remained largely patriarchal.

New Section 2 Page 45

Pottery Culture
24 November 2024 10:26 AM

Pottery Culture and Architectural Contributions of the Satavahanas

1. Architectural Contributions
○ The Satavahanas were significant patrons of architecture. Many Chaityas
(prayer halls) and Viharas (monasteries) were constructed during their
reign, such as the famous Karle Chaitya near Lonavala, Maharashtra.
○ By the early 3rd century CE, the Satavahana Empire fragmented into
smaller kingdoms.

2. Pottery Culture
○ Pottery is a vital source for studying ancient cultures and reconstructing
the past. It reflects the social, economic, and environmental conditions
of a society.
○ In the Indian subcontinent, various types of pottery cultures provide
insights into different historical periods based on the materials,
technology, and decorations used in their creation.

Types of Pottery Cultures in Ancient India

1. Ochre-Coloured Pottery (OCP)
○ Significance: Represents Bronze Age culture found in Eastern Punjab,
Northeastern Rajasthan, and Western Uttar Pradesh.
○ Period: Generally dated 2000–1500 BCE.
○ Key Features:
▪ Shares similarities with both Late Harappan Culture and Early Vedic
Culture.
▪ Reflects a transitional phase between these two periods.

New Section 2 Page 46

 24 November 2024 10:27 AM

2. Black and Red Ware (BRW)

○ Significance: Associated with the Neolithic Age, Bronze Age, and the
Megalithic Period in South India.
○ Period: Found across different time periods but primarily in prehistoric and
protohistoric sites.
○ Key Features:
▪ Represents early village settlements and the beginnings of subsistence
agriculture.

3. Painted Grey Ware (PGW)

○ Significance: Linked to the Iron Age culture in the Ganga Plains, dating from
1200–600 BCE.
○ Key Features:
▪ Associated with early village settlements transitioning to towns.
▪ Marks the advent of iron metallurgy.
▪ The presence of luxurious pottery indicates economic stratification in
society.

4. Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW)

○ Significance: Represents urban Iron Age culture in India during the Later
Vedic period.
○ Period: Dated 600–200 BCE, coinciding with the emergence of
Mahajanapadas and the Mauryan Empire.
○ Key Features:
▪ Known for its fine black polish and superior quality.
▪ Indicates advanced urbanization, reflecting the prosperity of cities like
Pataliputra.

New Section 2 Page 47

Megalithic culture
24 November 2024 10:27 AM

1. Introduction
○ The Neolithic Age in South India was succeeded by the Megalithic Phase,
which lasted from 1200 BCE to 300 BCE.
○ This phase is recognized not for its settlements but for its unique burial
practices.

2. Burial Practices
○ The graves, known as Megaliths, were encircled by large stones or stone
slabs and were typically located outside settlement areas.
○ These burial sites reflect the cultural and ritual practices of the time.

3. Archaeological Finds
○ In addition to human remains, various artifacts were found in the graves:
▪ Pottery containing grains.
▪ Iron objects, including tools and weapons.
▪ Mechanical objects and other material items, possibly indicating the
social status of the deceased.
○ A notable observation is the scarcity of agricultural tools compared to
hunting and warfare tools, suggesting that advanced agriculture was not
widely practiced during this period.

4. Regional Concentration
○ Megalithic sites are primarily concentrated in Eastern Andhra Pradesh
and Tamil Nadu.
○ Examples of significant sites include Kodumanal and Payampalli.

New Section 2 Page 48

MAJOR ROUTES CONNECTING ASIA, EUROPE, AND AFRICA
24 November 2024 10:27 AM

MAJOR ROUTES CONNECTING ASIA, EUROPE, AND AFRICA

New Section 2 Page 49

New Section 2 Page 50
24 November 2024 10:27 AM

New Section 2 Page 51

Sangam Age(300 B.C - 300A.D)
24 November 2024 10:27 AM

Sources of Information on Sangam Age

1. Sangam Literature
○ According to Tamil legends, three Sangams (Muchchangam) or
assemblies of poets were held.
○ These assemblies brought together poets from various regions and social
classes to compile Tamil literature.
○ The works of the First and Second Sangam have not survived, except for
Tolkappiyam, an authoritative book on Tamil grammar, which belongs to
the Second Sangam.
○ Sangam Literature consists of:
▪ Ettutokai (Eight Anthologies): Collections of poems.
▪ Pattupattu (Ten Songs): A set of ten poetic works.
○ This literature is divided into two categories:
▪ Narrative texts (Melkannaku): Heroic poetry glorifying heroes.
▪ Didactic texts (Kilakannaku): Focused on moral teachings and
ethical instructions.
▪ Tamil Epics: Silappadikaram and Manimekalai belong to this
period.

2. Periplus of the Erythraean Sea

○ A 1st-century Greco-Roman travelogue providing valuable information
about trade routes, ports, and the socio-economic conditions of the Tamil
region.

3. Natural History by Pliny

○ Written by the Roman author Pliny the Elder, this work describes the
trade relations between the Roman Empire and the Tamil kingdoms.

4. Numismatics
○ Coins from the Sangam Age provide evidence of trade, commerce, and
political connections with other regions.
○ They also reveal information about rulers, inscriptions, and the cultural
practices of the period.

5. Epigraphy
○ Inscriptions on rocks, caves, and temple walls from the Sangam Age give
insight into the language, administration, trade, and social life of that
era.

New Section 2 Page 52

Chera, Chola, and Pandya Kingdom
24 November 2024 10:27 AM

Muvendar: The Three Tamil Kingdoms

The Chola, Pandya, and Chera kingdoms collectively formed the Muvendar, meaning
"Three Chiefs," a term used in Tamil literature to describe their prominence in ancient
South Indian history.
• Collectively this 3 kingdom is known as Muvender

Chola Kingdom
• The Chola kingdom, also known as Chola Mandalam, was located between the
Pennar and Velar rivers.
• Capital: Uraiyur
• Royal Emblem: Tiger
• Main Port: Puhar (Kaveripattinam)
• As per Sangam literature:
○ In the 2nd century BCE, Chola king Elara conquered Sri Lanka (Ceylon) and
ruled for 50 years.

New Section 2 Page 53

 24 November 2024 12:34 PM

○ The greatest Chola ruler was Karikala Chola.

▪ He founded the port city of Puhar, constructed a dam on the Kaveri
River, and defeated a confederacy of Pandya, Chera, and their allies in the
Battle of Vennie.
▪ The battle is noted for many rulers losing their drums (symbolic of defeat).
○ Another significant Chola ruler was Ilandiraiyan, who was also a gifted poet.
• By the end of the 3rd century CE, the Chola kingdom declined. From the 4th to 9th
century CE, it played a marginal role in South Indian history.

Pandya Kingdom
• The Pandya kingdom occupied the southernmost portion of the Indian
peninsula.
• First Mention: By Megasthenes in his book Indica, who noted:
○ The kingdom was ruled by a woman and renowned for its pearls.
• Capital: Madurai
• Royal Emblem: Fish
• Main Port: Korkai
• Sangam Assemblies were held under the patronage of Pandya rulers.

Important Pandya Rulers:

1. Nedunjeliyan I
○ Mentioned in the epic Silappadikaram.
○ He died out of remorse after wrongly executing Kovalan, an honest man.

2. Nedunjeliyan II
○ A significant ruler known for his administrative and military achievements.
• The Pandyas were patrons of Brahmins and performed Vedic sacrifices.
• Some Pandya rulers followed Jainism and supported Jain monks.

New Section 2 Page 54

24 November 2024 12:39 PM

Chera Kingdom
• The Chera kingdom corresponds to modern Kerala.
• Capital: Vanji
• Royal Emblem: Bow
• Main Port: Muziris (Muchiri)
○ The Romans had regiments stationed at Muziris and built a temple
dedicated to King Augustus.

Important Chera Rulers:

1. Nedunjeral Adan
○ He fought wars against the Cholas and was described as an "Adhiraja"
(supreme king).

2. Senguttuvan (Red Chera or Good Chera)

○ Ensured the safety of Muziris port from pirates.
○ As per post-Sangam texts, he crossed the Ganga River and invaded
northern territories.

Economy in the Sangam Age

1. Land Classification
The land was divided into five ecological zones, each associated with specific
activities:
○ Kurinji: Hilly regions used for hunting and gathering.
○ Mullai: Pastoral land for animal rearing.
○ Palai: Infertile and arid land.
○ Marudam: Fertile land suitable for agriculture.
○ Neithal: Coastal regions used for fishing and salt-making.
2. Economic Activities
○ Agriculture was the primary occupation, but other industries flourished,
including:
▪ Spinning, weaving, shipbuilding, carpentry, and craft production.
○ Trade was well-established, with both inland and foreign commerce.

New Section 2 Page 55

 24 November 2024 12:39 PM

3. Trade-Related Terms
○ Vannikam, Chattan, and Nigama: Words related to trade in inscriptions.
○ Umanar: Salt merchants.
○ Chattu: Mobile merchants.
○ Avanam: Term for marketplace.

4. Roman Trade
○ Trade with Rome flourished, enriching the three Tamil kingdoms.
○ Pliny, in Natural History, lamented that the Roman Empire was being drained of
gold due to trade with India.
○ Exports: Spices, perfumes, jewelry, textiles, precious stones, sandalwood, and
black pepper (called Yavanapriya in Indian texts).
○ Imports: Gold, silver, coral, and slave girls.
○ The discovery of monsoon winds in the mid-1st century CE greatly boosted
maritime trade.

5. Revenue
○ Apart from trade, war booty (arai) was a significant source of state revenue.

Social Organization
1. Types of Rulers
Tamil texts mention three categories of rulers:
○ Kizher: Heads of villages and smaller territories (nadu).
○ Velir: Chiefs ruling forests and hilly areas.
○ Vendar: Kings who ruled fertile lands.

2. Social Stratification
○ The varna system was known, but it did not become the primary basis of social
classification.
○ Society was stratified based on Kuti (clans).
○ Intermarriage among different Kuti groups was allowed.
○ Arasar: Elite class.
○ Vellalars: Wealthy peasants who employed Kadaisiyar (laborers).
○ There were sharp inequalities in society.

New Section 2 Page 56

 24 November 2024 12:39 PM

3. Military
○ Army commanders enjoyed a high social status and were called Enadi.
○ Memorial stones (Nadukkal or Virukkal) were erected for those who died in
battle.

4. Religion and Deities

○ The main deity worshipped was Murugan (also called Subramanya).
○ Brahmins popularized the worship of Vishnu and Shiva.

5. Role of Women
○ Some Sangam poets were women, highlighting their education and respect in
society.
○ There are mentions of Sati (called Tippayadal), though it was not obligatory.
○ The "Vatakkiruttal" ritual involved kings starving themselves to death to
preserve their honor after a defeat in battle.

New Section 2 Page 57

Gupta Empire
24 November 2024 12:39 PM

Origins of the Gupta Dynasty

1. The Guptas are believed to have been feudatories of the Kushans before rising to
power.
2. They might have been Vaishyas, inferred from their surname.
3. The dynasty was founded by Sri Gupta in the mid-3rd century AD, who held the
title of Maharaja.
4. His son Ghatotkacha succeeded him and also used the title Maharaja.

New Section 2 Page 58

24 November 2024 12:39 PM

Chandragupta I (320–335 AD)

1. First major king who laid the foundation of the Gupta Empire.
2. Strengthened his position by marrying Kumaradevi, a princess of the
Lichchhavi clan.
3. His territory included modern Bihar, Bengal, and Uttar Pradesh.
4. Made Pataliputra (modern Patna) his capital.
5. Most information about his reign comes from coins he issued.

Samudragupta (335–375 AD)

1. The Allahabad Pillar Inscription (Prayag-Prashasti), written by his court poet
Harisena, provides detailed accounts of his conquests.
2. Known for:
○ Direct rule over Ganga-Yamuna Doab, Nepal, Assam, Bengal, and
Punjab.
○ Conquests in Vindhya regions and southern kingdoms, reinstating
defeated kings as vassals.
3. Chinese sources mention a Sri Lankan king, Meghavarman, who sought and
was granted permission to build a Buddhist temple at Bodhgaya.
4. Performed Ashvamedha Yajnas and issued coins inscribed with "Restorer of
Ashvamedha."
5. Known as the Napoleon of India for his military conquests.
6. A patron of Vaishnavism, but tolerant of other religions.
7. Renowned for his poetry, musical skills, and intellect.

Chandragupta II (376–413 AD)

1. The Gupta Empire reached its zenith during his reign.
2. Strengthened alliances through marriage:
○ Married a Naga princess.
○ His daughter Prabhavati Devi was married to Rudrasena II, a Vakataka
prince.
3. Defeated the Shakas of Gujarat and Malwa.
4. The Mehrauli Iron Pillar Inscription indicates that the empire extended to the
northwest frontier.
5. Took titles like Vikramaditya and Simhavikrama.
6. The Chinese traveler Fa-Hien visited India during his reign and documented its
culture and prosperity.

New Section 2 Page 59

24 November 2024 12:39 PM

7. Made Ujjain his second capital.

8. His court was adorned by the Navratnas (Nine Gems):
1. Kalidasa: Famous Sanskrit poet and playwright.
2. Amarasimha: Author of Amar Kosh (a Sanskrit thesaurus).
3. Varahamihira: Astronomer and astrologer, authored:
▪ Panch Siddhantika
▪ Brihat Samhita
▪ Brihat Jataka.
4. Dhanvantri: Pioneer of Ayurveda.
5. Shanku: Architect and author of Shilp Shastra.
6. Vararuchi: Author of Prakrit Prakash (a book on Prakrit grammar).
7. Vetala Bhatta: Magician and writer of Mantra Shastra.
8. Ghatakarpara: Expert in architecture and sculpture.
9. Kahapanaka: Astrologer and author of Jyotish Shastra.

Kumaragupta I (415–455 AD)

1. Founded Nalanda University, which became a renowned center of learning.
2. Took titles like Shakraditya and Mahendraditya.
3. Faced the Huna invasions.
○ The initial invasion was thwarted by his son, Skandagupta.

Decline of the Gupta Empire

1. Continued Huna invasions weakened the empire.
2. Successors lacked competence, leading to the gradual decline of the Gupta
Empire.

New Section 2 Page 60

Decline of Gupta Empire
24 November 2024 12:39 PM

1. Huna Invasion
• The Hunas were a group of tribes originating from Central Asia, known for
their expertise in horse riding and archery.
• During Kumaragupta’s reign, his son Skandagupta successfully repelled an
initial Huna invasion. However, repeated raids weakened the empire
significantly.
• By the end of the 5th century, the Guptas could no longer resist the Huna
onslaught.
• The Huna chief Toramana occupied Punjab, Rajasthan, Kashmir, and parts of
Central India.
• In 515 AD, Toramana’s son Mihirakula succeeded him. Mihirakula is
remembered as a tyrannical ruler who persecuted Buddhist monks and
destroyed stupas.
• Mihirakula was defeated by Yashodharman of Malwa in alliance with the
Gupta ruler Narasimhagupta Baladitya.
○ After this victory, Yashodharman declared independence, inspiring other
regional rulers to do the same.

2. Rise of Feudatories
• The weakening of central authority led to the rise of feudatories (local chiefs)
who declared independence from the Gupta Empire.
• This disintegration further fragmented the empire and diminished its power.

3. Decline of Economy
• Trade and commerce, which were major sources of revenue for the Gupta rulers,
began to decline.
• With reduced trade, the Gupta economy started to crumble.
• Evidence of economic decline:
○ The later Gupta rulers stopped issuing gold coins, which had been a
hallmark of their prosperous period.

4. Emergence of Regional Kingdoms

• The fall of the Gupta Empire resulted in the rise of several regional kingdoms:
○ Pushyabhutis of Thanesar.
○ Maukharies of Kannauj in western India.
○ Maitrakas of Vallabhi.
• In peninsular India:
○ The Chalukyas gained prominence in the Deccan.
○ The Pallavas emerged as a powerful kingdom in the south.

New Section 2 Page 61

 24 November 2024 12:39 PM

Gupta's administration.
• King and Imperial Authority:
The king was the absolute authority and often assumed imperial titles such as
Maharajadhiraja, Parameshwar, etc. One of the highest officers was the
Kumaramatya. The Minister of Foreign Affairs was called Sandhivigrahika.
• Division of the Empire:
• The empire was divided into Bhuktis (provinces), which were under the charge
of an Uparika.
• Bhuktis were further divided into districts called Vishayas, which were
administered by a Vishayapati.

• Local Settlements and Villages:

• Below the Vishayas were smaller settlements, known by various names such as
Vithi, Patta, and Bhumi.
• The lowest unit of administration was the village. Villages had functionaries such
as the Gramika (village head) and Gramadhyaksha (village supervisor).

• Provincial Officers:
• At the provincial level, various officers were mentioned, including:
○ Ayuktakas (executive officers)
○ Vithi-Mahattaras (local chiefs)

• Assistance to the Vishayapati:

• The Vishayapati was assisted by prominent members of the town, such as:
○ Nagarsreshthin (chief merchant)
○ Sarthavaha (chief caravan trader)
○ Prathama Kulika (chief artisan)
○ Prathama Kayastha (chief revenue officer).

Shrenis (Guild)
• Definition and Significance:
Shrenis were associations of traders, merchants, and artisans. They played a
significant role in economic, social, and cultural aspects of ancient India.

New Section 2 Page 62

 24 November 2024 12:39 PM

• Historical Background:
○ Shrenis originated during the Mahajanapada period and continued to exist
through the Mauryan period.

• Structure and Function:

○ Generally, separate Shrenis were formed for particular groups of people
engaged in the same economic activity, such as craftsmen, traders, and artisans.
○ Each Shreni was governed by its own set of rules and regulations, often
independent of royal laws.
○ Some Shrenis enjoyed immunities and privileges granted by the state.

• Additional Roles:
○ Shrenis also functioned as bankers and financiers, providing loans and
managing wealth.
○ They were great patrons of art, architecture, and religious activities, contributing
significantly to cultural developments.
This self-regulated and autonomous nature of Shrenis helped in the growth of trade
and crafts while fostering cultural and economic prosperity in ancient India.

Gupta Economy
• Coinage:
○ The Guptas issued a large number of gold coins called Dinaras.
○ Silver coins were also issued, but the number of copper coins was relatively
less.

• Trade:
○ There was a decline in overall long-distance trade, but the Guptas
maintained some trade relations with competing empires such as the
Roman Empire and the Sassanid Empire.

• Land Classification:
Land during the Gupta period was divided into several categories:
1. Kshetra: Cultivable land
2. Khila: Wasteland

New Section 2 Page 63

 24 November 2024 12:39 PM

3. Aprahata: Jungle or forest land

4. Vasti: Inhabited land
5. Gopata Sartha: Pastoral land for animal rearing

• Land Measurement Units:

Various units of land measurement were in use, such as:
• Angul (finger), Hasta (hand), Dhanu (bow), Adhvapa, Dronvapa, and
Kulyavapa.

• Land Grants:
The Guptas issued different types of land grants:
1. Agrahara:
○ Tax-free and hereditary grants given to Brahmins.
2. Devagrahara:
○ Land grants given to Brahmins and merchants for temple maintenance and
worship.

• Irrigation:
• Irrigation was well-developed, with systems like irrigation channels (Khara) and
protective embankments (Bardhya) to safeguard fields from floods.

• Mining and Metallurgy:

• Mining and metallurgy flourished during this period, contributing to economic
growth.

• Taxes Imposed:
The Guptas imposed various types of taxes, such as:
1. Bhaga: Regular tax, usually one-sixth of the produce, paid in cash or kind.
2. Bhog: Supply of fruits, vegetables, and other provisions.
3. Udianga: Tax for the maintenance of police stations.
4. Uparikara: Extra taxes.
5. Hiranya: Tax imposed on certain crops or gold.
6. Shulk: Custom duty on goods.
7. Vata-Bhuta: Tax related to the care of wind and spirits.

New Section 2 Page 64

 24 November 2024 12:39 PM

8. Klipta and Upklipta: Taxes related to liquid resources.

• Traders:
Two types of traders existed:
1. Sarthavaha: Caravan traders.
2. Local Traders: Engaged in local trade and commerce.
This detailed economic structure highlights the prosperity and administrative
efficiency of the Gupta Empire, despite the gradual decline in long-distance trade.

Society and Religion:

• Brahmanical Supremacy: The Brahmans held a dominant position in Gupta society.

• Caste System: The caste system expanded into many sub-castes, possibly due to the
integration of new tribes and foreign influences. The position of the Shudras (lower
castes) improved during this period.

• Shudras and Chandals: In certain texts compiled during the Gupta period, Shudras
were depicted as farmers. The number of Chandals (the untouchables) increased,
and they lived in deplorable conditions outside the cities.
○ Chandals were originally the "untouchables" in the subcontinent, often dealing
with tasks related to meat, dead bodies, and other rituals considered impure.
○ Chandals would announce their arrival in towns by striking a piece of wood,
signaling their presence.

Women in Society:
• Lower-Class Women: Women from lower classes were allowed to earn a livelihood,
whereas this was not the case for women from upper classes.
• Stridhana: Women had access to Stridhana (gifts from both their father and in-
laws), but they did not have the right to property.
• Widow Remarriage: Widow remarriage was generally not allowed during this
period.
• Niyog Practice: The practice of Niyog, which allowed a woman to have children with
a man other than her husband, was allowed in the Vedic period but was not
practiced in the Gupta period.

New Section 2 Page 65

 24 November 2024 12:39 PM

Religious Practices:
• Vishnu Worship (Bhagavatism): The Gupta rulers were patrons of Vishnavism
(Bhagavatism), but they were also tolerant of other religions.
• Buddhism: Some Gupta rulers were patrons of Buddhist artists and culture.
• Shiva and Shakti Worship: The worship of Shiva and Shakti flourished, and the
Tantra cult became popular during this time.

Cultural Developments:
• Chess: The game of chess, originally known as Chaturanga, was originated during
the Gupta period.
• Temple Worship: The practice of idealized worship in temples became widespread
during this period.
Here is your corrected version:

Mauryans vs Gupta's:
• The Mauryan Empire was vast in comparison to the Gupta Empire.
• The Mauryan Empire was more centralized. The Mauryan bureaucracy was much
more elaborate than the bureaucracy of the Guptas.
• The judicial system of the Guptas was more developed than that of the Mauryas.
• The Mauryas promoted many religions, whereas the Guptas were patrons of
Hinduism.
• The Mauryas built great architectural pillars, while sculpture, literature,Science and
astronomy flourished during the Gupta period.
• External trade was more flourishing during the Mauryan period compared to the
Gupta period.
• The Mauryan Empire declined due to internal weaknesses and internal strife. The
Gupta Empire declined mainly because of external invasions.

New Section 2 Page 66

24 November 2024 12:39 PM

MAP 10.2 SOME DYNASTIES OF INDIA, C. 550–700 CE

New Section 2 Page 67

Harshavardhan Empire
24 November 2024 06:18 PM

Sources of Information
1. Harshacharita by Banabhatta
2. Account of Xuan Xang (Hieun Tsang) – He wrote a book called Si-
Yu-Ki (Records of the Western World).

New Section 2 Page 68

24 November 2024 06:18 PM

About Harshavardhan
• Harshavardhan belonged to the Pushyabhuti Dynasty (also known as
the Vardhan dynasty).
• Father: Prabhakar Vardhan
• Siblings:
○ Elder brother: Rajyavardhan, who succeeded their father initially.
○ Sister: Rajyashri, married to Grahavarman, the king of Kannauj.

Key Events in Harshavardhan's Life

1. Death of Father and Elder Brother:
○ Grahavarman was killed by Devagupta, the king of Malwa.
○ To avenge this, Rajyavardhan attacked Malwa but was
treacherously killed by Shashanka, the king of Gauda (Bengal).

2. Ascension to the Throne:

○ Harsha ascended the throne at 16 years of age.
○ He freed his sister, Rajyashri, from captivity and formed an
alliance with Bhaskarvarman, the king of Kamarupa (Assam).

3. Shift of Capital:
○ Harsha acquired Kannauj and shifted his capital from Thanesar
to Kannauj.

4. Military Conquests:
○ Harsha united a large part of North India under his rule, creating
a vast empire.
○ However, his expansion to the Deccan region failed when he was
defeated by Pulakeshin II, the Chalukya king, in 618–619 CE near
the Narmada River.

Administration and Contributions

• Feudalism:
○ Harsha's reign marked the rise of feudalism in India, although
feudal elements existed during the Gupta period as well.
• Patron of Arts and Literature:
○ Harsha was an accomplished Sanskrit writer and is credited with
three works:
1. Ratnavali
2. Priyadarshika
3. Nagananda

New Section 2 Page 69

 24 November 2024 06:19 PM

• Supporter of Mahayana Buddhism:

○ He generously supported Nalanda University.
○ Xuan Xang described Harsha as a just and generous ruler.

• Respect for Scholars:

○ Harsha honoured Xuan Xang, who was given a respectable position at his
court.

Death and Decline of the Dynasty

• Harsha died in 647 CE.
• His successors were weak and were eventually killed by ministers, leading to the
rapid decline of the Pushyabhuti Dynasty.

Key Takeaways
• Harsha was a versatile ruler, conqueror, and patron of arts.
• His reign marked a significant phase in North Indian politics, arts, and religion.
• Despite his initial success, his failure to expand into the Deccan and lack of a strong
heir led to the downfall of his dynasty.

New Section 2 Page 70

Pallava Kingdom
24 November 2024 06:19 PM

Introduction
• By the 6th century CE, three major powers emerged in peninsular
India:
1. Pallavas of Kanchipuram
2. Chalukyas of Badami (Vatapi)
3. Pandyas of Madurai
• The origin of the Pallavas is unclear, though they are mentioned in
the Prayag Prashasti (Allahabad Pillar Inscription) of Samudragupta.

Key Rulers of the Pallava Kingdom

1. Simhavarman (Late 6th Century CE):
• An early significant ruler of the Pallava dynasty.
• He extended Pallava influence into parts of Sri Lanka.

2. Mahendravarman I (600–630 CE):

• Son of Simhavarman.
• Originally a Jain, but later converted to Shaivism.
• Had intense rivalry with the Chalukyan king Pulakesin II.
• He was a talented poet and composed Vichitrachitta.
• Mahendravarman died in battle during his conflicts with the Chalukyas.

3. Narasimhavarman I (630–668 CE):

• Son of Mahendravarman I and the greatest Pallava king.
• In 642 CE, he defeated Pulakesin II in battle and captured Vatapi
(Chalukyan capital).
• Took the title Vatapikonda (Conqueror of Vatapi).
• Founded the city of Mamallapuram (Mahabalipuram), which is
named after him (Mamallan means great wrestler).
• The Chinese traveller Xuan Xang visited his kingdom and described it
as prosperous.

Later Pallava Rule and Decline

• After Narasimhavarman I, the dynasty saw weaker rulers.
• Kanchipuram was occupied by the Chalukyas.
• The last ruler, Aparajitavarman, was defeated by the Cholas in the late
9th century CE, marking the end of the Pallava dynasty.

New Section 2 Page 71

24 November 2024 06:19 PM

Significance of Pallava Rule

1. Religious Patronage:
○ The Pallavas supported Shaivism and Vaishnavism.
○ They patronized Brahmins, granting them tax-free lands called
Brahmadeya.

2. Education:
○ The University of Kanchipuram became a great centre of learning.
○ Vatsyayana, the author of Nyaya Bhasya, was one of its prominent
scholars.

3. Bhakti Movement:
○ The Pallava period saw the rise of the Bhakti movement in Tamil Nadu.
○ Two groups of saints emerged:
▪ Alvars (devotees of Vishnu)
▪ Nayanars (devotees of Shiva)
○ The movement included saints from various castes, including women.

4. Dravidian Architecture:
○ The Dravidian style of architecture flourished.
○ Notable examples include the Shore Temple at Mamallapuram, a
UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Key Takeaways
• The Pallavas played a significant role in promoting art, architecture, religion, and
education in South India.
• Their architectural innovations laid the foundation for later South Indian temple
architecture.
• Despite their eventual decline, the Pallava legacy remains influential in India's
cultural and religious history.

New Section 2 Page 72

Chalukyas
24 November 2024 06:19 PM

Chalukya Dynasty Overview

The Chalukyas ruled parts of the Deccan and South India from the 6th to the 12th
century. There were three distinct but related Chalukya dynasties:
1. Badami Chalukyas:
○ The earliest Chalukyas had their capital at Badami (Vatapi).
○ Founded in the mid-6th century by Pulakeshin I.

2. Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi:

○ After the Badami Chalukyas were defeated by the Rashtrakutas, a branch
of the Chalukyas shifted their capital to Vengi.

New Section 2 Page 73

24 November 2024 06:19 PM

○ They ruled from the 8th to the 11th century.

3. Chalukyas of Lata (Gujarat):

• This branch ruled in the Gujarat region but were eventually defeated by the
Solanki rulers.
Later, descendants of the Badami Chalukyas emerged in the late 10th century,
ruling from Kalyani till the 12th century. They are referred to as the Western
Chalukyas.

Pulakeshin II (Reign: 609–642 CE)

• The Chalukya empire was founded by Pulakeshin I in the mid-6th century, with
Vatapi as its capital.
• Pulakeshin I performed an Ashwamedha sacrifice.

Key Details About Pulakeshin II:

• He was the nephew of Mangalesha, whom he overthrew to become king.
• Known as the greatest ruler of the Chalukya dynasty.
• His birth name was Eraya.

Achievements:
• Aihole Inscription: Written by Ravikriti in Sanskrit, provides detailed
information about his reign.

Military Conquests:
• Defeated Harshavardhana in the north.
• Defeated Mahendravarman I of the Pallavas in the south.
• Conquered almost the entire South India and parts of Central India.

Diplomacy: Maintained diplomatic relations with the Persian king.

Cultural Connection: Chinese traveler XuanXang visited his kingdom.

Decline:
• Pulakeshin II's death marked the beginning of the decline of the Chalukyas.
• His successors, such as Vikramaditya, attempted to restore the empire,
capturing Kanchi from the Pallavas.
• Later, the Chalukyas were defeated by Dantidurga of the Rashtrakuta Kingdom.

New Section 2 Page 74

24 November 2024 06:19 PM

Significance of Chalukya Rule

1. Cultural Development:
○ Early development of Kannada and Telugu literature.

2. Architecture:
○ Emergence of the Vesara style of architecture, blending Nagara and
Dravida styles.
○ Examples:
▪ Aihole, often called the "Cradle of Indian Architecture".
▪ Group of Temples at Pattadakal: Recognized as a UNESCO World
Heritage Site.

New Section 2 Page 75

RASHTRAKUTA DYNASTY (8th to 10th Centuary)
24 November 2024 06:19 PM

The Rashtrakutas initially served as vassals under the Chalukyas but rose to power as
an independent dynasty with the decline of Chalukya authority. They claimed descent
from Satyaki of the Mahabharata.

Key Features of the Dynasty:

• Their mother tongue was Kannada.
• Known for their contributions to art, literature, and architecture.

Key Rulers and Achievements

Dantidurga (Reign: 735–756 CE)
• Founder of the Rashtrakuta dynasty.
• Conquered territories in South-Central India and parts of Eastern India.

New Section 2 Page 76

 24 November 2024 06:19 PM

• Laid the foundation of a strong and prosperous kingdom.

Krishna I (Reign: 756–774 CE)
• Successor of Dantidurga.
• Famous for building the Kailashnath Temple at Ellora, the largest monolithic rock-
cut structure in the world.
Govinda I, Govinda II, and Dhruva
• Continued to expand and consolidate the empire.

Amoghavarsha I (Reign: 814–878 CE)

• Considered the greatest ruler of the Rashtrakuta dynasty.
• Shifted the capital to Manyakheta (modern Malkhed).
• Under his reign, Broach (modern Bharuch) became a flourishing port city.
• He was visited by Arab merchant Sulaiman, who described him as one of the four
greatest kings in the world, along with:
1. The King of Constantinople
2. The Caliph of Baghdad
3. The Emperor of China

Comparison with Ashoka:

• Initially a great conqueror but later embraced Jainism under the influence of Jain
monk Jinasena.
• A scholar and poet, he composed Kavirajamarga, one of the earliest works in
Kannada literature.

Decline:
• The Rashtrakuta dynasty began to decline after King Karka was defeated by Tailapa
II of the Chalukyas of Kalyani.

Significance of Rashtrakuta Rule

1. Literature:
○ Kannada literature flourished during their reign.
○ Pampa, one of the greatest Kannada poets, wrote Vikramasenavijaya under
Rashtrakuta patronage.

2. Mathematics:
○ Contributions to learning included works like Ganitasaram, a mathematical text
by Veeracharya.

New Section 2 Page 77

24 November 2024 06:29 PM

3. Architecture:
○ Rashtrakuta rulers patronized architecture, including the:
▪ Ellora Caves (notably the Kailashnath Temple).
▪ Elephanta Caves.

New Section 2 Page 78

Pala Kingdom (8th-12th centuary)
24 November 2024 06:29 PM

Foundation and Early Rule:

• After the death of Shashanka, Bengal fell into chaos. Around 750 CE, Gopala
founded the Pala Dynasty.
• According to an inscription, he "saved Gauda from Matsya Nyaya" (law of fish,
symbolizing anarchy and chaos).

Prominent Rulers:
1. Dharampala:
○ Established the famous Vikramashila University at Bhagalpur, Bihar, to
counter the academic decline at Nalanda University.
○ Expanded the kingdom and patronized Buddhism.

2. Devapala:
○ One of the greatest rulers of the Pala dynasty.
○ Maintained diplomatic relations with the Sailendra Kingdom of Java. For
instance, King Balaputra Deva of Sailendra sent an ambassador to
Devapala's court.

3. Rampala:
○ The last strong ruler of the dynasty.
○ His rule is documented in the Sanskrit text Ramacharitam, written by
Sandhyakar Nandin, which narrates both the story of the epic hero Rama
and the exploits of King Rampala.
○ Faced attacks from Rajendra Chola, weakening the kingdom.

Decline:
• The Pala kingdom declined after Rampala's reign and was eventually replaced
by the Sena Dynasty.

Significance of Pala Rule

1. Golden Age of Bengal:

○ Known as a Golden Era in Bengali history.
○ Flourishing of Bengali literature and culture during this period.

New Section 2 Page 79

24 November 2024 06:29 PM

2. Support for Buddhism:

• The Palas were the last major patrons of Buddhism in India.
• Supported the expansion and revival of Nalanda University and established
Vikramashila University.

3. Art and Culture:

• Contributed to miniature painting in India.
• Promoted architectural and cultural developments.

New Section 2 Page 80

Pratiharas Kingdom
24 November 2024 06:29 PM

• The term Pratihara means doorkeeper. The Pratiharas traced their lineage to
Lakshmana, one of the heroes of the Ramayana.
• Some of the early rulers of the dynasty were Nagabhatta I (750 AD) and
Vatsaraja.

Nagabhata II
• The greatest ruler of this dynasty is considered to be Mihir Bhoja (also known
as Bhoja I), who ruled from 836–885 AD.
• He fought many battles and was initially defeated by the Rashtrakutas.
However, he later emerged victorious against both the Palas and the
Rashtrakutas in subsequent campaigns.
• Mihir Bhoja was a follower of Vaishnavism and adopted the title Adivaraha (a
form of Vishnu).
• According to the Arab traveler Al-Masudi, Mihir Bhoja was referred to as King
Boura.

Mahendrapala I
• Mahendrapala I, the son of Mihir Bhoja, further expanded the territories of the
Pratiharas and adopted the title Maharajadhiraja of Aryavarta (King of Kings
of North India).
• The great Sanskrit dramatist Rajashekhara adorned the court of Mahendrapala.
His famous works include:
1. Karpuramanjari
2. Kavya Mimansa
3. Prapancha Pandava, among others.

Later Rulers and Decline

• Later rulers like Mahipala, Rajyapala, and Yashapala struggled to maintain
their supremacy.
• Despite emerging victorious in internal conflicts, the Pratiharas gradually
declined. In 1090 AD, Kannauj was conquered by the Gahadavalas, one of the
Rajput clans.
• The decline of the Pratiharas led to the rise of independent Rajput states.
Many of their feudatories declared independence, including the Solankis,
Paramaras, and Chauhans.

New Section 2 Page 81

Key Rulers of the Chola Dynasty
24 November 2024 06:29 PM

Rajaraja Chola I (985–1014 AD)

• Rajaraja I, also known as Arumolivarman, was one of the greatest Chola rulers.
• He defeated the Pandyas and Cheras and annexed northern Sri Lanka, making
it part of the Chola Empire.
• He also conquered the Maldives Islands.
• Under his reign, the Chola Empire extended up to the Tungabhadra River.
• He was a patron of temple architecture and built the famous Brihadeshvara
Temple (Rajarajeshvara Temple) at Thanjavur.
• He developed a sophisticated revenue system based on land surveys for tax
assessment.
• He was referred to as Ulagalandha Perumal (The King Who Measured the
Earth).

New Section 2 Page 82

24 November 2024 06:29 PM

Rajendra Chola I (1014–1044 AD)

• Rajendra Chola continued his father’s policy of expansion.
• He conquered the entire Sri Lanka and launched a military campaign in North
India, crossing the Ganga River and defeating many rulers, including Mahipala
I of the Pala Kingdom.
• To commemorate his victory, he founded the city of Gangaikonda Cholapuram
and built the Rajarajeshvaram Temple.
• He led a successful naval expedition to the Srivijaya Kingdom, which included
Malay Peninsula, Java, and Sumatra.
• Following these campaigns, he earned the title Kadaram Kondan (Conqueror of
Kadaram).
• His successors, including Rajadhiraja Chola, maintained Chola power for some
time, but by the 12th century, the empire declined.

Decline of the Cholas

• By the 12th century, the Chola Empire was reduced to a small territory.
• The power vacuum left by the Cholas was filled by emerging regional powers,
including:
1. Kakatiyas of Warangal
2. Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra
3. Yadavas of Devagiri
4. Pandyas
5. Chalukyas

Chola Administration
• The Chola Empire was called Rajyam and was divided into eight provinces
called Mandalams.
• Mandalams were further divided into Valanadus/Kottams, which were made
up of Nadus.
• Nadus consisted of many autonomous villages.

New Section 2 Page 83

24 November 2024 06:29 PM

Village Administration
• The Chola administration had two types of assemblies:
1. Ur: The general assembly of residents in non-Brahmadeya villages.
2. Sabha/Mahasabha: An assembly of adult Brahmins in Brahmadeya
villages (villages granted rent-free to Brahmins).
▪ Sabha enjoyed great autonomy and was associated with local
governance.
▪ Resolutions were passed in the presence of a king’s official.
▪ Members of the Sabha, called Variya Perumakkal, were elected
through a lottery or rotation system.

Economic System
• Land revenue was the main source of income and was assessed based on a
proper survey.
• Taxes were one-sixth of the produce and were collected in cash or kind by
village assemblies.
• Trade was prosperous, and guilds, known as Shrenis, played a crucial role in the
economy.
• The Nagaram was an assembly of merchant groups.

Society and Culture

• Society was divided into Velangai (agricultural groups) and Idangai (artisan
and trading groups).
• Untouchability was prevalent, and untouchables were called Paraiyars.
• The Cholas were great patrons of art, architecture, and literature.
○ Temples became the cultural hubs of Tamil Nadu.
○ Both Shaivism and Vaishnavism flourished.
• Tamil and Kannada literature saw significant growth during the Chola period.

New Section 2 Page 84