DELTA STATE UNIVERSITY, ABRAKA, NIGERIA

DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL BIOLOGY

Lecture Note

AEB 412: Hydrobiology and Fisheries

1.0. Fisheries, Fishery and Fishing

1.1. Terminologies

Fisheries are concerned with fish or shellfish. They mainly deal with catching, processing,
and selling fish.
Generally, a fishery is an entity engaged in raising or harvesting fish which is determined
by some authority to be a fishery.
A fishery can also be defined as an activity leading to harvesting of fish. It may involve
capture of wild fish or raising of fish through aquaculture." It is typically defined in terms
of the "people involved, species or type of fish, area of water or seabed, method of fishing,
class of boats, purpose of the activities or a combination of the foregoing features". The
definition often includes a combination of fish and fishers in a region, the latter fishing for
similar species with similar gear types.
Fishing: The act of catching other forms of seafood, separately or together with fish.

Fish
In biology – the term fish is most strictly used to describe any animal with a backbone that
has gills and fin throughout life. Many types of aquatic animals commonly referred to as
fish are not fish in this strict sense; examples include shellfish, cuttlefish, starfish, crayfish
and jellyfish.
In fisheries – the term fish is used as a collective term, and includes mollusks, crustaceans
and any aquatic animal which is harvested.
True fish – The strict biological definition of a fish, above, is sometimes called a true fish.
True fish are also referred to as finfish or fin fish to distinguish them from other aquatic
life harvested in fisheries or aquaculture.

1.2. Facts about Fish

A fish is a type of animal that has a backbone, lives in the water, and has fins. Most fish
have scales covering their bodies. Most fish breathe with gills. Fish belong to a very large
group! Nearly half of all vertebrates (animals with backbones) are fish. Fishes have been
swimming in Earth's waters for more than five hundred million years. That's longer than
any other kind of vertebrate has been on Earth. Fish were the first vertebrate animals to
evolve.

1.3. Fish are divided into three groups

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superclass Agnatha (jawless fishes), class Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fishes), and
superclass Osteichthyes (bony fishes). The latter two groups are included within the
infraphylum Gnathostomata, a category containing all jawed vertebrates.
1. The jawless fishes were the earliest vertebrates. Today there are only about sixty
species still living. These fish have no scales. Their skeletons are made of cartilage,
a firm, flexible material like the end of your nose. They also do not have pairs of fins
like most fish. But the most remarkable thing about these fish is that they do not have
jaws, instead, the mouths of these fishes have structures for scraping, stabbing, and
sucking.
Hagfishes and lampreys are the only living kinds of jawless fishes. Hagfishes look like big
slimy worms! They crawl into the bodies of dead or dying fish and use their sandpapery
tongue to scrape the tissues.
Lampreys have a mouth like a suction cup with many tiny, but sharp, teeth. Many of them
are parasites that feed on other fish. A parasite is an organism that lives off another
organism without helping the host organism in any way. Lampreys attach their mouths to
a healthy fish and then suck the tissues and blood out of the healthy fish. There are many
lampreys in the Great Lakes.

Fig. 1.1. Sea lamprey, lampern, and Planer's lamprey. Alexander Francis Lydon/Public
Domain
2. Cartilaginous fishes include sharks, rays, and skates. Their skeletons are made of
cartilage, just like the skeletons of the jawless fishes. However, they do have jaws and
pairs of fins. Their bodies are covered with pointed, toothlike scales. This gives their
bodies a texture rougher than sandpaper. All cartilaginous fishes are carnivores. Rays,
like sting rays and manta rays, live on the ocean floor. Sting rays hunt mollusks,
crustaceans, and small fishes. Manta rays are filter-feeders. As they swim with their

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 mouths open, water containing plankton, very small animals, comes into their mouths.
They filter out the food from the water.
Most sharks are active predators, eating mostly fish. The great white shark also preys
upon ocean mammals like seals. The largest shark, the whale shark, may grow to be forty
feet long. It feeds like a filter-feeder, swimming along with its mouth open to catch small
fish and plankton.

Fig. 1.2. Hammerhead shark. By suneko - Flickr, CC BY 2.0,

https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1032190
3. Bony fishes are the most familiar fish. Bony fish make up about 95% of all fish
species. Trout, goldfish, tuna, clownfish, and catfish are all kinds of bony fishes.
They live in both salt and fresh water. Their gills are inside a pocket on the sides of
their head. Each gill pocket is covered with a flap that opens to release water. The
paired fins help the fish stay balanced and upright in the water. Fins are used for
swimming. Fins are thin membranes stretched across a framework of bones. Like a
wide boat paddle, a fin provides a large surface to push against the water. Their
bodies are covered with scales that overlap like the shingles on a roof. Scales are
made from a substance like your fingernails, Mucus covers and protects the scales.
This slimy coating is important because it protects the fish from parasites, infections,
and diseases. It helps wounds heal and even helps the fish move easily through the
water.

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Fig. 1.3. Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). By W H Flower - Guide to the galleries of
reptiles and fishes of the British Museum,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1938830

Fig. 1.4. Fish skeletons are composed of either bone or cartilage.

(http://www.mesa.edu.au/fish/)

Fish come in all shapes, colors, and sizes. Scientists estimate that there are more than
20,000 different species of fish! Fish have lived on Earth before the dinosaurs. Fish have
adapted to almost every watery environment and type of food.
1.4. Structure and Function of Fish

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Fig. 1.5. External anatomy of a fish

Fig. 1.6. Internal anatomy of a fish

Anatomy is the study of an organism’s structures. Fishes come in a diverse array of forms,
many with special modifications. The shape, size, and structure of body parts permit
different fishes to live in different environments or in different parts of the same
environment. The external anatomy of a fish can reveal a great deal about where and
how it lives.
Orientation of Fish

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When describing the basic anatomy of an organism, it is useful to have some common
terms to help with orientation. Just as a map uses north, south, east, or west to help
determine the location, orientation words are useful in describing anatomy. Table 1.1
defines common anatomy terms; Fig. 1.7 shows their orientation on animals.

Fig. 1.7. Anatomical directions and axes

Table 1.1. Anatomy position words

Anatomy Word ...of the organism

Anterior The head end...
Posterior The tail end...
Dorsal The back
Ventral The front or belly
Lateral The side or flank

Fish Fins
The first anatomical structures many people identify on a fish are the fins. In fact,
“appendages, when present, as fins” is part of one of the scientific definitions of a fish.
Most fish have two kinds of fins: median and paired.
Median fins are single fins that run down the midline of the body. The dorsal fin is a
median fin located on the dorsal side of the fish. The anal fin and caudal fin are also
median fins. Paired fins are arranged in pairs, like human arms and legs. The pelvic and
pectoral fins are both paired fins. (Table 1.2).

Median Fins

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Median fins, like the dorsal, anal, and caudal fins, can function like the keel of a boat and
aid in stabilization (Fig. 1.8 A). Median fins can also serve other purposes, like protection
in the lion fish (Fig. 1.8 B).

Fig. 1.8. (A) The keel of boat stabilizes the boat, similar to a fish’s anal fin. (B) The dorsal
fin of a lionfish has spines and poison for protection. Image (A) courtesy of Brother
Magneto Flickr. Image (B) courtesy of Katie Samuelson

Fish form and adaptation function

Table 1.2. Fish form and function: body shape. Images by Byron Inouye

Diagram of Body Description Adapted Function

Maneuvering in
Anguiliform (eel shape)
crevasses

Lowering frictional
Fusiform (bullet, or torpedo
resistance in fast
shape)
swimmers

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 Diagram of Body Description Adapted Function

Depressiform (broad
Lying on or below the
shape and flat top to
surface of the sand
bottom)

Compressiform (tall, thin Entering vertical

shape and flat side to side) crevices

Vertically flattened shape

Bottom heavy for
that is somewhat
sitting on the bottom,
depressiform (flat top to
not casting a shadow
bottom)

Caudal (Tail) Fin

The caudal fin is known commonly as the tail fin (Table 1.3). It is the primary appendage
used for locomotion in many fishes.
The caudal peduncle is the base of the caudal fin. Peduncle means stem, and the caudal
peduncle is where the strong swimming muscles of the tail are found. Together, the
caudal fin acts like a “propeller” for the fish, and the caudal peduncle acts like a motor.

Caudal fins and adaption function

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Table 1.3. Fish form and function: dorsal fin features

Tail Diagram Description Adapted Function

Slow swimming,
Rounded tail accelerating, and
maneuvering

Truncated
Turning quickly
(triangular) tail

Lunate (moon Continuous long

shaped) tail distance swimming

Rapid swimming,
Forked tail somewhat sustained
with bursts of speed

Heteroceral Slow or rapid

(taller upper swimming with bursts
lobe) tail of speed

Paired Fins

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Fish have two sets of paired fins: pectoral and pelvic (Fig 1.9A). The pectoral fins are
vertical and are located on the sides of the fish, usually just past the operculum (Table
1.4). Pectoral fins are similar to human arms, which are found near the pectoral muscles.
Many fish, such as reef fish like wrasses (Fig. 1.9 B), use their pectoral fins for locomotion.

Fig. 1.9. (A) trout showing two dorsal fins on top and, from left to right, pectoral, pelvic,
and anal fins, Photo courtesy of the Wild Center Flickr. (B) wrasse, Photo courtesy of
Katie Samuelson
Pectoral s fins and adaption function
Table 1.4. Fish form and function: Pectoral fin features

Pelvic Fin Diagram Description Adapted Function

Fringe-like
Probing substrate
pectoral fins

Spiny pectoral Propping on

fins substrate

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 Pelvic Fin Diagram Description Adapted Function

Hand-like Crawling on
pectoral fins substrate

Wing-like Soaring and

pectoral fins swimming

Snake-like
No pectoral fins
swimming

Normal size
Maneuvering
pectoral fins

Spines and Rays

Scientists use fins to help identify and classify fish species. In more evolutionarily
advanced fish, the fins are supported by bony structures: spines and soft rays. Spines
are simple, unbranched, structures. Soft rays are compound, segmented, and branched
structures (Fig. 1.10).

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Fig. 1.10. (A) The elongated dorsal fin of a common carp, with 1 spine and 15-22 soft
rays. Image courtesy of John Lyons, University of Wisconsin Sea Grant. (B) A dorsal fin
drawing of a soldierfish’s second dorsal fin, showing fin spines (unbranched) and rays
(branched and softer than spines). Image from Living Ocean, CRDG, University of Hawaii
at Manoa
Mouths
The location and size of the mouth can be a good indicator of the food a fish eat and
where it lives. Fish with large mouths generally eat large food items like another fish;
however, the whale shark eats very small organisms which it strains from the water. Small
mouths eat small food items: small crustaceans or molluscs; and, fish with tiny mouths
eat tiny things like zooplankton.
Mouth type
1. The mouth may be on the forward end of the head (terminal),
2. may be upturned (superior), or
3. may be turned downwards or on the bottom of the fish (subterminal or inferior).
4. The mouth may be modified into a suckermouth adapted for clinging onto objects
in fast-moving water.

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Fig 1.11. Positions of fish mouths: terminal (a), superior (b), and subterminal or inferior
(c). Source : https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1015946

Eyes
The eyes of fish resemble human eyes (Fig. 1.12). At the front of each eye is a lens, held
in place by a suspensory ligament. The lens focuses images of objects on the retina. To
bring near and far objects into focus, the lens retractor muscle moves the lens back and
forth. Because fish have no eyelids, their eyes are always open.

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Fig. 1.12. Eye of a bigeyed sixgill shark (Hexanchus nakamurai)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hexanchus_nakamurai_JNC2615_Eye.JPG Images
courtesy of Jean-Lou Justine
Nostrils
The sense of smell is well developed in some fishes. Water circulates through openings
in the head called nostrils. Unlike humans, fish nostrils are not connected to any air
passages. Fish nostrils serve no role in respiration. They are completely sensory.
The largest part of a fish’s brain is the olfactory lobe, which is responsible for the
sense of smell. Smell is the response to chemical molecules by nerve endings in the
nostrils. Chemoreception is the scientific term for what nerve cells do to help an organism
smell.
Taste Receptors
Taste is another form of chemoreception. Fish can taste inside their mouth. Many
fishes, like goatfish and catfish, also have fleshy structures called barbels around the chin,
mouth, and nostrils. In some fishes, these barbels are used for touch and chemoreception.
Not all barbels have chemoreception. The barbels of some fish, like catfishes, are not
equipped for chemical reception.
Lateral line
Most fish have a structure called the lateral line that runs the length of the body—from
just behind the head to the caudal peduncle. The lateral line is used to help fishes sense
vibrations in the water. Vibrations can come from prey, predators, other fishes in a school,
or environmental obstacles Fig. 1.13.

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Fig. 1.13. (A) Location of the lateral line. (B) Location of the lateral line on a fish and
enlarged view of a lateral line, showing the lateral line tube reaching through pores in the
fish scales. Image from Living Ocean, CRDG, University of Hawaii at Manoa (Felo 7.17)
Ears
Sound travels well underwater, and hearing is important to most fishes. Fishes have two
inner ears embedded in spaces in their skulls. The lower chambers, the sacculus and the
lagena, detect sound vibrations. Each ear chamber contains an otolith and is lined with
sensory hairs. Otoliths are small, stone-like bones. They float in the fluid that fills the ear
chambers. Otoliths lightly touch the sensory hair cells, which are sensitive to sound and
movement. Some fishes also use other organs to aid in hearing. For example, the gas
bladder changes volume in response to sound waves. Some fishes can detect these
changes in gas bladder volume and use them to interpret sounds.
Gills and Oxygen Exchange
Most mammals get oxygen from the air, but most fishes get oxygen from the water. To
get oxygen from the water, fish must pass water over their gills. Gills are composed of a
gill arch, gill filaments, and gill rakers (see Fig. 1.14). In many fishes the gill arch is a hard
structure that supports the gill filaments. The gill filaments are soft with lots of blood
vessels to absorb oxygen from the water.
Mechanism
As a fish swims, it automatically opens its mouth. It continuously gulps water, even when
it sleeps. The water, which contains oxygen, moves through openings in the fish's throat
that lead to the gills. Gills, which look like tiny feathers, are red because of the many blood
vessels in them. As water flows over the gills, oxygen moves from the water into the fish's
blood. Carbon dioxide, a waste product, moves out of the blood into the water. After
flowing over the gills, water leaves the fish through slits beneath the gill flaps.

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From the gills, the blood travels through the fish's body. Blood is pumped from the heart
to the gills, from the gills to the rest of the body, and back again to the heart. Each cell of
the fish's body receives oxygen from the blood and releases its carbon dioxide into the
blood. Interestingly, a fish's heart has only two chambers.

Fig. 1.14. (A) A bony fish with the operculum held open to show the gills (B) A single gill
removed from a bony fish (C) A drawing of a gill showing gill filaments (oxygen absorption),
gill arch (supporting structure), and gill rakers (comb like structure for filtering). Image
from NOAA, Living Ocean, CRDG.
Some fishes, like tunas, need to continuously swim to get oxygen from the water. Other
fishes, like wrasses, can pass water over their gills by pumping it. This enables some fish
to remain motionless and still get oxygen.
Fishes get both oxygen and food from water. To get oxygen, water needs to move toward
the gills. But, to get energy from food, the food needs to move down into the fish’s
stomach. The gill rakers are comb-like structures that filter food from the water before it
heads to the gills. This keeps food particles inside the fish’s mouth and lets water move
out toward the gills.
The structure of a fish’s gill rakers indicates something about its diet.
Fish that eat small prey like plankton tend to have many long, thin gill rakers to filter very
small prey from the water as it passes from the mouth to the gills.
On the other hand, fish that eat large prey tend to have more widely spaced gill rakers,
because the gill rakers do not need to catch tiny particles.
The Operculum is the bony plate that covers fishes’ gills. In chimeras and bony fishes,
the operculum covers the posterior end of the head, which protects the gill openings.

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Sharks and rays have open, naked gills, meaning that they are not covered by an
operculum. Their classification name, elasmobranch, actually means naked gill. Most
elasmobranchs have five gill openings—exceptions include the six gill and seven gill
shark.
Pores
A pore is a small opening in the skin. A typical fish has anal, genital, and urinary pores
located anterior of the anal fin. The anal pore is where feces exits the fish body. The anus
is the largest and most anterior of the pore.
The genital pore is where eggs or sperm are released. The urinary pore is where urine
exits the body. Often the genital and urinary pore are combined into a single urogenital
pore. These pores are situated on a small papilla, or bump, just behind the anus (Fig.
1.15).

Fig. 1.15. Anal pore (toward the head) and genital and/or urinary pores (toward the tail).

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Image from
http://forums.pondboss.com/ubbthreads.php?ubb=showflat&Number=157117
Most fishes reproduce externally, meaning that the sperm and eggs meet outside their
bodies. However, some fishes reproduce internally. The females of these fishes often
have a genital pore that is modified for internal fertilization.
Body Coverings
One definition of a fish includes “body usually covered with scales.” Except for some parts
of the head and fins, the bodies of many fishes are covered with overlapping scales (Fig.
1.16).
Scales generally serve to protect the fish’s skin.

Fig. 1.16. The overlapping scales of a roach fish (Rutilus rutilus). Image by kallerna.
Types of Scales
Different fishes have different types of scales. These different types of scales are made
of different types of tissue (Fig. 1.17 and Table 1.5).
1. Placoid scales are found in the sharks and rays (Fig. 1.17A). Placoid scales are
made of a flattened base with a spine protruding towards the rear of the fish. These
scales are often called dermal denticles because they are made from dentin and
enamel, which is similar to the material teeth are made of.
2. Ganoid scales are flat and do not overlap very much on the body of the fish (Fig.
1.17B). They are found on gars and paddlefishes. In the sturgeon, ganoid scales
are modified into body plates called scutes.
3. Cycloid and Ctenoid scales are found in the vast majority of bony fishes (Figs
1.17 C and 1.17 D). These types of scales can overlap like shingles on a roof,

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 which gives more flexibility to the fish. These scales also form growth rings like
trees that can be used for determining age.
Ctenoid scales are different than cycloid scales in that cycloid scales tend to be more
oval in shape.
Ctenoid scales are more clam shaped and have spines over one edge. Cycloid
scales are found on fishes such as eels, goldfish, and trout. Ctenoid scales are found on
fishes like perches, wrasses, and parrotfish. Some flatfishes, like flounder, have both
cycloid and ctenoid scales.
Scale size varies greatly among species, and not all fishes have scales. Some fishes, like
some rays, eels, and blennies, do not have any scales.

Fig. 1.17. Four types of fish scale A) Placoid, B) Ganoid, C) Cycloid, and D) Ctenoid.
Image from Living Ocean, CRDG, University of Hawaii at Manoa

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Scale types and adaptation function
Table 1.5. Fish form and function: Scale Features

Scale Diagram Description Adapted Function

Protection from
Spines
predators

Protection and
Blades
defense

Scutes (or keel; Cuts through water,

not shown) streamlines swimming

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Scale Diagram Description Adapted Function

Many large
Protection
scales

No scales Burrowing

Leathery scales Protection

Bony armor Protection from

scutes predators

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 Scale Diagram Description Adapted Function

Protection from
Rough scales parasites and
swimming locomotion

Regular scales Protection

Colour
The colour of fishes is very diverse and depends on where a fish lives.
Function of colour in Fish
1. Colour can be used as camouflage.
2. Colour also plays a role in finding mates,
3. in advertising services like cleaning,
4. in attracting prey,
5. and in warning other fishes of danger.
Tunas, barracuda, sharks, and other fishes that live in the open ocean are often silvery
or deep blue in colour. These fishes also have a body colouring pattern called counter
shading. Counter shading means dark on the dorsal, or top, surface and light on the
ventral, or belly side. Countershading helps to camouflage fishes by matching the dark,
deep water when viewed from above and matching the light, surface water, when viewed
from below (Fig. 1.18; Table 1.6).

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Fig. 1.18. Countershading in a grey reef shark. Image courtesy of Fbattail
Nearer to shore, many fishes have also evolved to be camouflaged in their environment.
Kelpfish have developed both colors and a body shape that helps them blend in with the
seaweed that they live in. Reef fish often look like coral. Fishes that hide in the sand, like
blennies, flat fish, and flounder, are often a speckled sandy color
Table 1.6.

Picture Example Description Adapted

Function

Both sexes
A warning—not
brightly
good to eat
colored

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Picture Example Description Adapted
Function
Brightly
colored areas
around the
spine on the
caudal Warning
peduncle
area. The
spine is used
in defense.

Mottled Camouflage

Dark on top,
Camouflage in
lighter on
midwater
bottom

Camouflage in
Dark all over
dark areas

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Picture Example Description Adapted
Function

Camouflage in
Red all over
dark areas

Camouflage in
Light all over
light areas

Leading predator
Eyespots
away from head

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 Picture Example Description Adapted
Function

Brightly Camouflage or
colored communication

1.5. Internal Fish Anatomy and the Function of Fish Organ Systems
Living things are composed of cells. Cells often become specialized to perform certain
functions. For example, muscle cells contract, nerve cells transmit impulses, and gland
cells produce chemicals. A tissue is a group of similar cells performing a similar function
(Fig. 1.19). There are many kinds of tissues—bone, cartilage, blood, fat, tendon, skin,
and scales.

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Fig. 1.19. Organization of structures in living organisms. Image from Living Ocean, CRDG,
University of Hawaii at Manoa
Integumentary System
The integumentary system is commonly called the skin. It consists of two layers, the
epidermis, or outer layer, and the dermis, or inner layer. Beneath these are the muscles
and other tissues that the skin covers (Fig. 1.20).

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Fig. 1.20. A drawing of the skin and integumentary system of a fish, showing scales,
epidermis, dermis, and muscle. Image from Living Ocean, CRDG, University of Hawaii at
Manoa
The epidermis is the top layer of the integumentary system. It is made of several sheets
of cells that cover the scales. As the cells age, new cells growing underneath push older
cells toward the outer surface.
In the epidermis of most fishes are cells that produce mucus, a slippery material like runny
gelatin, that helps the fish slide through the water. The mucus wears off daily, carrying
away microscopic organisms and other irritants that might harm the fish. The odor typical
of most fish comes from chemicals in the mucus.
In their epidermis, fishes have cells containing pigment grains that give the fish its color.
Some fish can change color by expanding or contracting pigment cells. The changes are
controlled by hormones that are produced by the endocrine system and regulated by the
nervous system.
The lower layer of the integumentary system contains blood vessels, nerves for sensing
touch and vibration, and connective tissue made of strong fibers. A special layer of dermal
cells secretes chemicals to produce scales, which grow larger as the fish grows. Most fish
have covering scales that protect them from damage when they bump into things or are
attacked. As the scales grow, they form concentric rings in some fishes. These growth
rings can be used to determine a fish’s age. A few fish, such as catfish, have no scales.
Skeletal and Muscular Systems
The skeletal system supports the soft tissues and organs of the fish (Fig. 1.21). The
skeleton also protects organs and gives the body of the fish its basic shape. The many
bones of the skull form a rigid box that protects the brain. Holes, hinges, and pockets in
the skull allow room for the nostrils, mouth, and eyes.

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Fig. 1.21. A drawing of a fish skeletal system. Image from Living Ocean, CRDG,
University of Hawaii at Manoa
The vertebral column, or backbone, is not a solid rod. The backbone is actually a string
of small bones called vertebrae. See Fig. 1.22. Each vertebra has a small hole in it.
Together, the small holes in the vertebrae form a canal through which the spinal cord
passes. The vertebrae bones protect the spinal cord. Spaces between the vertebrae allow
the backbone to bend and nerves to reach the tissues and organs of the body. Rib bones
protect the body cavity. Additional bones support the spines and rays.

Fig.1.22. A drawing of a fish skeleton vertebrae viewed from the front, showing rib and
tail sections. Image from Living Ocean, CRDG, University of Hawaii at Manoa
Muscles are tissues that contract to shorten and relax to lengthen. Fish move by
contracting and relaxing their muscles. Like humans, fish have three types of muscles:
skeletal muscles, smooth muscles, and heart muscles.

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The muscles and bones of a fish work together. Skeletal muscles use bones as levers to
move the body. Tendons are strong connective tissues that attach muscle to bone. When
muscle cells are stimulated, they contract and shorten, which pulls on tendons to move
bones.
Skeletal muscles are voluntary, meaning that they move only when the thinking part of
the brain signals them to move. To swim, fish must contract and relax their skeletal
muscles, just as humans do when they learn to walk. Most of a fish’s body is made of
layers of skeletal muscle. These layers are arranged in W-shaped bands from belly to
back (Fig. 1.23). This network of muscles is vertical and interlocking, which allows the fish
to move the body back and forth in a smooth, undulating motion. Such motion would not
be possible if the muscles ran horizontally along the length of the body, from head to tail.

Fig. 1.23. (A) Side view of salmon skeletal.Image courtesy of Flying Penguin. (B) Drawing
of skeletal muscle pattern in a fish. Image from Living Ocean, CRDG, University of Hawaii
at Manoa
A fish swims by alternately contracting muscles on either side of its body (See Fig. 1.24).
Swimming begins when the muscles on one side of the body contract, pulling the caudal
fin toward that side. The sideways movement of the caudal fin pushes the fish forward.
Then the muscles on the opposite side of the body contract, and the caudal fin moves
toward the other side of the body.

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Fig. 1.24. A drawing contrasting a typical fish swimming movement with the movement
of a typical human swimming with dive fins. Image from Living Ocean, CRDG, University
of Hawaii at Manoa
Skeletal muscles are also attached to bones that move the fish’s paired fins. Fishes with
wide pectoral fins, like wrasses, swim by flapping their pectoral fins. Other fishes, like
fast-swimming tunas, move mostly with their caudal fin but use long, thin pectoral fins for
steering.
Skeletal muscles also move dorsal fins. Faster-swimming fishes reduce water drag by
tucking in their dorsal fins while swimming. Slower-swimming reef fishes have larger
dorsal fins, which they sometimes flare to protect themselves in encounters with other
fish.
Smooth muscles move internal organs of the body and line tubes such as the intestinal
tract and blood vessels. Smooth muscles are involuntary; they move without signals from
the thinking part of the brain. For example, smooth muscles automatically contract and
relax to push food through the digestive tract from the mouth to the anus. Other smooth
muscles control the flow of blood and other body fluids and movement in the urogenital
tract.
Heart muscles are also involuntary. However, the structure of heart muscle cells is
different from involuntary smooth muscles, so these two muscle types are given separate
names. Heart muscles pump blood through the blood vessels by rhythmically contracting
and relaxing.
Respiratory System
The respiratory system takes oxygen (O2) into the body and passes carbon dioxide (CO2)
out of the body. Oxygen is essential to fish’s digestion because it combines with food
molecules to release energy for the fish’s needs.
The respiratory organs in fish are gills. Each gill has many gill filaments, which contain a
network of tiny blood vessels called capillaries (Fig. 1.25). The gill cover (also called the

31
operculum) is the body surface that covers the gills. The gill rakers filter food from the
water as water passes out to the gills.

Fig. 1.25. (A) Exposed fish gills as viewed from the ventral, or belly side, of the head.
Image courtesy of Uwe Gille. (B) A drawing of a gill filament with a gill raker and the gill
arch labeled. Image from Living Ocean, CRDG, University of Hawaii at Manoa
Water moves over the gills in a pumping action with two steps (Fig. 1.26). In the first step,
the mouth opens, the gill covers close, and the fish brings water into its mouth. In the
second step, the mouth closes, the gill covers open, and water passes out of the fish.
This action is called buccal pumping and is named for the cheek muscles that pull water
into the mouth and over the gills.
Some fish also use ram ventilation to move water over their gills. When swimming fast,
fish like sharks and tunas open both their mouths and gill openings to let water pass
continuously through their gills. They do not need to open and close their mouth because
water is pushed over their gills by their swimming action.
As water passes over the gills, carbon dioxide in the blood passes into the water through
the capillaries of the gill filaments. The same gill filaments allow dissolved oxygen from
the water to pass into the blood, which then carries it throughout the body.

32
Fig. 1.26. Movement of water past the gills. Image from Living Ocean, CRDG, University
of Hawaii at Manoa
Buoyancy
Buoyancy refers to whether something will float or sink. Some fishes have a gas bladder
that helps control their buoyancy. The gas bladder is a special, gas filled chamber in a
fish’s body cavity. It lies just below the kidneys.
The gas bladder is often called the swim bladder because it regulates buoyancy by
making the fish’s density equal to the density of the surrounding water. The average
density of seawater is 1.026 g/mL, but the density of fish flesh and bones is about 1.076
g/mL. This means that a typical fish is denser than seawater and would naturally sink.
The density of the gas bladder, on the other hand, is less dense than seawater. The low
density of the gas bladder helps the fish float (Fig 1.27).

33
A B

Fig 1.27. (A) The position of the gas bladder (swim bladder) in a bleak (Alburnoides
bipunctatus). Image courtsey of Wikimedia. (B) Gas bladder from a Ruddy fish
(Scardinius erythrophthalmus). Image Courtesy of Wikipedia.
The gas bladder has a low density because it is filled mostly with oxygen and nitrogen
gases. The gas bladder acts like an inflatable balloon inside the fish. The gas bladder
reduces the density of the fish’s body until it is the same as the density of seawater. This
helps the fish float within the water column.
In many groups of fishes (like herring, pike, catfish, eels), an open tube connects the gas
bladder to the digestive tract. This allows the fish to adjust gas content in the bladder by
swallowing and expelling air through their mouth. Other kinds of fishes (like perches,
snappers, groupers) have a gas gland that bubbles gasses into and out of the
bloodstream to inflate and deflate the gas bladder.
Pressure increases with increasing water depth because the water above pushes down
on the water (and animals) below. When a fish swims into deeper water, its gas bladder
gets smaller because of the increase in water pressure. Thus, as a fish goes deeper, it
must add gas to its gas bladder to maintain neutral buoyancy. When a fish swims into
shallow water, its gas bladder expands because the pressure of water surrounding the
fish decreases. Thus, as it moves into shallower water, the fish must absorb gas from the
gas bladder to maintain neutral buoyancy.
Because gases move slowly in and out of the gas bladder, fish caught at great depths are
often bloated when they are brought to the surface quickly. The gas in the gas bladder
expands when the fish moves from the high pressure of deep water to the lower pressure
at the surface. A fish pulled quickly to the surface cannot absorb the gases fast enough,
and the sudden expansion of the gas bladder can injure the fish.
To keep the fish alive, collectors must bring fish to the surface slowly to let the fish’s body
absorb the gases from the gas bladder. There are also methods for releasing a fish with
recompression in order to help it recover from gas expansion as a result of being brought
quickly to the surface.
Some fishes, such as grunts and toadfish, can use their gas bladder to produce sound.
Muscles in the wall of the bladder contract rapidly, producing a low-frequency (low-pitch)
sound that is resonated and amplified in the bladder. Other fishes, like the lungfish, also
use the gas bladder as an accessory respiratory organ or “lung” when they crawl on land.
34
Fishes that have no gas bladder are always denser than the surrounding water, so they
sink if they stop swimming. Sharks, for example, must keep swimming to stay afloat. They
use their tails and pectoral fins like airplane wings, adjusting the amount of lift to control
the depth of their swimming. Many bottom-dwelling fishes also lack gas bladders because
they have no real need from them.
Circulatory System
The circulatory system is a transportation system for body fluids. The circulatory system
brings nutrients to cells and carries waste away from cells. Blood is a fluid that consists
of plasma (the liquid part) and blood cells. Plasma contains water, carbon dioxide (CO 2),
hormones, nutrients, wastes, and other molecules. Blood cells are of two main types: red
and white.
Red blood cells carry oxygen (O2) from the gills to other cells in the body. In red cells,
special molecules that combine chemically with oxygen can pick up and release oxygen,
depending on the surrounding environment. These molecules, called hemoglobin, contain
iron atoms. When hemoglobin combines with oxygen, it turns bright red. When
hemoglobin releases its oxygen, it turns a very dark red.
White blood cells fight disease. They often concentrate around infected wounds, killing
bacteria and transporting wastes away from the wound. Dead cells in a wound form pus,
which white blood cells help to eliminate.
A network of tubes called arteries, capillaries, and veins connects the heart with all parts
of the body (Fig. 1.28). The arteries carry blood from the heart to the capillaries. The
capillaries, microscopic in size and very numerous, have thin walls through which nutrient
molecules can move. The molecules move through the walls of the capillaries and into
the fluids around the tissues. The veins carry blood from the capillaries back to the heart.

35
Fig. 1.28. Schematic of a fish’s circulatory system, showing only the major systems. All
parts of the body are served by arteries, capillaries, and veins. Image from Living Ocean,
CRDG, University of Hawaii at Manoa
The heart pumps blood to all parts of the body. The fish heart has one ventricle and one
atrium. In comparison, the human heart has two separate ventricles and two separate
atria. In the fish heart, there are also two other chambers: the sinus venosus (before the
ventricle) and the bulbus arteriosus (after the atrium). (See Fig. 1.29.)

36
Fig. 1.29. Contraction of heart muscles moves blood through the system. Image from
Living Ocean, CRDG, University of Hawaii at Manoa
When the heart muscle contracts, it forces blood into the arteries. Valves between the
chambers allow the blood to flow in only one direction. Blood that is low in oxygen and
high in carbon dioxide is pumped to the gills, where it releases carbon dioxide and picks
up more oxygen through capillaries in the gill filaments. The blood, now rich in oxygen,
flows through branching arteries to the brain, digestive system, and other tissues and
organs.
As it passes through the digestive system, the blood absorbs nutrients and distributes
them through the body. As it passes through each tissue and organ, some of the blood
plasma passes through capillaries and flows around the cells. Oxygen and nutrient
molecules move from the plasma into the cells. Carbon dioxide and waste products move
from the cells into the plasma. The plasma then passes back into the capillaries and
carries waste away.

Another network of tubes, called lymph ducts, picks up the liquid that passes out of the
capillaries and collects in parts of the fish’s body. The lymph ducts return this liquid (called
lymph) to the veins.
Digestive and Excretory System

37
A fish’s digestive and excretory system includes the structures and organs that bring food
into the body, break food down into usable substances organism, and remove unused
food. The digestive system begins with the mouth and teeth, which trap food and help
send it on to the stomach and intestine for digestion. Undigested food and waste leaves
the body through the anus (Fig. 1.30).
The urinary portion of the excretory system also removes waste produced by the body.
Its chief organs are the kidneys, which are a pair of long, dark-red organs under the
vertebrae. The kidneys filter small molecules from the blood. After filtering, usable
materials such as sugars, salts, and water are absorbed back into the blood. The
remaining waste products pass from the kidneys down the urinary tubes, to the bladder,
and out through an opening behind the anus, called the urogenital opening. This is the
same opening through which materials from the reproductive system (eggs from the
ovaries or sperm from the testes) pass.

Fig. 1.30. Excretory and reproductive systems of a fish. Image from Living Ocean, CRDG,
University of Hawaii at Manoa
The gills are also part of the excretory system. Blood carries waste products and excess
salts to the gill filaments. Carbon dioxide (CO2) and ammonia are excreted by the gills.
Fish living in seawater and brackish water also excrete excess salt from their gills.

The liver also removes wastes from the blood. The liver cleans blood after it has picked
up digested products from the intestine. Wastes are converted into bile and stored in the
gall bladder, where they wait to be poured back into the digestive tract to aid in digestion.

38
Osmosis is the passive movement of water across cell membranes. If two fluids have
different salinities, water will cross the cell membrane to balance the salinity on both sides.
This means that the excretory system is affected by where a fish lives.
Freshwater fishes have body tissues that are saltier than the surrounding water. Thus,
water constantly enters the body through the gills and body cavities. Freshwater fishes
must urinate frequently to rid themselves of this excess water.
Saltwater fishes, by contrast, are surrounded by water that is saltier than their bodily fluids.
Water is always leaving their bodies. To prevent dehydration, saltwater fishes drink
constantly, and excrete small amounts of very concentrated urine. Special salt glands in
the gills also help eliminate the salt from the water drank by the fish.

2.0. FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS OF FISH

2.1. Introduction
Food is simply referred to as any ingested material that can be digested, assimilated and
utilized for energy production. Each group of living has its range of materials, which can
be effectively utilized as food. For most organisms, food is the major source of energy for
locomotion in search for food, escape from predators and migration for migratory species.
Food is also the major source of energy for reproduction for species perpetuation, growth
for elaboration of all organelles, respiration for production of energy and excretion for
removal of wastes. Basic food nutrients are carbohydrates (glucose), protein (amino acids)
and fats, (fatty acids and glycerol). These nutrients are required in various proportions
and in combination with vitamins and minerals in the right proportions. In other words,
they form a balanced diet which is essential for optimal growth of fishes.

2.2. Feeding Ecology

The overall study on the food and feeding habits of animals can be discussed under the
term “Feeding Ecology”. It defines a relationship where the animal adopts a strategy for
optimum foraging of predation on its preferred food. The broad domains of feeding
ecology are described below (Fig. 2.1): an informative account of food organisms
naturally ingested by the fish; quantification of gut content; morphological adjustment in
the mouth or any other body morphs of the fish in relation to the food it ingests; organic
environment in the gut; olfaction for reception and rejection of food; molecular signaling
of food reception.

39
Fig. 2.1. Domains needed to describe feeding ecology in fish.

A complete study on the food and feeding habits of a fish species would not only
investigate the dietary composition, their quantity and selectivity but would also involve
an examination of the functional morphology and physiology of the alimentary system as
well as the fauna and flora of the environment, particularly, those that are food for fish to
reveal their interrelationship with each other and the fish species.

2.3. Methods of food studies of fish

2.3.1. Collection of Fish
The best collection method is the use of gears that produced unbiased samples. This
makes the use of a combination of gears most appropriate. Collection is best around the
feeding period of fish, firstly to remove the bias posed by differential digestion of materials
and further, to avoid catching fish with mainly empty stomachs. Any method of collection
used should be consistent at all times.
Sampling for fish should include all sizes, ages and sexes of the particular species. The
date, time of collection, location of capture and method of collection should also be
recorded.
 Preservation of fish
The preservation of sample must begin immediately after capture and must be consistent.
Thus, 4-10% formalin or deep freezing can be used to maintain some degree of good
condition and
moistness of food in the stomach. This prevents decay and breakdown of food organisms.
If samples are to be deep-frozen, they should be transported in ice chest to the laboratory
(if facilities are not available for freezing immediately after capture). Preservation in
formalin can commence immediately after capture in the field

40
  Preparation of Fish
This involves dissection of the fish and then the stomach or/and in some cases the
intestine after measuring the length and weight of the fish. The sample should be mopped
dry with filter paper or clean towel (after thawing for frozen samples) before weighing.
Irrespective of the part chosen (stomach or intestine), what is expected to be analyzed is
last meal of the fish.

 Examination of Stomach/ Intestine content

The condition of the stomach should be determined visually before dissection and
categorized as follows:
0/4 - empty stomach
¼ - one quarter full stomach
2/4 – half full stomach
¾ - three quarter full stomach
4/4 – full stomach
This will shed light on the commencement of feeding and feeding period of the fish. The
condition of the stomach also provides information on whether the fishes are feeding
properly or not. The content of stomach is emptied into a petri dish and examined. A few
drops of water may be added into the dish to allow for proper separation of the items so
that they can be identified. Depending on the method of analysis to be employed, the
number, weight and /or volume of items are taken.

2.3.2. Objectives of food studies

The major objectives of food studies in fisheries include the following:
-Food studies reveal the status of the foraging fish species e.g. predator (piscivorous and
nonpiscivorous), plankton feeder, herbivore, omnivore and detritivore. These are
essential when assessing food and feeding inter-relationship to provide ideas of the
niches of the various species within the ecosystem.

-Food studies can be used to determine the rate of growth of fish since growth represents
the food converted.
-The types and magnitude of food available can give information on seasonal life history
changes in fishes.
-Information from food studies can be used during species selection in fish culture. This
is particularly useful in polyculture because proper selection of fishes with different
feeding habits will prevent or significantly reduce competition during culture.
-Data on the food items and their selectivity by fish are important in the selection of
suitable food organisms for the culture of live foods. Live foods are known to be useful to
fish especially during the early stages of development (fry/fingerlings) when the
alimentary canal is not fully equipped to digest artificial or formulated feeds.
-Food studies provide information on possible pollution when such species which
constitute fish

41
food are indicators of pollution e.g. the euglenoids, Euglena and Phacus; the blue green
alga, Cladophora and diatoms, Synedra, Tabellaria, and Gomphonema. All these are
known to thrive in polluted water. In addition, macroinvertebrates which thrive in polluted
water (hence indicating pollution) but form the food of many fishes includes, the annelid
worm, Tubifex, chironomid and chaoborid insect larvae, Chironomus and Chaoborus.

Information on the biochemical composition and the energy levels of the ingested food
and its absorption in the alimentary canal provides base-line data useful in artificial feed
formulation for fishes during their culture. Such information can save the farmer a lot of
money during feed formulation. Generally, the cost of producing adequate feed for
predators is higher because they require a lot of protein in their while the feed of
herbivores is cheaper since they require less protein.

Analysis of food/stomach contents

Food of fishes could be analyzed using the following methods:

1. Numerical method
2. Frequency of occurrence method
3. Volumetric method
4. Gravimetric method
5. Point method
6. Dominance method

 Numerical Method

This method involves counting the number of each food item present in the stomach of a
fish and summing up this number to obtain the grand total number of all food items found
in its stomach.
The number of each food item is then expressed as a percentage of the grand total
number of all food items. It is usually expressed as: Percentage number of a food item

= Total number of the particular food item x 100

Total number of all food items
This method expresses the numerical importance of different food items. It gives the
relative importance of each food items. A major demerit with this method is that, often, it
overemphasizes the importance of small-sized organisms since such organisms
occurring in large numbers may not necessarily constitute the most important food items.
For example, a hundred copepods may not necessarily give a predator enough
satisfaction as a single prey fish or shrimp. Another demerit of this method is that, often,
it may be difficult and cumbersome to count the number of small-sized organisms that
occur in large numbers. A good example is counting the number of cells of phytoplankton,
particularly, colonial and filamentous algae which form a significant part of the food of
plankton feeder like tilapias. It also does not give the frequency with which the food items

42
are consumed. There may also be the problem of counting broken organisms or parts of
organisms.

 Frequency of Occurrence Method

This involves counting the number of times a particular food item occurs in the stomach
and expressing this as a percentage of the total number of stomachs with food (empty
stomach excluded). This is usually expressed as: Percentage occurrence of a food item

= Total number of stomachs with the particular food item x 100

Total number of stomachs with food

This method presents the food spectrum of the species. Hence, the importance of the
food items relative to the population of the species could probably be guessed. This
method is, however, biased due to accumulation of digestion-resistant materials. This
makes the apparent frequency with which they occur seemingly more than the actual
frequency. Besides, it does not show the number of the different food items and does not
give the bulk of the food items.

 Volumetric Method

This method involves measurement of the quantity of food. In this case, the volumes of
the different food items are measured by water displacement, using graduated cylinder
or convenient apparatus. The volume of each food item is then expressed as a
percentage of the total volumes of all the food items in the stomach as follows: Percentage
volume of a food item
= Volume of the particular food item x 100
Total volume of all food items

This method shows the bulk of the different food items. Thus, it removes the wrong
impression created by less important but numerically abundant food items. In this method,
however, large voluminous food items tend to overshadow small-sized food items and
their importance may be over-emphasized. Furthermore, materials resistant to digestion
(e.g. chitin, cellulose) may accumulate from series of feeding and may influence the
results. Errors could also be accrued from differential rates of digestion of food items.
 Gravimetric Method
This method is similar to volumetric method, but, the weights of food items are measured
instead of volume. It is expressed as:

Percentage weight of a food item= Weight of the particular food item x 100
Total weight of all food items

This method has the same merits and demerits as those for the volumetric method

 Point Method

43
This method involves scoring points to different food items depending on their numbers
and sizes; one large organism being equivalent to many small organisms. All the points
accumulated by each food item are summed-up and expressed as a percentage of the
total number of points accumulated by all the food items as follows: Percentage point of
a food item
= Number of points of the particular food item x 100
Total number of points of all food items

This method has been described as an approximate volumetric method. Others described
it as numerical-volumetric hybrid applied subjectively because it is a compromise between
numerical and volumetric methods. It is useful for on-the-spot analysis of food items
especially in the field. It is a fast and easy method. This method is, however, subjective
thereby introducing bias. Different workers may score different point to a particular food
items; even an individual may be biased in allotting points. Due to its subjective nature, it
is impossible to statistically analyze data from this method. Furthermore, it is impossible
to compare data from different workers using this method even for the same species and
from the same habitat.

 Dominance Method

This method involves counting the number of stomachs in which each food item occurs
as the dominant food. This is then expressed as a percentage of the number of fish with
food in their stomach as follows: Percentage dominance of a food item

= Number of stomachs that the particular food item is dominant x 100

Total number of stomachs with food
The merits and demerits of this method are similar to those of frequency of occurrence
method. In summary, no matter the method applied, usually when large numbers of
samples are examined, the results using different methods come out similar. However, it
is advisable to apply a combination of at least two, but preferably three methods for
accuracy, putting emphasis on number, occurrence and bulk of food.

2.4. Conclusion
Accordingly, food studies have been categorized into that which discerns dietary
composition, competition, feeding rhythm and periodicity and that which attempt to
estimate the total amount of food consumed by a population. The latter is simply
described as quantitative aspects of feeding. Most studies have emphasized more of
qualitative rather than quantitative. Hence, the more common has always been what the
fish has eaten and approximately in what proportion rather than show how much each
species has eaten. Quantitative studies in food consumed are time consuming, and this
is likely responsible for fewer quantitative studies on food and feeding habits of fishes.

3.0. FOOD ORGANISMS AND FEEDING HABITS OF FISH

44
3.1. Introduction
The richness and variety of various aquatic habitats provide a wide range of possible food
organisms for fishes. These originate either from within the aquatic ecosystem itself
(authochthonous food sources) or from outside (allochthonous food sources).
3.2. Food organisms of fish
3.2.1. Classification of food items of fish
Based on their origin, fish food can have the following subdivisions:
A. Autochthonous food: These are food found within the aquatic community. They
include the following groups:
1. Plankton community: Planktons are floating micro-organisms of both plants
(phytoplankton) and animals (zooplankton) which do not exhibit any significant
movement of their own and so they are carried by water movement. Phytoplankton
includes blue-green algae, green algae, diatoms, eugleniods and dinoflagellates.
Zooplankton include, some protozoans, crustaceans such as copepods,
cladocerans, ostracods, larval decapods, rotifers, molluscs larvae, fish larvae and
eggs.
2. Benthic community: This is made up of organisms associated with the substratum,
including various benthos, such as some protozoan, decapods crustaceans,
mollusks, annelids, aquatic insect larvae, aquatic arachnids, echinoderms etc. as
well as decomposing organic (plant and animal) remains.
3. Plant community: This is made up of higher plants mainly aquatic weeds including
submerged, floating or emergent vegetation.
4. Neuston community: This includes surface living insects and larvae at air/water
interface.
5. Fish community: This includes small –sized fishes, particularly juveniles, as well
as fish larvae and eggs.
6. Other vertebrates: These are mainly amphibians particularly their eggs and larvae.

B. Allochthonous food
These are food from outside the aquatic habitat consisting of terrestrial organisms which
include the following:
1. Higher plant: These are largely leaves, roots, flowers, fruits, seeds and branches
of terrestrial plants growing near the water. Most of these parts drop into the water,
and the fishes feed on them.
2. Animals: These are mainly terrestrial insects, arachnids, worms etc. washed into
the water from land.

45
Fishes make use of the available fauna and flora in their habitat as food. Based on the
quantity of the various food items consumed and the frequency with which they are
consumed, food items of fishes can be classified into the following groups:
1. Main/Major or Basic food: This is the food which the particular fish usually consume.
It comprises the main part of the stomach content. For instance, phytoplankton and
detritus are the major food items of adults’ tilapia while that of the African pike
Hepsetusodoe is fish.
2. Secondary or Supplementary food: This food is frequently found in the stomach of
the particular fish but in relatively smaller amount. This fish uses this food to
augment its main food. Zooplanktons are supplementary food of adult tilapia.
3. Incidental food: This is the food that the fish rarely eats.
4. Obligatory food: This is the food which the fish consumes in the absence of its
basic food

3.3. Feeding Habits of Fish

According to their food and mode of feeding, fishes can be broadly classified as
planktivores (plankton feeders), herbivores, predators, omnivores and detritivores.
1. Planktivores or Plankton feeders
These are fishes that feed mainly on plankton. There are two groups of planktivores:
those that feed on phytoplankton are mostly are phytophagous and in the inland waters,
this group is dominated mostly by tilapias. Such tilapias include Oreochromis niloticus,
Sarotherodon galilaeus and Sarotherodon melanotheron. Other phytophagous species
include mullets (Mugil and Liza species) and upside-down catfish (Synodontis species).
The other group of planktivores are those that feed mainly on zooplankton and they
include the glass catfish (Parailia (= Phsailia) pellcida} and silver catfish (Chrysichthys
filamentosus). The sardines (Ethmalosailisha and Pellonula species) and sardinellas
species0 as well as the silversides (Aletes and Brycinus spp.) have a mixed diet of both
phyto- and zooplankton.
2. Herbivores: These are the fishes that feed predominantly on higher plant materials
including vegetable matter. Herbivore includes tilapia like T. zilli and T. mariae.
Another group of herbivores is composed of the grass eaters (Distichodus spp.).
The upside-down catfishes are also herbivore.
3. Predators: There are two groups of predators. Those that feed mainly on fish are
piscivores (such as barracuda, snake head, Atlantic tarpon) and those that feed
on mainly on animals other than fish (such as insects, crabs, shrimps/prawns,
worms, gastropods etc.) are nonpiscivores e.g. tongue sole, the silver catfish,
croakers. Some predators have mixed diets. The African Lady fish, Elopslacerta
feeds mostly on fish and prawn in the brackish water and on fish and insects in the

46
 fresh water environment. Only few predatory species have bottom deposits in their
diets and this is found among non-piscivorous predator.
4. Omnivores: These are species that feed mainly on both plant and animal materials.
The mud catfish (clarias) are mainly omnivores with diets ranging from algae,
vegetable matter, crustaceans, insects, mollusks and fish.
5. Detritivores: These are fishes that feed mainly on detritus or organic debris. Often
detritivory is an overlap with other feeding habits. For instance, all tilapias and
mullets include detritus in their diet, indicative of benthic feeding habits, and are
thus also detritivores. So also are the snout fishes, the grass eaters, moon fish
(citharinus spp), African carb (Labeo and Barbus).
In general, the great diversity of food items encountered in the different species is an
indicative of the fact that fish of fishes differ with species and also with different habitats.
Wherein fishes are purely predatory in one habitat, such species have been known to
include plant materials in their diets in another habitat. This justifies the assertion that
when a fish is feeding, it is the most available food item that it mostly feeds on.
3.3.1. Factor Influencing Food and Feeding Habits of Fishes
Size: Different sizes of some fishes have different food habits. This could be as a result
of competition or preference. For example, the fry of Heterotis niloticus are
planktophagous while their adults are omnivorous. Most juveniles tilapias are omnivorous,
while their adults are herbivorous/detritus feeders. Fingerlings of mud catfish,
Heterobranchus bidorsalis are plankton feeders and they switch to a predatory feeding
mainly on fish and prawn as they grow into adults
Sex: Food habits also vary with sex. Spawning female fish may change depth or location
in water. This affects the food available to the fish. Some females even go without food
during spawning. 3. Season: Seasonal distribution and abundance of preys and plankton
also control the rate at which they are consumed as food. It is generally known that fishes
make use of the most available items depending on season.
Temperature: Temperature regulates the spatial distribution of most of various fish
species as well as most food items. This affects the food habits of the fishes. Fishes
generally eat more and digest food faster at higher water temperatures. However, each
species has its own suitable temperature range.
Habitats/Locality: Food habits of fishes differ with habitats and locality. The occurrence
and abundance of different food items in different habitats affects the food habits of fishes
therein. For instance, the major fish preys of African pike in Lekki lagoon, Lagos, Upper
Ogun River and Ado-Ekiti Reservoir, Ekiti are tilapias and cyprinids (Barbus) while in
River Sokoto and Epe Lagoon, Lagos, the major preys are sardines (Pellonula),
silversides (Aletes and Brycinus) and juvenile African Lady fish (Elops)

47
Competition: Food habits of fishes could also be influenced by competitor species. Food
habits may change to avoid or minimize competition, and this diversification makes for a
fair sharing of the available food items. Overlaps if feeding habits of some species in the
same habitat is an attempt to reduce competition for food. There is often an overlap
between planktophagous or herbivorous and deposit feed amongst many tilapias in
habitats where they are found.
Preference/Selectivity: Preference for a particular food over the other (i.e. selectivity)
also influences food habits. Although, different food items occur abundantly at a particular
time, some fishes show preference in their selection of particular food items. For instance,
tilapias actively select phytoplankton as food, while zooplanktons are passively selected.
Time of Day: The food of fish could differ with time of day; this is mainly linked to the time
the food is available and when fish is feeding. Feeding could be in the day or at night. For
many species, peak period of feeding corresponds to peak period of availability of their
food. Peak period of feeding of the tilapias. Oreochromis and Sarotherodon inhabiting
Awba Reservoir in Ibadan, is from 1300-1500hrs. This is likely due to high primary
productivity during this period; hence increase in abundance of phytoplankton, a major
food of these species.
Shape and Nature of the Feeding Apparatus/Gut: The shape of the mouth, teeth,
stomach and intestines the food and feeding habits of the fishes to a large extent. For
example, predatory fishes e.g. Nile perch (Latesniloticus) African pike (Hepsetusodoe)
and barracuda (Spyraena) have large protusible mouth armed with powerful teeth to
capture or seize large prey such as fish which form the bulk of their food. Their stomachs
are larger and their intestines short. Herbivorous and phytophagous fishes, such as
tilapias lack powerful teeth. Their teeth are small and they are arranged in many rows on
the upper and lower pharyngeal bones, to form grinding surfaces used to crush the hard
wall of their plant food. Their intestines are long typical of herbivorous species. Other
phytophagous species like mullets (Mugil and Liza sp.) have their stomach modified to
form a gizzard used to crush the food. Similarly, benthophagous/omnivorous species like
the African bony-tongue, Heterotis niloticus has a gizzard stomach for crushing the shells
and exoskeletons of bivalves, snails and insects as well as the walls of higher plant
materials, which constitute significant parts of its food.
3.4. Conclusion
Like all organisms, fishes require an energy source to fuel their body machinery and
processes, including growth, metabolism, and reproduction. Different fishes have evolved
feeding structure and mechanisms that allow them to exploit a vast array of plant and
animal food sources, ranging from the indiscriminate filtering of a large ram-feeding
planktivore to the precision biting of a manipulating carnivore. Similarly, fish guts
incorporate numerous adaptations for the efficient breakdown and absorption of essential
nutrients, including appropriate enzymes and absorptive surface areas. Finally,

48
nitrogenous wastes must be excreted, principally as ammonia (or urea in strongly alkaline
environments).
3.5. Summary
A complete study on the food and feeding habits of a fish species would not only
investigate the dietary composition, their quantity and selectivity but would also involve
an examination of the functional morphology and physiology of the alimentary system as
well as the fauna and flora of the environment, particularly, those that are food for fish to
reveal their interrelationship with each other and the fish species Fish Food, based on
their origin, could be authochthonous and allochthonous; and the feeding habits of fish
could be planktivorous, herbivorous, predatory, omnivore and detrivores. Size, sex,
season, temperature, habitat/locality, competition. Preference/selectivity time of the day
and the shape/nature of feeding apparatus/gut are some of the factors influencing food
and feeding habits of fishes.
4.0. Age and growth
4.1. Age
Age or relative age of the fish, by length, weight, numbers, etc, is used to determine the
time scale over which the various processes have taken place. The determination of age
is therefore a central prerequisite for further computations in analytical stock assessment
models.
There are three approaches or methods for ageing fish, each with its particular
advantages and disadvantages:
• Direct observations of individual fish, either held in confinement or from
marking/recapture experiments.
• Ageing of individual fish based on annual patterns in hard structures e.g.
otoliths, scales, bones etc.
• Identification of cohorts based on length frequency distributions from one or
several samples representing a wide range of the population.

The first method is by far the oldest, initially described by fish culturists more than 250
years ago (Bagenal 1978). The inherent problem of this approach is the problematic
extrapolation from observed values to the true population values. Cultivated or tagged
fish seldom have the same growth rate as their wild or untagged relatives.
The second approach is now the preferred and most widely used method. It is based on
the observation that temporal variations in the growth rate of the fish are reflected in the
deposition of material in the hard parts. This leads to alternating bands or growth zones
of varying transparency. In temperate waters, where the growth rates are closely
correlated with the change of seasons, these bands correspond to annuli, i.e. one may
49
count the zones, and because a set of zones is formed each year, one obtains an estimate
of absolute age. Annual growth cycles are seldom as pronounced in subtropical and
tropical waters, but the formation of zones may depend on other stimuli such as
monsoons, river outlets, food supply, stock density, spawning, etc. These zones are often
unclear, a problem that makes the method inapplicable in most cases. The discovery by
Pannella (1971) of minute growth zones in many species, including tropical, with a
frequency of about 360 per year, has now led to a method with which these zones are
counted and regarded as daily growth zones. The application seems very promising, but
requires a good microscope and remains very labour demanding.
The third approach is based on an analysis of modes (peaks) in a length frequency
distribution. Most species seem to be spawning regularly and during a relatively short
period of time. If the progeny exhibit a roughly uniform growth rate, it is assumed that
each mode in a length distribution represents a separate cohort. The method requires
lengths of a large number and size range of fish from the population and little overlap in
the sizes of fish from adjacent age groups. This last requirement is usually only met in the
younger part of the population because the growth rates decrease with age, so the modes
(cohorts) tend to merge.
Definition and designation of age:
Note the important distinction between 'age group or cohort' and 'year-class':
• Age group or cohort refers to the actual age in years and contains fish of
the same age, regardless of the year in which they were born.
• year-class refers to the group of fish produced in a particular year. (E.g.
1981- year-lass, 1982- year-class...). Hence, two fishes belonging to the same age
group also belong to the same year-class. As they grow older, they will belong to
progressively older age groups, but remain in the same year-class.
A consistent system is needed for designation of age, regardless of the method used for
age determination. Unfortunately, there is not yet complete agreement on such a system
and its terminology.
By common usage, the fish are designated by reference to annual marks:
• A fish in its first growing season belongs to age-group 0
• A fish in its second growing season belongs to age-group 1 or simply age 1
and so on
4.2. Growth
Growth in its broadest sense, i.e. a change in biomass due to both change in numbers
from recruitment and mortality and increment in weight.

50
The growth of a population or an individual is often represented by mathematical models
describing the average change per unit of time. Well known examples are the logistic
equation for population growth in numbers and the Von Bertalanffy Growth Function
(VBGF) (Bertalanffy 1938) for individual growth in length or weight.
Once validated age determinations have been achieved, the study of growth appears
superficially to be simple, but in practice there are numerous difficulties. First, it must
again be evaluated if the sampling yields representative results, taking into consideration
that:
• Many fish stocks congregate in schools that are determined by sizes more
than ages.
• Fishing- and natural mortality is often size selective so that the true average
population growth rate might differ from the sampled individuals.
There are two types of growth to be considered:
1. Population growth in numbers or weight
2. Individual growth in length or weight
Population growth depends on the combination of natality (birth rate), mortality rate and
immigrations/emigrations, and when weight is considered, also on the sum of individual
growth increments.
Individual growth is within wide limits determined genetically, but is influenced by several
factors:
• Food availability (quality/quantity)
• Temperature (fish are poikilotherms)
• Variable allocation of surplus energy (somatic or gonadal tissue growth
and/or for locomotion and maintenance)
• Sexual differences
• Density and size distribution (hierarchical behaviour and/or competition)
The determination of growth of a single fish is therefore of little use. What is needed is
some measure of mean size at age and a method of modelling or estimating the average
growth rate of a species or particular stock. This is based on the assumption that although
individual growth differs, there are reasonably confined limits to the range of growth rates
at age in a particular habitat. Also, fish are generally considered to grow indefinitely (i.e.
growth never ceases completely), but with continuously decreasing rates with age.
Therefore, what is required, is a large and representative material in both numbers and
age range to carry out growth calculations.

51
4.3. Approaches to growth estimation
These can be divided into nearly the same categories as age determinations:
• Direct observations from experiments of either confined or
tagged/recaptured fish. Unless one is specifically dealing with cultured stocks, the
first approach is questionable. The estimates are of doubtful value when
extrapolating to wild stocks because of the difficulties in simulating natural
conditions. The second approach must be evaluated with extreme care to insure
that the actual marking method is not affecting health, behaviour or mobility. Only
few of actual marking methods cause little or no retardation of growth.
• Length-at-age data. With precise and valid age determination and a large
unbiased random sample, this is the most satisfactory method.
• Back calculations from analysis of hard parts, using the ratios between the
lengths of fish and the spacing between the growth zones of the otoliths, scales
etc. This approach is often used. It requires certain assumptions about constant
iso- or allometric growth to be fulfilled.
• Estimating average length at arbitrary age from length frequency analysis
(statistical) with known or assumed periodicity. This is often the only alternative
when dealing with tropical or other stocks not exhibiting a regular zone pattern in
their hard parts. It is, of course, subject to the same assumptions underlying the
applied length frequency analysis.
Some methods give growth of individual fish (which can be averaged), and other methods
provide average growth of populations. Both are valid estimates but of different things.
This should be realised and related to the objectives of the growth study when deciding
on a method.
4.4. Growth parameters
There are several different definitions of growth expressed as rates. The simplest
assumes a linear growth rate within the time interval of concern [t1, t2]. These include the
following expressions:
Absolute growth rate: Change in weight/length per time unit, usually per year.
g (t) = W2 – W1 = ∆W (1)
t2 – t1 ∆t

Relative growth rate: Change in weight/length per time unit relative to start value in
percent.
g (t) = W2 – W1 (2)
t2 – t1 . 100
W1

52
Instantaneous growth rate: When the time interval becomes infinitely small, i.e. a
differential equation.

∆W = dW = when t → 0 (3)
∆t dt

When studying growth over shorter time intervals (less than one year), and when studying
juveniles, one usually finds that the growth rate is exponential and can be expressed as
an instantaneous rate as follows

G = ln(W2) – ln(W1) (4)

t2 – t1

When this rate is multiplied by 100, it is called the specific growth rate and it is given in
%. Eq. (4) can be transformed into an exponential growth model.
W2 = W1 . eG(t2 - t1) (5)

4.5. Summary
Age is defined as duration of existence measured in seconds, minutes, hours or years.
Age data in conjunction with length and weight measurement can give information on
stock composition, length at maturity, life span, mortality rate. The knowledge of age and
length provides growth pattern in a given population. Age in fish species is usually
determined by interpretation and counting of growth checks or growth zones which
appear on the hard parts of the fish. When such zones or checks are formed once a year
they are known by various names-year marks, annual rings, annual marks, annuli
(annulus-singular). These growth zones/checks are formed during alternative period of
fast and slow growth or period of no growth at all. Such growth zones reflect changes in
environmental and internal factors.
5.0. Fecundity and Reproduction
5.1. Introduction
The knowledge of fish fecundity is needed in establishing its production potential and
consequently its exploitation and management rationale. It is imperative to understand
and appreciate the diverse shades of meaning of this term. Fecundity, derived from the
word ‘fecund’ generally refers to the ability to reproduce. In demography, fecundity is the
potential reproductive capacity of an individual or population. In biology the definition is
more equivalent to fertility or the actual reproductive rate of an organism or population,

53
measured by the number of gametes(eggs), seed set or asexual propagules. This
difference is due to the fact that demography considers human fecundity which is often
intentionally limited, while biology assumes that organisms do not limit fertility. Fecundity
is under both genetic and environmental control, and is the major measure of fitness.
Fecundity can be defined as ‘the number of ova that are likely to be laid by a fish during
the spawning season’. The number of eggs produced by a fish differs in different species,
and depends on the size and age of the fish. It may also differ in different races of the
same species. Thus, fecundity is a measure of the reproductive capacity of a female fish,
and is an adaptation to various conditions of the environment. Fecundation is another
term for fertilization. Super fecundity refers to an organism's ability to store another
organism's sperm (after copulation) and fertilize its own eggs from that store after a period
of time, essentially making it appear as though fertilization occurred without sperm (i.e.
parthenogenesis). It can be estimated by any of the following methods:
a. In the volumetric method, the total volume of the ovary is measured. Small pieces
of the ovary are taken in random samples from the anterior middle and posterior
parts of the ovary, and the number of ova in each sample is counted along with the
volume of the sample. The total number of ova in the total volume of the ovary is
then calculated.
b. In the gravimetric method, the formalin preserved ovaries are used. After
determining the weight of the ovary, three small samples of 100 mg each are taken
at random from the anterior middle and posterior part. The number of ova in each
sample is counted under a binocular microscope. Total number of ova are then
calculated as below:

Here, F = Fecundity
S = Average number of ova obtained from three samples of 100 mg each
OW = Total weight of the ovary
5.2. Sexual Dimorphism, Courtship and Parental Care
Some species of fishes exhibit well marked sexual dimorphism. In the Chondrichthyes,
the eggs are fertilized within the body of the female and the males are provided with
claspers or myxopterygia for transferring the sperms into the body of the female. Among
teleosts, an intromittent copulatory organ is present only in those species like Mystus
seenghala in which a conical genital papilla is present and fertilization is external.

54
In several species of fishes, the sexual differences are not related with copulation
between male and female, and are generally well marked during spawning season. In
most of the teleosts, the females are larger in size with enlarged rounded belly during the
breeding season. A common secondary sexual character is the brighter colour of the body
and fins in the male as in Cyprinodontidae, Cichilidae, Labyrinthidae and Labridae. In a
number of Cyprinids, the male becomes more brighter in colour during the breeding
season. The male Bow-fin (Amia) has a characteristic black spot at the base of the caudal
fin. Some species show differences in the shape of their fins and the rays may be
prolonged to from long feelers in the male. In some cat fishes of the family Loricaridae,
the sexes differ in the shape of their snout, mouth, lips and in the development of bristles
on their head.

Female broodstock (left) and male broodstock (right) of African catfish

5.2.1. Courtship
The courtship of the female by the male consists in swimming merry go round fashion in
her vicinity during which the male exhibits his brilliant colours, this is beautifully exhibited
by some species as the Siamese much excited during the breeding season, that they fight
with other males inflicting considerable damage to one another. The males of certain
Gobies also fight with each other and the victorious one shows its bright colours to the
female.

55
5.2.2. Parental care
Many fishes do not care for their eggs and leave the spawning grounds after fertilization.
But some species have evolved various methods to ensure proper development of the
eggs which may be protected by one or both the sexes. Some fishes prepare crude nests
for egg lying. At first a suitable place for preparing the nest is selected and some species
defend the place till death. Males of many species like the Darters (Etheostoma) sun
fishes and the Cichilids, prepare a shallow basin-like nest and all stones and pebbles are
carefully removed from its bottom. The eggs are laid in the nest and the male after
fertilizing them keeps guard over them till the young ones are hatched. A few species,
however, leave the nests unprotected. Some fresh water fishes prepare a nest by clearing
space among aquatic vegetation. The African lung fish (Protopterus) prepares a simple
nest in the form of deep hole in swampy places along the river banks. The male prepares
the nest and after spawning keeps guard over it, occasionally aerating the water by his
slow body movements. The South American lung fish Lepidosiren, also prepares a nest
in the form of a burrow in swampy places and the male develops highly vascularised
filaments on the pelvic fins, which probably serve to secrete oxygen into the surrounding
water. The male Bowfin (Amia) prepares a crude circular nest among aquatic vegetation.
The fertilized eggs are then protected by the male who keeps guard over the nest till, the
young ones are hatched. The young ones are allowed to leave the nest in a body under
the protection of the father. Both the male and the female of some cat fishes of North
America (Amiuridae) prepare a crude nest in the mud for egg lying. The nest is sometimes
provided with a protective cover of logs, stones etc.
The male Gasterosteus aculeatus, prepares an elaborate nest before courtship is begun.
He selects a suitable place among the aquatic plants where water flows regularly but not
swiftly. He then collects plant material which is pressed into a clear area of the nest. A
sticky substance is produced by the kidneys of the male and serves to join the plant pieces
together. When sufficient amount of the plant material is collected, the male burrows
through its centre, thus making a small tunnel, through which he brings a ripe female for
egg lying. After the eggs have been fertilized, the female leaves the eggs and the male
keeps guard over it. In the early stages of the development, the male ‘fans’ the developing
embryos by sending a current water through the nest. Later, the male stops the fanning
activities and keeps close watch over the brood, not allowing any young one to go astray.
Many of the Labyrinth fishes prepare a nest by blowing bubbles of air and sticky mucus.
These adhere forming a floating mass of foam on the surface of water. The male fighting
fish, Betta, also prepare a nest in the same way. The fertilized eggs are collected by the
male in his mouth who gives them a coating of mucus and sticks them to the lower surface
of the foamy nest. The nest is then protected by the male. The male paradise
fish Macropodus, also prepare a similar foamy nest but in this species the eggs are lighter
than water, and rise to the nest without the active participation of the father.

56
The European Bitterling, Rhodeus, takes extra care for the protection of eggs. When the
female is ready to spawn, the oviduct extends out to form a long tube acting as an
ovipositor which is used to deposit the eggs within the valves of the fresh water mussel.
The male fertilizes the eggs as they are laid. After hatching, the fry leave the host and
thus remain well protected from the enemies. In some species, eggs develop within the
mouth of the parents. In many Cichilids, the female carries the eggs in her mouth. After
hatching also, the young fry do not leave the shelter for some time and swim about in
water very near the mouth, so that they can return to it in case of danger. In the cat
fish, Aureus, the male carries the eggs and young one in his mouth, who does not take
food during this period.
5.3. Reproductive Strategies
1. Live bearing (viviparous), elasmobranchs, sebastes; they usually have low fecundity;
high age at first reproduction; long lived; internal fertilization
2. Egg broadcast or tending (oviparous), most marine teleosts; high fecundity (related to
body length); variable age at first spawning
3. Batch (multiples in sequence) or single (all at once) spawners
4. Determinate: ‘known’ number of eggs prior to spawning; indeterminate: insufficient
differentiation of oocytes to allocate to specific spawning season
5. Spawn once and die (semelparous or monocyclic)
6. Spawn multiple times (iteroparous or polycyclic) most species, accommodate
environmental variability

5.4. Conclusion
One of the most fascinating ideas to become established in recent decades is the concept
that fish (and other organisms) have a life-history strategy, in which trait related to
development and reproduction play a central role. The life –history strategy of a species
is a complex of evolved traits related to the allocation of energy; it defines a species,
along with morphology, physiology and behaviour. Life cycle of a species is fine-tuned to
the environment. For example, among pelagic piscivores of the oceans, shark use a low-
fecundity strategy of viviparity, tunas use a high-fecundity strategy of oviparity, and
salmon use a strategy involving moderate fecundity and some parental care. The
evolutionary diversity of fishes has meant the development of unusual life-history
strategies involving such things as multiple sexes, sex change and hermaphrodatism.
Fecundity is important and well-studied in the field of population ecology. Fecundity can
increase or decrease in a population according to current conditions and certain
regulating factors. For instance, in times of hardship for a population such as a lack of
food, juvenile and eventually adult fecundity has been shown to decrease. In addition to
sex-ratio and proportion of mature individuals, fecundity is one of the most important
determinants of a stock’s reproductive potential. A number of methods have been
described that could be used to estimate fecundity for a variety of fishes. However, no
universal method could be recommended, Potential fecundity could be a biases method

57
of estimating realized fecundity, if oocyte are continuously recruited into the pool of
developing oocytes or if the number of this is reduced by atresia
5.5. Summary
Fecundity has been used in relation to the reproductive strategy of the fish and oocyte
recruitment or stages. The advantages of high fecundity cannot be overemphasized since
the survival and continued existence of the species depend on numbers of eggs hatched.
High fecundity is also a desirable quality in aquaculture as it ensures regular (when
reproduction can be obtained all-year round) and adequate supply of fingerlings for
stocking culture enclosures. Knowledge of the fecundity of a fish is necessary in
establishing its production potential and consequently, its sexploitation and management
rationale.). Different methods exist to determine fecundity but their use will depend on the
species under investigation, resources and laboratory facilities available. Traditionally,
potential fecundity is determined by a gravimetric or volumetric method. Although these
methods are simple, inexpensive and give reliable results, the work is time-consuming
and tedious. Fecundity is strongly influenced by biological factors such as female size,
trade-off between egg size and egg number, reproductive strategy and spawning pattern
of the species. Numerous studies have showed the relations between fecundity and many
environmental factors such as food abundance/ availability/ consumption, temperature,
fish density, and biomass index.
6.0. Capture and Culture fisheries
Nigeria occupies between 4016’ – 13052’N and longitude 2049 – 14037’E and a coastline
of approximately 850km bordering the Gulf of Guinea in the Atlantic Ocean. Consequently,
Nigeria is a maritime state with the establishment of the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)
of 200 nautical miles in 1978. The major geomorphologic features of the Nigeria
continental shelf include the Avon, Mahin and Calabar Canyons. Other geomorphic
features are sand banks in the inner continental shelf especially off river mouths and the
deep seated of Romanche, Chain and Charcot fracture zones which originate in the mid-
Atlantic ridge. There is numerous inland water bodies in Nigeria estimated at about 12
million hectares which are fairly rich in fresh water fishes. The marine waters are however
not too rich in fin fish resources, but are found to be rich in shrimp and tuna resources.
Shrimp and prawns are two distinctly different animals.
Both shrimp and prawns are Decapod crustaceans, meaning they both have ten legs and
possess external skeletons. However, that’s where their classification similarities end.
Shrimp belong to the sub-order Pleocyemata, while prawns belong to the sub-order
Dendrobranchiata.
Shrimp and prawns have different anatomies.
Prawns have branching gills, claws on three pairs of their legs and second pincers that
are larger than their front ones. Additionally, prawns lack the distinct bend in their bodies
58
that is seen with shrimp and each of their body segments overlaps the one behind it in
succession.
Shrimp, on the other hand, have lamellar (or plate-like) gills, and claws on two pairs of
their legs. Their front pincers are typically their largest. Additionally, shrimp have a distinct
bend in their bodies and their second segments overlap the first and third segments.
Shrimp and prawns are different sizes.
Shrimp are smaller than prawns in most cases.
Shrimp and prawns live in different types of water.
According to the FAO, in terms of aquaculture and farming, shrimp are marine creatures,
while prawns live strictly in fresh water. These classifications apply specifically to the most
commonly farm-raised varieties, including the giant tiger prawn and the white leg shrimp.

59
There are two main sub-sectors that contribute to the Nigeria’s fish production. They are
capture fisheries and aquaculture (cultured fisheries).
6.1. Cultured Fisheries (Aquaculture)
What is Aquaculture?
Aquaculture is the rearing of aquatic organisms under controlled or semi
controlled conditions from hatchlings to matured size. Unlike fish that grow in the
wild water bodies, without human interference, in aquaculture, activities such as feeding,
fertilization, stocking, reproduction and harvesting are controlled. Aquaculture practices
are yet to find its full feet. It has only been contributing about 5% of domestic fish
production in Nigeria.
6.2. Basic Principles in Fish Farming
There are steps to be taken and considerations to be made before venturing into the
practice of aquaculture.
6.2.1. Type of culture systems
Culture system refers to the medium in which the fish will be raised. Culture systems can
be categorised into three major system groups: open, semi-closed and closed. Each has
its special characteristics, advantages and disadvantages. The choice of the system is
largely a function of the organisms to be grown and the resources and ideas of the
fish farmer.
i. Open Systems
These are the oldest of the aquaculture system. Open system farming is the use of the
natural environment as the fish farm. An open system does not require water to be
pumped out of a sea or a lake, rather, the fish to be cultured are kept in the sea or lake.
Examples of open system include dam beds, rafts and fish cages. Open systems are
often leased from government agencies. Capital expenses are generally low and there
is less management than in the other systems. However, predation and poaching
could be a problem. The farmer also has less control over the environmental
conditions, so the rate of growth and uniformity of the fish varies if compared to
other systems.
ii. Semi-closed Systems
Semi-closed system is the most popular method of culture for many types of organisms.
Water is taken from a lake, bay, well or other natural source and is directed into a
specially designed facility. Semi-closed system includes ponds, raceways, tanks etc.
It offers an advantage over open systems in that they allow greater control over the
growing conditions. A greater production per unit area is possible in addition to the
crop being more uniform. This is because temperature, water volume and amount

60
spent can be regulated. Prepared feeds can also be used with such less waste and
aeration can be increased simply. This system is more expensive to develop and
operate than open systems and it requires a more complex management scheme.
Earthen pond
The following should be taken into consideration when choosing an earthen pond or
concrete pond.
a) Site Selection
Proper selection of site is probably the most important factor in the success of a fish farm.
Site selection will depend on the kind of fish farm you plan to use. For pond construction,
you need to consider the following factors: soil type, quality and quantity of the
water available and the requirements for filling and drainage of the pond.
b) Pond Construction
The vast majority of freshwater fish are raised in ponds are usually located on land with
a gentle slope. They are rectangular, circular or square shaped, have well finished dikes
and bottom slopes. The pond should be drainable in case of harvesting of the fish. Side
slopes should be 2:1 or 3:1 which allow easy access will not encourage vegetation to
grow and helps to reduce erosion problems. Depending on the site, fish pond could be:
embankment ponds, excavated pond (diversion ponds) or Barrage ponds.
c) Liming
Liming of ponds after construction involves the addition of lime substances to pond bottom.
The dosage varies depending on the lime type and pond conditions. Liming increases
the pH of the pond. Lime not only kills harmful animals and plants but also
eliminates pathogenic bacteria. Liming also enhances the utilisation and release of
certain nutrients from the pond bottom. Some of the commonly used limes include quick
lime, slaked lime and agricultural lime.
d) Impoundment/Flooding
Impoundment/flooding is the introduction of water into pond prior to stocking. Water level
should reach about 1.5 in a pond. It is important that sufficient water is available to fill
all ponds within a reasonable period of time and to maintain the same pond level. This
water should be changed from time to time due to deterioration water quality parameters
such as dissolved oxygen, carbon dioxide, Nitrite, Nitrate, NH3, turbidity, total alkalinity,
and total hardness should be checked thorough before impounding.
e) Fertilisation
Fertilisation of pond is the addition of fertilisers in form of organic or inorganic into the
fertilisation is aimed at developing natural food organisms and saving artificial feeds.

61
Fertilisation supplies the phytoplankton with the materials essential for
photosynthesis. As the phytoplankton photosynthesise and reproduce, zooplankton,
feeds on them. Organic manures include animal faeces, urine of livestock poultry, green
manure, compost etc. Inorganic fertilizer is synthetic, comprised of minerals and synthetic
chemicals. The nutrients in chemical fertilizers have traditionally been expressed as
percent N, percent P2O5, percent K2O, but there is increasing reference to fertilization
rates in terms of N, P, and K. The traditional P2O5 and K2O values can be converted to
P and K by multiplication by 0.437 and 0.83, respectively. Application rate varies for each
of the manure type.
iii. Closed System
Closed system is that culture system in which little or no water is exchanged and
the water is subject to extensive treatment. These have made little impact on the
commercial aquaculture industry, although some laboratory reports are very
promising. Extremely high densities of fish can be raised under these conditions, if
they are managed properly – the farmer has complete control over growing
conditions. Weather conditions are never a problem and harvesting is simple. Food
and drugs can be added efficiently into the system. All these allow the fish to grow
quickly and uniformly. A problem associated with close system is the re-used water
and the great density of the culture fish. Hence, the filtration/treatment system must
be very good and the water must be pumped through these systems at a fairly high
speed. Disease outbreak could be a problem in a closed system. Examples of
closed system include Water Recirculatory System (WRS) or Aquaculture
Recirculatory System (ARS)

6.2.2. Selection of culture species.

a) Examples of aquatic organisms that can be cultured are:
Finfish: Tilapia, carp, trout, milkfish, bait minnow, yellow tail, mullet, catfish.
Shellfish: Shrimps, prawns, oysters, mussels,
Plants: Water chestnut (Trapa natans), seaweeds (Red algae, Brown algae,), duckweed

When selecting fish species suitable for farming, various biological and economic factors
are important.
Criteria for selection
1. Ability to accept artificial feed
2. Ability to breed in captivity
3. High growth rate
4. Should be marketable
5. Must be hardy
62
 6. Simple culture of the young fish (Larvae or Fingerlings).
Introduction of exotic species and implications.
Definition of exotic species: They are species that are not indigenous to the local
environment. Some examples of exotic species that were introduced into the Nigerian
culture environment are: The Chinese carp, Cyprinus carpio, mirror carp, koi carp, Indian
carps like Mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala), Catla catla and rohu (Labeo rohita).
Conditions under which exotic species can be introduced
1. Must be able to occupy a niche in the environment without upsetting the
environment.
2. It must be able to coexist favourably with other endemic species.
3. Must be able to reproduce in the new environment
4. Must be able to adapt to the physical and chemical parameters of the new
culture system.
5. Must not be a vector to any parasite
6. Must have been quarantined before introduction.

6.2.3. Stocking density

Stocking density also known as per-unit stocking amount or stocking rate, refers to the
quantity of fry or fingerlings per unit of water area. It is usually expressed as the
number of weight of fish per mu. In intensive fish-farming systems (such as industrialized
fish farming, fish farming in flowing water, or fish culture in a net cage), the stocking
density is expressed as the number or weight of fish per unit area (square metres)
or water volume (cubic metres) because of the high stocking density and high utilization
rate.
The stocking density must be reasonable because it is inversely proportional to the quality
of marketable fish under the same pond conditions and culturing measures. Excessive
stocking densities produce fish below marketable size; therefore, fish yields are not
improved. If the stocking density is too low, the per-unit area production is also low,
although the fish grow faster and reach larger sizes. A reasonable stocking density can
ensure the desirable size and quality of fish products.
Take note: An important thing you must predetermine before calculation begins is target
size at harvest as well as expected mortality rate — usually between 5-10 percent .
Generally, according to the recommendation of the research, a static pond system has
maximum stocking capacity of 1.8kg of fish per meter square.
Arithmetically, the calculation is simple: 2000 meter square of static pond water can
carry 3,600kg of catfish.

63
There is more to the above calculation because we still don’t know the number of fishes
to stock. Assuming your static pond water volume is 2000 meter square and you intend
to produce average size of 900 grams of catfish at end of culturing season with an
average mortality rate of 5 percent, and then calculation can be done thus:
2000 meter square of water volume multiplied by 1.8 divided by 900 gram plus 5 percent
expected mortality rate i.e.
(2000m2 x 1.8kg/900g) + 5% of (2000m2 x 1.8kg/900g) = (3600/0.9) + 5%
= 4000+ 5% of 4000,
= 4000+ 200 = 4200 juveniles
Note: The above calculation is recommended for a mono-culture system of catfish
farming and to maintain water quality, each fish should not be fed above 20 g.
Type of stocking: A farmer could either practice any farming method such as
monoculture or polyculture.
i. Monoculture
Monoculture is the production of the same type of fish species on some pond. In
monoculture, only one species of fish is raised in the pond. In monoculture, it is easier to
give certain supplementary feeds to the fish as there is only one fish species. However,
a single disease may kill all fish in the pond. Examples include Tilapia Pond.
ii. Polyculture
This refers to the production of more than on species of fish within an enclosure (pond/fish
tank) during a particular production cycle. The increased production with polyculture as
compared with monoculture is achieved by two effects: the better use of pond resources
and the synergy between the two species such as tilapia and catfish. In addition to better
use of pond resources in the pond, the feed given as supplement is also better used: the
Clarias, for example, mainly consume the fragments of rice husks, wheat bran and other
similar feed ingredients while the tilapias filter suspended and floating particles. By
consuming tadpoles, frogs and wild fish, the Clarias eliminates the tilapia’ competitors.
While on the other hand, the tilapias consume part of the floating vegetation of the pond.
6.2.4. Food supply and feeding
There are three basic feeding strategies
1. Extensive: using natural food
Natural food supply include: Plankton, made up of
I. Phytoplankton (floating microscopic, unicellular plants).
II. Zooplankton (floating, microscopic unicellular and multicellular animals)

64
 III. Others are: multicellular plants like floating and submerged plants and
multicellular animals like insect larvae, insects and crustaceans.
The supply of this natural food can be gotten from the wild and can be produced by
introducing fertilizer into the rearing pond and/tanks. This boosts the growth of the
unicellular green plants (green algae) upon which the endemic unicellular animals and
other phytophagous feeders feed. For the culture of a desired food organism, the culture
medium should be inoculated with the desired organism.
2. Semi-Intensive:
There are 2 types of food in the pond which the fish can eat to grow: Natural food is
usually supplemented with prepared feed. Naturally produced fish food inside the pond
and supplemented fish food supplied from outside the pond to the fish. Natural foods
include algae (phytoplankton) and tiny animals (zooplankton). Supplementary feeds are
often formulated using a combination of the various feed ingredients, such as fishmeal,
soybean etc. based on the nutrient requirement of the cultured organism.
3. Intensive: completely using formulated feed
The terms that one needs to understand to formulate practical fish diets are: crude protein
level; energy level, either expressed as metabolizable energy (ME) or as digestible
energy (DE); specific amino acid levels; crude fibre level; and ash level. Since most
complete practical fish diets are supplemented with a vitamin premix at levels in excess
of the dietary requirement, this category of nutrients will be ignored temporarily. The
potential problems occur when one fails to recognize that all of the above-mentioned
terms, except ME and DE, represent the quantity or level of a nutrient in the feed as
determined by chemical tests on a specific sample of a feedstuff. These chemical tests
generally correlate well enough with biological methods of feed evaluation (growth studies,
tissue, levels) to be very useful to feed formulators, but they are still chemical tests that
are subject to experimental error during nutrient level determination. For example, the
proximate composition of fish meals changes during the spawning season. Generally, the
lipid levels increase before spawning and decrease after spawning. This will alter the
percent of protein, ash, and carbohydrates in fish meal as the seasons change. Similarly,
many plant feedstuffs vary in proximate composition with their stage of maturity at harvest,
location grown, and other environmental conditions, such as the weather.
Herbivorous and, to a lesser extent, omnivorous fish have longer digestive tracts than do
carnivorous fish and are able to obtain more digestible energy from carbohydrates. An
awareness of these facts will prevent misuse of ME and DE values.
a. BALANCING CRUDE PROTEIN LEVEL
In most animal diets, protein is the most expensive portion and is usually the first nutrient
that is computed in diet formulation. The energy level of the diet is then adjusted to the

65
desired level by addition of high energy supplements) which are less expensive than
protein supplements.
The square method is an easy way to determine the proper dietary proportions of
high and low protein feedstuffs to add to a feed to meet the dietary requirement of
the animal to be fed.
For example, suppose rice bran and soybean meal were available as feedstuffs to
prepare a diet for carp that was 27 percent crude protein. A square is constructed and the
two feedstuffs are put on the two left corners along with the protein content of each. The
desired protein level of the feed is placed in the middle of the square. Next, the protein
level of the feed is subtracted from that of the feedstuffs, placing the answer in the
opposite corner from the feedstuff. Ignore positive or negative signs.

To make the 27 percent crude protein carp feed, we must mix 17/35.8 of rice bran with
18.8/35.8 soybean meal.
Rice Bran 17/35.8 = 47.5%
Soybean meal 18.8/35.8 = 52.5%
So to make 100 kg of this feed we must mix 47.5 kg of rich bran with 52.5 kg of soybean
meal.
If more than two feedstuffs are used in a feed, they may be grouped into basal feeds
(CP < 20 percent) and protein supplements (CP > 20 percent), averaged within each
group, and plugged into the square method.
For example, suppose shrimp meal and corn were also available for the carp feed
mentioned above. The crude protein levels of the shrimp meal (52.7 percent) and of corn
(10.2 percent) are averaged with soybean meal and rice bran, respectively.

66
Basal feed = 21.35/39.15 = 54.53%
Protein supplement = 17.8/39.15 = 45.47%
Thus, to make 100 kg of this feed one would mix the following:

Rice bran 27.265 kg

Corn 27.265 kg

Soybean meal 22.735 kg

Shrimp meal 22.735 kg

The square method is helpful to novice feed formulators because it can get them started
in diet formulation without the need to resort to trial and error. The square method can
also be used to calculate the proportion of feeds tuffs to mix together to achieve a desired
dietary energy level as well as a crude protein level. If one wanted to make a feed
containing 2 500 kcal ME/kg using wheat middlings (1663 kcal ME/kg) and anchovy fish
meal (4 371 kcal, ME/kg) a square could be constructed.
b. STEPS IN FEED FORMULATION
The first step in diet formulation is balancing the crude protein and energy levels. This
can be accomplished by trial and error, by the square method for either crude protein
level or energy level and then adjusting, or by solving simultaneous equations.
A. At first, it is helpful to use at least three feeds tuffs during the initial balancing of
protein and energy levels: one high in protein and high in ME, one low or
intermediate in protein and high in ME, and one low or intermediate in both protein
and ME. One must remember to reserve room in the formulation for any feed
additive, such as a vitamin or mineral pre-mix.

B. The second step in diet formulation is to check the levels of indispensable amino
acids in the formulation to be sure the dietary levels meet the requirements of the
animal to be fed. The requirements of fish for indispensable amino acids is
expressed as the dietary level (as a percent of the diet) or as a percent of the
dietary protein level. To convert an amino acid level from the percent of diet to
percent of protein, divide the dietary level of each amino acid by the dietary protein
level. It might be of interest to calculate the dietary levels of all of the indispensable
amino acids, but it is not practical to do it all of the time. If the levels of arginine,
lysine, methionine, and tryptophan meet the dietary requirements of the fish to be
fed, the levels of the other six indispensable amino acids will most likely be above
required levels. When using unconventional protein supplements, the levels of all
ten indispensable amino acids should be checked.

67
If the diet formulation is low in any amino acid, a feedstuff that contains high levels of that
amino acid must be added to the diet at the expense of another ingredient. Once the
amino acid requirements are met, the dietary protein and energy levels must be
rechecked to, see if any substitution of ingredients has imbalanced the formulation.
In practical feed formulation, pellet quality and acceptability must be considered in
addition to nutrient levels and cost. These considerations will vary from species to species
and with the type of pellet being made.
C. Feed ingredients are prepared, mixed and palletised into sizes and shapes
require by the fish.
a. Fish should be fed 3-8 times daily with 3-5% of their body weight.
b. Fish should be fed at the same time and in the same part of the pond.
c. Feeding should be done in the late morning and early afternoon when
dissolved oxygen levels are high so fish have enough time to recover
from the high oxygen-demanding feeding activity before nigh fall.
d. Fish should not be over fed and feeding should stop at least one day
before breeding, harvesting or transporting them.

6.2.5. Water Quality Management

Water quality is closely related to fish growth and yield. During production, water colour
is the indicator of water quality.
Controlling water quality: use of aerators, adding fresh water, and turning the pond silt.
Water quality parameters such as dissolved oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrate, ammonium
nitrate, total alkalinity, total dissolved solids (TDS) should be monitored from time to time.
This is because fish have optimum level of tolerance for each of these factors.

68
6.2.6. Management of Fish Health and Diseases
High and stable fish yields can be ensured through the daily routine of pond management,
which should be performed carefully, diligently, and unremittingly throughout the rearing
period. The principle of fish disease control is prophylaxis: “prevention is better than
treatment” in the event of an outbreak of disease, fish should be treated in the early stages.
Because of complexity of their environment, fish are susceptible to viral, bacterial, fungal,
and parasitic infections. An outbreak of disease jeopardizes regular aquaculture and

69
threatens fish yields. Therefore, controlling disease is one of the most vital tasks in fish
culture. Good nutrition and proper water quality (with plenty of dissolved oxygen) are the
most important factors for good fish health, needed to cope with diseases.
6.2.7. Harvesting the Fish
The final phase in fish farming cycle is the harvest and possible sale of the fish. When
most of the fish are big enough to be eaten or sold, harvesting could either be total
(capturing all the fish) or partial (capturing only the matured size). Fish should not be fed
at least a day before harvesting to prevent continuous digestion of food by fish which lead
to excretion of waste.
7.0. Fish Fauna of Nigeria

70
71
List of freshwater fishes in Nigeria

Family Species Status E. common name

Order
Characiformes Alestidae Alestes baremoze native Silversides
Characiformes Alestidae Alestes dentex native Characin
Characiformes Alestidae Alestes macrophthalmus native Torpedo robber
Characiformes Alestidae Alestopetersius smykalai native
Siluriformes Amphiliidae Amphilius atesuensis native
Siluriformes Amphiliidae Amphilius rheophilus native
Siluriformes Claroteidae Anaspidoglanis akiri native

72
Siluriformes Amphiliidae Andersonia leptura native
Cyprinodontiformes Nothobranchiidae Aphyosemion bitaeniatum native Two-striped
Aphyosemion
Cyprinodontiformes Nothobranchiidae Aphyosemion bivittatum native Twostripe lyretail
Cyprinodontiformes Nothobranchiidae Aphyosemion bualanum native
Cyprinodontiformes Nothobranchiidae Aphyosemion calliurum native Banner lyretail
Cyprinodontiformes Nothobranchiidae Aphyosemion deltaense native Delta killi
Cyprinodontiformes Nothobranchiidae Aphyosemion splendopleure native
Cyprinodontiformes Poeciliidae Aplocheilichthys kingii native
Cyprinodontiformes Poeciliidae Aplocheilichthys normani native Norman's lampeye
Cyprinodontiformes Poeciliidae Aplocheilichthys pfaffi native Pfaff's lampeye
Cyprinodontiformes Poeciliidae Aplocheilichthys spilauchen native Banded lampeye
Siluriformes Ariidae Arius gigas native Giant sea catfish
Siluriformes Ariidae Arius latiscutatus native Rough-head sea
catfish
Characiformes Alestidae Arnoldichthys spilopterus native Niger tetra
Perciformes Cichlidae Astatotilapia bloyeti native Bloyet's haplo
Siluriformes Claroteidae Auchenoglanis biscutatus native
Siluriformes Claroteidae Auchenoglanis occidentalis native Bubu
Perciformes Gobiidae Awaous lateristriga native West African
freshwater goby
Siluriformes Bagridae Bagrus bajad native Bayad
Siluriformes Bagridae Bagrus docmak native Semutundu
Siluriformes Bagridae Bagrus filamentosus native
Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Barboides gracilis native
Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Barbus ablabes native
Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Barbus aboinensis native
Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Barbus anema native
Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Barbus atakorensis native
Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Barbus baudoni native
Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Barbus bawkuensis native
Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Barbus bynni occidentalis native Niger barb
Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Barbus callipterus native Clipper barb
Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Barbus camptacanthus native African redfinned
barb
Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Barbus chlorotaenia native
Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Barbus clauseni native
Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Barbus eburneensis native
Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Barbus foutensis native
Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Barbus kissiensis native
Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Barbus lagensis native
Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Barbus leonensis native
Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Barbus macinensis native
Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Barbus macrops native Blackstripe barb
Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Barbus nigeriensis native
Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Barbus perince native
Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Barbus pobeguini native
Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Barbus punctitaeniatus native

73
Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Barbus stigmatopygus native
Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Barbus sublineatus native
Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Barbus sylvaticus native
Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Barbus wurtzi native
Perciformes Gobiidae Bathygobius soporator native Frillfin goby
Perciformes Eleotridae Bostrychus africanus native
Osteoglossiformes Mormyridae Brienomyrus brachyistius native
Osteoglossiformes Mormyridae Brienomyrus kingsleyae native
kingsleyae
Osteoglossiformes Mormyridae Brienomyrus longianalis native
Osteoglossiformes Mormyridae Brienomyrus niger native
Characiformes Alestidae Brycinus brevis native
Characiformes Alestidae Brycinus intermedius native
Characiformes Alestidae Brycinus leuciscus native
Characiformes Alestidae Brycinus longipinnis native Longfin tetra
Characiformes Alestidae Brycinus macrolepidotus native True big-scale tetra
Characiformes Alestidae Brycinus nurse native Nurse tetra
Characiformes Alestidae Bryconaethiops native
quinquesquamae
Perciformes Eleotridae Butis koilomatodon introduced Mud sleeper
Osteoglossiformes Mormyridae Campylomormyrus native Wormjawed
tamandua mormyrid
Carcharhiniformes Carcharhinidae Carcharhinus leucas native Bull shark
Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Chelaethiops bibie native Lake Turkana
sardine
Siluriformes Mochokidae Chiloglanis batesii native
Siluriformes Mochokidae Chiloglanis benuensis native
Siluriformes Mochokidae Chiloglanis disneyi native
Siluriformes Mochokidae Chiloglanis niger native
Siluriformes Mochokidae Chiloglanis niloticus native
Siluriformes Mochokidae Chiloglanis occidentalis native
Siluriformes Mochokidae Chiloglanis polypogon native
Siluriformes Mochokidae Chiloglanis voltae native
Perciformes Cichlidae Chromidotilapia guentheri native Guenther's
guentheri Mouthbrooder
Siluriformes Claroteidae Chrysichthys aluuensis native
Siluriformes Claroteidae Chrysichthys auratus native
Siluriformes Claroteidae Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus native Bagrid catfish
Siluriformes Claroteidae Chrysichthys walkeri native
Characiformes Citharinidae Citharidium ansorgii endemic
Characiformes Citharinidae Citharinops distichodoides native
distichodoides
Characiformes Citharinidae Citharinops distichodoides native
thomasi
Characiformes Citharinidae Citharinus citharus citharus native Moon fish
Characiformes Citharinidae Citharinus latus native
Siluriformes Clariidae Clarias agboyiensis native
Siluriformes Clariidae Clarias albopunctatus native

74
Siluriformes Clariidae Clarias anguillaris native Mudfish
Siluriformes Clariidae Clarias buthupogon native
Siluriformes Clariidae Clarias camerunensis native
Siluriformes Clariidae Clarias ebriensis native
Siluriformes Clariidae Clarias gariepinus native North African catfish
Siluriformes Clariidae Clarias jaensis native
Siluriformes Clariidae Clarias macromystax native
Siluriformes Clariidae Clarias pachynema native
Siluriformes Clariidae Clarias submarginatus native
Siluriformes Claroteidae Clarotes laticeps native Widehead catfish
Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Clypeobarbus hypsolepis native
Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Clypeobarbus pleuropholis native
Gonorynchiformes Kneriidae Cromeria nilotica questionable Naked shellear
Gonorynchiformes Kneriidae Cromeria occidentalis native
Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Ctenopharyngodon idella introduced Grass carp
Perciformes Anabantidae Ctenopoma argentoventer native Silverbelly
ctenopoma
Perciformes Anabantidae Ctenopoma houyi native
Perciformes Anabantidae Ctenopoma kingsleyae native Tailspot ctenopoma
Perciformes Anabantidae Ctenopoma muriei native Ocellated labyrinth
fish
Perciformes Anabantidae Ctenopoma nebulosum native
Perciformes Anabantidae Ctenopoma nigropannosum native Twospot climbing
perch
Perciformes Anabantidae Ctenopoma petherici native
Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Cyprinus carpio carpio introduced Common carp
Pleuronectiformes Soleidae Dagetichthys lakdoensis questionable
Anguilliformes Ophichthidae Dalophis boulengeri native
Anguilliformes Ophichthidae Dalophis cephalopeltis native
Rajiformes Dasyatidae Dasyatis garouaensis native Smooth freshwater
stingray
Clupeiformes Denticipitidae Denticeps clupeoides native
Characiformes Citharinidae Distichodus brevipinnis native
Characiformes Citharinidae Distichodus engycephalus native Perch
Characiformes Citharinidae Distichodus rostratus native Grass-eater
Perciformes Eleotridae Dormitator lebretonis native
Siluriformes Amphiliidae Doumea thysi native
Perciformes Eleotridae Eleotris daganensis native
Perciformes Eleotridae Eleotris senegalensis native
Perciformes Eleotridae Eleotris vittata native
Elopiformes Elopidae Elops senegalensis native Senegalese ladyfish
Cyprinodontiformes Nothobranchiidae Epiplatys biafranus native
Cyprinodontiformes Nothobranchiidae Epiplatys bifasciatus native
bifasciatus
Cyprinodontiformes Nothobranchiidae Epiplatys bifasciatus native
taeniatus
Cyprinodontiformes Nothobranchiidae Epiplatys grahami native
Cyprinodontiformes Nothobranchiidae Epiplatys longiventralis native

75
Cyprinodontiformes Nothobranchiidae Epiplatys sexfasciatus native Sixbar panchax
sexfasciatus
Cyprinodontiformes Nothobranchiidae Epiplatys spilargyreius native
Polypteriformes Polypteridae Erpetoichthys calabaricus native Reedfish
Clupeiformes Clupeidae Ethmalosa fimbriata native Bonga shad
Cyprinodontiformes Nothobranchiidae Foerschichthys flavipinnis native
Cyprinodontiformes Nothobranchiidae Fundulopanchax arnoldi native Arnold's killi
Cyprinodontiformes Nothobranchiidae Fundulopanchax native Plumed lyretail
filamentosus
Cyprinodontiformes Nothobranchiidae Fundulopanchax gardneri native Blue lyretail
gardneri
Cyprinodontiformes Nothobranchiidae Fundulopanchax gardneri native Nigerian killi
nigerianus
Cyprinodontiformes Nothobranchiidae Fundulopanchax gularis native Gulare
Cyprinodontiformes Nothobranchiidae Fundulopanchax ndianus native
Cyprinodontiformes Nothobranchiidae Fundulopanchax powelli endemic
Cyprinodontiformes Nothobranchiidae Fundulopanchax scheeli native
Cyprinodontiformes Nothobranchiidae Fundulopanchax sjostedti native Blue gularis
Cyprinodontiformes Nothobranchiidae Fundulopanchax native
spoorenbergi
Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Garra ornata native
Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Garra trewavasai native
Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Garra waterloti native
Osteoglossiformes Mormyridae Gnathonemus petersii native Elephantnose fish
Perciformes Cichlidae Gobiocichla ethelwynnae questionable
Perciformes Cichlidae Gobiocichla wonderi native
Perciformes Gobiidae Gobioides sagitta native
Siluriformes Clariidae Gymnallabes typus native
Osteoglossiformes Gymnarchidae Gymnarchus niloticus native Aba
Perciformes Cichlidae Hemichromis bimaculatus native Jewelfish
Perciformes Cichlidae Hemichromis fasciatus native Banded jewelfish
Perciformes Cichlidae Hemichromis guttatus native
Characiformes Hepsetidae Hepsetus odoe native Kafue pike
Siluriformes Clariidae Heterobranchus bidorsalis native African catfish
Siluriformes Clariidae Heterobranchus isopterus native
Siluriformes Clariidae Heterobranchus longifilis native Vundu
Osteoglossiformes Arapaimidae Heterotis niloticus native Heterotis
Osteoglossiformes Mormyridae Hippopotamyrus castor native
Osteoglossiformes Mormyridae Hippopotamyrus harringtoni native
Osteoglossiformes Mormyridae Hippopotamyrus pictus native
Osteoglossiformes Mormyridae Hippopotamyrus psittacus native
Characiformes Alestidae Hydrocynus brevis native Tiger-fish
Characiformes Alestidae Hydrocynus forskahlii native
Characiformes Alestidae Hydrocynus somonorum native
Characiformes Alestidae Hydrocynus vittatus native Tiger fish
Osteoglossiformes Mormyridae Hyperopisus bebe bebe native
Osteoglossiformes Mormyridae Hyperopisus bebe native
occidentalis

76
Characiformes Citharinidae Ichthyborus besse besse native
Characiformes Citharinidae Ichthyborus monodi native
Siluriformes Ictaluridae Ictalurus punctatus introduced Channel catfish
Osteoglossiformes Mormyridae Isichthys henryi native
Perciformes Eleotridae Kribia kribensis native
Perciformes Eleotridae Kribia nana native
Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Labeo brachypoma native
Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Labeo coubie native African carp
Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Labeo parvus native
Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Labeo roseopunctatus native
Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Labeo senegalensis native
Clupeiformes Clupeidae Laeviscutella dekimpei native Roundbelly
pellonuline
Perciformes Latidae Lates niloticus native Nile perch
Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Leptocypris crossensis endemic
Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Leptocypris niloticus native
Perciformes Lutjanidae Lutjanus dentatus native African brown
snapper
Perciformes Lutjanidae Lutjanus endecacanthus native Guinea snapper
Siluriformes Malapteruridae Malapterurus beninensis native
Siluriformes Malapteruridae Malapterurus electricus native Electric catfish
Siluriformes Malapteruridae Malapterurus minjiriya native
Osteoglossiformes Mormyridae Marcusenius abadii native
Osteoglossiformes Mormyridae Marcusenius brucii native
Osteoglossiformes Mormyridae Marcusenius cyprinoides native
Osteoglossiformes Mormyridae Marcusenius deboensis native
Osteoglossiformes Mormyridae Marcusenius mento native
Osteoglossiformes Mormyridae Marcusenius senegalensis native
pfaffi
Osteoglossiformes Mormyridae Marcusenius senegalensis native
senegalensis
Synbranchiformes Mastacembelidae Mastacembelus native
cryptacanthus
Synbranchiformes Mastacembelidae Mastacembelus decorsei native
Synbranchiformes Mastacembelidae Mastacembelus loennbergii native
Synbranchiformes Mastacembelidae Mastacembelus native
nigromarginatus
Synbranchiformes Mastacembelidae Mastacembelus questionable
sexdecimspinus
Elopiformes Megalopidae Megalops atlanticus native Tarpon
Characiformes Alestidae Micralestes acutidens native Sharptooth tetra
Characiformes Alestidae Micralestes elongatus native Elongated Turkana
robber
Characiformes Alestidae Micralestes humilis native
Characiformes Alestidae Micralestes occidentalis native
Perciformes Anabantidae Microctenopoma congicum native Congo ctenopoma
Perciformes Anabantidae Microctenopoma lineatum native
Cyprinodontiformes Poeciliidae Micropanchax native Lampeye panchax
macrophthalmus

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Cyprinodontiformes Poeciliidae Micropanchax scheeli native Scheel's lampeye
Syngnathiformes Syngnathidae Microphis brachyurus native
aculeatus
Siluriformes Mochokidae Mochokus brevis native
Siluriformes Mochokidae Mochokus niloticus native
Osteoglossiformes Mormyridae Mormyrops anguilloides native Cornish jack
Osteoglossiformes Mormyridae Mormyrops caballus native
Osteoglossiformes Mormyridae Mormyrops engystoma native
Osteoglossiformes Mormyridae Mormyrops oudoti native
Osteoglossiformes Mormyridae Mormyrus hasselquistii native Elephant snout
Osteoglossiformes Mormyridae Mormyrus macrophthalmus native
Osteoglossiformes Mormyridae Mormyrus rume rume native Mormyrids
Osteoglossiformes Mormyridae Mormyrus tapirus native
Characiformes Citharinidae Nannaethiops unitaeniatus native Oneline tetra
Characiformes Citharinidae Nannocharax ansorgii native
Characiformes Citharinidae Nannocharax fasciatus native
Characiformes Citharinidae Nannocharax latifasciatus native
Characiformes Citharinidae Nannocharax native
lineomaculatus
Characiformes Citharinidae Nannocharax occidentalis native
Characiformes Citharinidae Neolebias ansorgii native
Characiformes Citharinidae Neolebias axelrodi native
Characiformes Citharinidae Neolebias powelli native
Characiformes Citharinidae Neolebias unifasciatus native
Cyprinodontiformes Nothobranchiidae Nothobranchius kiyawensis native
Clupeiformes Clupeidae Odaxothrissa ansorgii native Ansorge's fangtooth
pellonuline
Clupeiformes Clupeidae Odaxothrissa mento native Nigerian fangtooth
pellonuline
Synbranchiformes Synbranchidae Ophisternon afrum native Guinea swamp eel
Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Opsaridium ubangiense native
Perciformes Cichlidae Oreochromis aureus native Blue tilapia
Perciformes Cichlidae Oreochromis niloticus native Nile tilapia
niloticus
Osteoglossiformes Pantodontidae Pantodon buchholzi native Freshwater
butterflyfish
Osteoglossiformes Notopteridae Papyrocranus afer native Reticulate knifefish
Perciformes Channidae Parachanna africana native
Perciformes Channidae Parachanna obscura native Snake-head
Characiformes Citharinidae Paradistichodus dimidiatus native
Siluriformes Schilbeidae Parailia pellucida native Glass schilbid
Siluriformes Claroteidae Parauchenoglanis native
buettikoferi
Siluriformes Claroteidae Parauchenoglanis monkei native Dotted catfish
Siluriformes Schilbeidae Pareutropius buffei native
Clupeiformes Clupeidae Pellonula leonensis native Smalltoothed
pellonula
Clupeiformes Clupeidae Pellonula vorax native Bigtoothed pellonula
Perciformes Cichlidae Pelvicachromis pulcher native Rainbow krib

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Perciformes Cichlidae Pelvicachromis subocellatus native
Perciformes Cichlidae Pelvicachromis taeniatus native
Perciformes Gobiidae Periophthalmus barbarus native Atlantic mudskipper
Osteoglossiformes Mormyridae Petrocephalus ansorgii native
Osteoglossiformes Mormyridae Petrocephalus bane bane native
Osteoglossiformes Mormyridae Petrocephalus bovei bovei native
Osteoglossiformes Mormyridae Petrocephalus sauvagii native
Osteoglossiformes Mormyridae Petrocephalus soudanensis native
Characiformes Citharinidae Phago loricatus native African pike-characin
Gonorynchiformes Phractolaemidae Phractolaemus ansorgii native Hingemouth
Siluriformes Amphiliidae Phractura ansorgii native African whiptailed
catfish
Siluriformes Amphiliidae Phractura clauseni native
Cyprinodontiformes Poeciliidae Poecilia reticulata introduced Guppy
Osteoglossiformes Mormyridae Pollimyrus adspersus native
Osteoglossiformes Mormyridae Pollimyrus isidori isidori native Elephant Fish
Osteoglossiformes Mormyridae Pollimyrus petricolus native
Perciformes Nandidae Polycentropsis abbreviata native African leaffish
Polypteriformes Polypteridae Polypterus ansorgii native Guinean bichir
Polypteriformes Polypteridae Polypterus bichir bichir native Nile bichir
Polypteriformes Polypteridae Polypterus bichir lapradei native Bichir
Polypteriformes Polypteridae Polypterus endlicheri native Saddled bichir
endlicheri
Polypteriformes Polypteridae Polypterus retropinnis native West African bichir
Polypteriformes Polypteridae Polypterus senegalus native Gray bichir
senegalus
Cyprinodontiformes Poeciliidae Poropanchax hannerzi native Hannerz' Lampeye
Pristiformes Pristidae Pristis microdon native Largetooth sawfish
Cyprinodontiformes Poeciliidae Procatopus aberrans native Bluegreen lampeye
Cyprinodontiformes Poeciliidae Procatopus similis native Variable lampeye
Lepidosireniformes Protopteridae Protopterus annectens native West African lungfish
annectens
Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Raiamas nigeriensis native
Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Raiamas senegalensis native Silver fish
Characiformes Alestidae Rhabdalestes brevidorsalis native
Characiformes Alestidae Rhabdalestes native
septentrionalis
Perciformes Cichlidae Sarotherodon galilaeus native Mango tilapia
galilaeus
Perciformes Cichlidae Sarotherodon melanotheron native Blackchin tilapia
melanotheron
Siluriformes Schilbeidae Schilbe brevianalis native
Siluriformes Schilbeidae Schilbe intermedius native Silver catfish
Siluriformes Schilbeidae Schilbe micropogon native
Siluriformes Schilbeidae Schilbe mystus native African butter catfish
Siluriformes Schilbeidae Schilbe uranoscopus native
Perciformes Gobiidae Sicydium brevifile native
Clupeiformes Clupeidae Sierrathrissa leonensis native West African pygmy
herring

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Siluriformes Schilbeidae Siluranodon auritus native
Pleuronectiformes Soleidae Synaptura lusitanica native
nigromaculata
Siluriformes Mochokidae Synodontis batensoda native Upsidedown catfish
Siluriformes Mochokidae Synodontis budgetti native
Siluriformes Mochokidae Synodontis clarias native Mandi
Siluriformes Mochokidae Synodontis courteti native
Siluriformes Mochokidae Synodontis euptera native Featherfin squeaker
Siluriformes Mochokidae Synodontis filamentosa native
Siluriformes Mochokidae Synodontis frontosa native
Siluriformes Mochokidae Synodontis gambiensis native
Siluriformes Mochokidae Synodontis gobroni native
Siluriformes Mochokidae Synodontis guttata native
Siluriformes Mochokidae Synodontis melanoptera native
Siluriformes Mochokidae Synodontis membranacea native
Siluriformes Mochokidae Synodontis nigrita native
Siluriformes Mochokidae Synodontis obesus native
Siluriformes Mochokidae Synodontis ocellifer native
Siluriformes Mochokidae Synodontis omias native
Siluriformes Mochokidae Synodontis ouemeensis native
Siluriformes Mochokidae Synodontis resupinata native
Siluriformes Mochokidae Synodontis robbianus native
Siluriformes Mochokidae Synodontis schall native Wahrindi
Siluriformes Mochokidae Synodontis sorex native
Siluriformes Mochokidae Synodontis vermiculata native
Siluriformes Mochokidae Synodontis violacea native
Siluriformes Mochokidae Synodontis xiphias native
Tetraodontiformes Tetraodontidae Tetraodon lineatus native Globe fish
Tetraodontiformes Tetraodontidae Tetraodon pustulatus native
Perciformes Cichlidae Thysochromis annectens native
Perciformes Cichlidae Thysochromis ansorgii native
Perciformes Cichlidae Tilapia dageti native
Perciformes Cichlidae Tilapia guineensis native Guinean tilapia
Perciformes Cichlidae Tilapia mariae native Spotted tilapia
Perciformes Cichlidae Tilapia zillii native Redbelly tilapia
Perciformes Carangidae Trachinotus teraia native Shortfin pompano
Perciformes Cichlidae Tylochromis jentinki native
Perciformes Cichlidae Tylochromis sudanensis native
Rajiformes Dasyatidae Urogymnus ukpam native Thorny freshwater
stingray
Osteoglossiformes Notopteridae Xenomystus nigri native African knifefish
Cyprinodontiformes Poeciliidae Xiphophorus maculatus introduced Southern platyfish

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8.0. Fish gear and Fishing methods in Nigeria
Fishing mean removing of fish from water. It also means fish harvesting or cropping.
Equipment for fishing is called fishing gear.
Factors that determine the type of gear and fishing method are
1. The tribes of the fishermen
2. The financial status of the fishermen
3. The season of the year
4. Depth of the water to be fished
5. Type of fish aimed at
6. The shoreline patterns
8.1. Fishing methods
Fishing methods in Nigeria is classified into many types (traditional and modern);
namely:
i. Use of nets
ii. Use of traps
iii. Wounding method
iv. Fishing with bamboo
v. Use of baskets
vi. Use of hooks
vii. Draining method (water removal)
viii. Hole digging method
ix. Use of poison
x. Use of explosives
xi. Electrofishing method

Fishing Nets Types. (21 Types) - Attractive Fishing

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1. Use of nets
a. Gill-netting

Built with different mesh size, depending on the desired size of fish to be caught

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