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chapter

BONES &
BONE TISSUE
The strength of bone is similar to that of reinforced concrete. Yet,
it is so light it makes up only 14% of an adult’s body weight.

The skeleton may appear to be nothing more than a dry, nonliving framework for the body, but it
is far from it. The 206 bones in the adult human body are actually dynamic living tissue. Bone
constantly breaks down and rebuilds itself, not just during the growth phases of childhood, but
throughout the life span. Bone is filled with blood vessels, nerves, and living cells; in addition, its
interaction with other body systems is necessary not only for movement, but also for life itself.

Bone Functions

Bone fulfills multiple roles in the body, including:

● Shape: Bones give the body its structure.
● Support: The bones of the legs, pelvis, and vertebral column support the body and hold it upright.
● Protection: Bones protect delicate internal organs, such as the heart, lungs, brain, and spinal cord.
● Movement: Movement of the arms and legs as well as the ability to breathe results from the
interaction between muscles and bones.
● Electrolyte balance: Bones store and release minerals such as calcium and phosphorus—necessary
ingredients for a variety of chemical reactions throughout the body.
● Blood production: Bones encase bone marrow, a major site of blood cell
formation.
● Acid-base balance: Bone absorbs and releases alkaline salts to help maintain FAST FACT
a stable pH. Bone is as strong as steel and as
light as aluminum.
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Classification of Bones
PART II Covering, Support, and Movement of the Body

Bones perform a variety of functions—from supporting the weight of the body (the bones of the legs and pelvis) to
performing delicate movements (the fingers). It’s those functions that dictate the bone’s shape. This variety in the shape of
bones lends itself to a classification system.

Long bones Frontal bone

As the name Flat bones
suggests, these These thin, flat, often curved bones protect
bones have a very organs, such as the bones of the skull, the
long axis and are ribs, and the breastbone (sternum). Others,
longer than they such as the shoulder blades (scapulae),
are wide. Examples provide a large surface area for the
include the femur attachment of muscles.
of the thigh and
the humerus of the
arm. Long bones
work like levers to
move limbs.

Femur
Vertebra

Irregular bones
Often clustered in groups, these
bones come in various sizes and
shapes. Examples include the
vertebrae and facial bones.
Sesamoid bones are small bones
embedded in tendons. The
Short bones kneecap is an example of a
About as broad as they are long, these sesamoid bone.
tend to be shaped like cubes. Examples
include the carpal bones of the wrist and
the tarsal bones of the ankle.

FAST FACT
The tiniest bone in the body is
Tarsal 3 mm long and is found in the ear.
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Parts of a Long Bone

CHAPTER 6 Bones and Bone Tissue

Long bones consist of several key structures:

Covering the surface of the epiphysis is a thin layer

of hyaline cartilage called articular cartilage. This
The head of each end of a long bone is the cartilage, along with a lubricating fluid secreted
epiphysis. The bulbous structure of the between bones, eases the movement of the bone
epiphysis strengthens the joint; it also within a joint.
allows an expanded area for the
attachment of tendons and ligaments. The
epiphysis is made of porous-looking
spongy bone. The central hollow portion is called the
medullary cavity.

• The inside of the medullary cavity is

lined with a thin epithelial membrane
called the endosteum.
• In children, the medullary cavity is filled
with blood cell-producing red bone
marrow. In adults, most of this marrow
The central shaft-like portion of the bone is has turned to yellow marrow, which is
called the diaphysis. Thick, compact bone rich in fat.
makes up this hollow cylinder, giving the
bone the strength it needs to support a
A dense fibrous membrane called the
large amount of weight.
periosteum covers the diaphysis. Some of
the fibers of the periosteum penetrate the
bone, ensuring that the membrane stays
firmly anchored. Other fibers of the
periosteum weave together with the fibers
of tendons. (Tendons attach muscle to bone.)
This arrangement ensures a strong
connection between muscle and bone. The
periosteum contains bone-forming cells as
well as blood vessels, making its presence
crucial for bone survival.
Epiphysis

Articular cartilage

FAST FACT
The Body AT WORK
Osteomyelitis is an inflammation
In growing children, a layer of
of bone and marrow, usually the
cartilage, called the epiphyseal
result of a bacterial infection.
Epiphyseal plate plate or growth plate, separates
Bone infections are often
the epiphysis from the diaphysis at
difficult to treat and typically
each end of a long bone. Once
require prolonged intravenous
growth stops, the plate is replaced
antibiotics.
by an epiphyseal line. (Bone
growth and the epiphyseal plate
are discussed in more depth later
in this chapter.)
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Bone Tissue
PART II Covering, Support, and Movement of the Body

Bone, or osseous tissue, is a type of connective tissue; like all connective tissues, it consists of cells, fibers, and extracellular
material, or matrix. Bone cells include osteoblasts, osteoclasts, and osteocytes.

● Osteoblasts help form bone by secreting substances that

comprise the bone’s matrix. FAST FACT
● Osteoclasts dissolve unwanted or unhealthy bone. The study of bone is called
● Osteocytes are mature osteoblasts that have become osteology.
entrapped in the hardened bone matrix. Osteocytes have
a dual role: some dissolve bone while others deposit new
bone. By doing so, they contribute to the maintenance of
bone density while also assisting with the regulation of
blood levels of calcium and phosphate.

Bone is unique from other connective tissues because of its matrix. Consisting of collagen fibers and crystalline salts
(primarily calcium and phosphate), the matrix of bone is hard and calcified. Bone is also incredibly strong; it has a strength
rivaling that of steel and reinforced concrete. Bone has significant tensile and compressional strength, but it lacks torsional
strength.

Tensile strength Compressional strength Torsional strength

Collagen fibers in the matrix make Calcium salts allow bones to resist Bone lacks the ability to endure
bone highly resistant to strong squeezing forces (called twisting (called torsional
stretching forces (called tensile compressional strength). strength). In fact, most bone
strength). fractures result when torsional
forces are exerted on an arm or leg.

The Body AT WORK

Whenever bone experiences an increase in load, osteocytes
stimulate the creation of new bone. For example, when an
individual participates in weight-bearing exercise, osteocytes
trigger the growth of new bone, making bones stronger. This
makes any weight-bearing exercise, especially lifting weights,
ideal for those at risk for osteoporosis, a disease characterized
by a loss of bone density.
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Types of Bone Tissue

CHAPTER 6 Bones and Bone Tissue

Not all bone, or osseous tissue, has the same characteristics:
● Some osseous tissue is light and porous; this is spongy, or cancellous, bone. Spongy bone is found in the ends of long
bones and in the middle of most other bones; it is always surrounded by the more durable compact bone.
● Other osseous tissue—called compact bone—is dense and solid. Its density offers strength, which is why it forms the
shafts of long bones and the outer surfaces of other bones.

Spongy bone Spongy Bone

Periosteum Spongy, or cancellous bone, consists
of a latticework of bone called
Compact bone trabeculae. This design adds strength
without adding weight. The cavities
between the trabeculae are filled with
red bone marrow. The red marrow
supplies spongy bone with blood and
also produces blood cells.

Trabeculae are arranged along the lines

of greatest stress in a way that offers
maximum strength. If the stress a bone
is exposed to changes, the trabeculae
will realign themselves to compensate.

In compact bone, layers of matrix are arranged

in concentric, onion-like rings (called
lamellae) around a central canal (called a
Compact Bone haversian or osteonic canal). This basic
structural unit is called an osteon.
Compact bone consists of an elaborate network of
canals and passageways containing nerves and
blood vessels. The fact that bone cells are so well
supplied with oxygen and nutrients allows bone
injuries to heal quickly despite the hardness of the
bone’s matrix.
Blood vessels and nerves run the length of
the bone through the center of the canal.

Tiny gaps between rings of the lamellae,

called lacunae, contain osteocytes.

Microscopic passageways, called

canaliculi, connect the lamellae to
each other.

Transverse passageways, called Volkmann’s canals, connect the

haversian canals. These canals transport blood and nutrients
from the bone’s exterior to the osteocytes locked inside.
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Bone Marrow
PART II Covering, Support, and Movement of the Body

Bone marrow is a type of soft tissue that fills the medullary cavity of
long bones as well as the spaces of spongy bone. There are two types of
bone marrow:
1. Red bone marrow: This is the bone marrow charged with
producing red blood cells. Nearly all of a child’s bones
contain red bone marrow.
2. Yellow bone marrow: Over time, red marrow is gradually
replaced with fatty yellow marrow. Because its marrow cells
are saturated with fat, yellow marrow no longer produces
blood cells. However, in cases of severe, chronic blood loss
or anemia, yellow marrow can change back into red marrow.

In an adult, red bone marrow can be found

only in the ribs, sternum, vertebrae, skull,
pelvis, and the upper parts of both the
humerus (arm) and femur (thigh). All other
bones contain yellow marrow.

Bone Development
The first skeleton in a developing fetus is composed of cartilage and fibrous connective tissue. Through a process called
ossification, this early skeleton evolves into bone. There are two types of ossification processes: one for fibrous connective
tissue and one for cartilage.

Intramembranous Ossification
Some bones, including those of the skull and face, start out as
fibrous connective tissue. Called intramembranous ossification, The Body AT WORK
this process begins when groups of stem cells in the tissue At birth, part of the newborn’s skull still
differentiate into osteoblasts. Clusters of osteoblasts, called centers consists of fibrous connective tissue. These
for ossification, deposit matrix material and collagen. Eventually, areas, called fontanels or “soft spots,” allow
calcium salts are deposited and the bone is calcified. for safe compression of the fetus’s head while
passing through the birth canal. It also
allows the skull to expand readily as the brain
grows during the months immediately
following birth. By age 2, though, the skull is
completely ossified.
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Endochondral Ossification

CHAPTER 6 Bones and Bone Tissue

Most bones evolve from cartilage. After about three months’ gestation, the fetus has a skeleton composed mostly of cartilage.
At that time, the cartilage begins turning into bone. This process, which begins in long bones, is called endochondral
ossification. The figure below demonstrates how the process occurs.
ANIMATION

1 Early in the
life of a fetus,
long bones
2 Osteoblasts start to replace the
chondrocytes (cartilage cells). The
osteoblasts coat the diaphysis in a thin
3 Blood vessels then penetrate the
cartilage, and a primary
ossification center develops in the
4 The bone marrow cavity
fills with blood and stem
cells. Ossification continues—
composed of layer of bone, after which they produce middle of the diaphysis. proceeding from the
cartilage can be a ring of bone that encircles the diaphysis toward each
identified. These diaphysis. Soon, the cartilage begins to epiphysis—and the bone
cartilaginous calcify. grows in length. Eventually,
bones serve as secondary ossification centers
“models” for bone appear in the epiphyses.
development.

Epiphysis
Ossifying
cartilage Marrow Marrow
Diaphysis cavity cavity

Bone Primary
Blood
formation ossification
vessel
center
Blood
Cartilage
vessel
model

Bone Growth
Bone growth obviously doesn’t stop at birth. Bones grow in length, or
elongate, for a fixed period. However, bones also widen and thicken
The Body AT WORK
throughout the lifespan.
Several hormones, including growth
Bone Lengthening hormone and the sex hormones estrogen
Bone lengthening occurs at the epiphyseal plate: a
layer of hyaline cartilage at the each end of bone. and testosterone, influence bone growth.
On the epiphyseal side of the cartilage plate, Growth hormone stimulates
chondrocytes continue to multiply. As these cells chondrocytes in the epiphyseal plate to
move toward the diaphysis, minerals are deposited proliferate, causing bones to grow longer.
and the cartilage becomes calcified. As long as Sex hormones stimulate a growth spurt
chondrocytes are produced in the epiphyseal plate, during puberty; they’re also linked to
the bone continues to elongate. fusion of the epiphyseal plates (which
halts growth).

Sometime between the ages of 16 and 25, all of the

cartilage of the epiphyseal plate is replaced with FAST FACT
spongy bone. When that occurs, bone lengthening
When overstressed, the epiphyseal
stops, and we say that the epiphyses have “closed.”
plate can separate from the
What remains is a line of spongy bone called the
diaphysis or epiphysis, resulting in
epiphyseal line.
an epiphyseal fracture. When
this occurs, future bone growth
can be affected.

Bone Widening and Thickening

Unlike bone lengthening, which stops at a certain point, bone widening and thickening continue throughout the lifespan. A
bone widens when osteoblasts in the periosteum lay down new layers of bone around the outside of the bone. As this occurs,
osteoclasts on the inner bone tissue work to dissolve bone tissue, widening the marrow cavity.
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Bone Remodeling
PART II Covering, Support, and Movement of the Body

Bone cells work constantly throughout the life span, destroying old bone (resorption) and depositing new (ossification). In
this process, called remodeling, osteoclasts remove matrix and reduce the mass of little-used bones. In heavily used bones,
osteoblasts deposit new bone tissue on the bone’s surface, thickening the bone. Remodeling repairs minor traumas and
contributes to homeostasis by releasing calcium into the blood. This same process also leads to the development of
projections and bone surface markings as bone is stimulated by the pull of powerful muscles as children grow and begin to
walk.
The maintenance of bone density depends upon a balance between the work of osteoclasts (which cause resorption) and
osteoblasts (which cause ossification). During early and middle adulthood, ossification and resorption are in balance, with
the amount of bone being formed equaling the amount of bone being destroyed. During the growth periods of childhood
and adolescence, the creation of bone occurs at a faster rate than resorption. After about age 40, bone loss increases while
bone formation slows, causing bones to weaken.
Because bone adapts to withstand physical stress, it’s possible to increase bone
density through physical exercise. Likewise, a lack of physical exercise causes
increased bone loss. This is particularly true in bedridden patients as well as in FAST FACT
astronauts experiencing the weightlessness of space. Bone remodeling replaces about
10% of the skeleton each year.

The Body AT WORK

A number of factors affect bone growth and maintenance. These include:
• Heredity: Every individual inherits a set of genes that determines his maximum height potential.
• Nutrition: Children who are malnourished grow very slowly and may not reach their full height, regardless of
their genetic potential. Nutrients necessary for proper bone growth include calcium, phosphorus, and vitamins
D, C, and A.
• Hormones: Hormones that contribute to proper bone growth include growth hormone, thyroxine, parathyroid
hormone, insulin, and the sex hormones estrogen and testosterone.
• Exercise: As previously mentioned, without adequate physical stress in the form of weight-bearing exercise
(which includes walking), bone destruction will outpace bone creation.

Life lesson: Osteoporosis

Osteoporosis, which means “porous bones,” is a condition in
which bones lose so much mass that they become extremely
brittle. Even minor stresses, such as bending over or coughing,
can cause a fracture. Fractures occur most often in the hip,
Deterioration of wrist, and vertebral column.
vertebral support Osteoporosis is the most common bone disease, affecting
due to osteoporosis
about 10 million Americans. It’s estimated that another 18
million have low bone density. Because women have less bone
mass than men, and because they start losing it at an earlier
age, women have a higher risk for developing osteoporosis. In
particular, postmenopausal white women have the greatest
risk. (The drop in estrogen levels that accompanies menopause
accelerates bone loss; also, black women tend to have denser
bones than white women do.) Other risk factors for
osteoporosis include smoking, diabetes mellitus, and diets
poor in calcium, protein, and vitamins C and D.
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Bone Fractures

CHAPTER 6 Bones and Bone Tissue

A break in a bone is called a fracture. There are many different kinds
FAST FACT
of fractures, as shown below. Typically, broken bones can be
manipulated into their original position without surgery. This is called A pathologic fracture is a break in a diseased
closed reduction. Occasionally, surgery is needed to reposition the or weakened bone, usually they result from a
bones, after which screws, pins, or plates may be used to stabilize the force that wouldn’t fracture a healthy bone.
bones. This is called open reduction.

A simple fracture is one in which the A compound fracture is one in which the A greenstick fracture is one in which the fracture is
bone remains aligned and the bone has pierced the skin. Damage to incomplete, similar to when a green stick breaks.
surrounding tissue is intact. surrounding tissue, nerves, and blood This type of fracture typically occurs in young
vessels may be extensive. Also, because it children, mainly because their bones are softer than
has broken through the skin, there is an adult bones, causing the bone to splinter rather
increased risk for infection. than break completely.

In a comminuted fracture, the bone is broken into In a spiral fracture, the fracture line spirals around the
pieces. This type of fracture is most likely to occur in a bone, the result of a twisting force. The jagged bone ends
car accident. often make this type of fracture difficult to reposition.

FAST FACT
Fracture locations typically vary with age: elbow fractures commonly
occur in childhood; young persons are more likely to fracture a lower leg
bone while playing sports; elderly people are susceptible to hip fractures.
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Fracture Repair
Uncomplicated fractures heal in 8 to 12 weeks. Complex fractures, and fractures occurring in bones having a poor blood
supply (such as the neck of the femur), take longer. Healing is also slower in elderly people as well as in those who suffer
PART II Covering, Support, and Movement of the Body

from a poor nutritional state.

In general, healing follows these steps:
ANIMATION

1 When a fracture occurs, blood vessels in the bone

and periosteum are torn, resulting in bleeding and
the formation of a clot (hematoma). The hematoma
2 Collagen and fibrocartilage are deposited in the
granulation tissue, transforming it into a soft callus.

soon transforms into a soft mass of granulation tissue

containing inflammatory cells and bone-forming cells
that aid in the healing process.

3 Next, bone-forming cells produce a bony, or hard,

callus around the fracture. This splints the two
bone ends together as healing continues.
4 Remodeling eventually replaces the callus tissue
with bone.

FAST FACT
Orthopedics is the branch of medicine
that deals with the prevention or
correction of disorders and injuries of
bones, joints, and muscles.
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Review of Key Terms

CHAPTER 6 Bones and Bone Tissue

Articular cartilage: Thin layer of Epiphysis: The head of each end of a Osteocyte: Mature osteoblast
hyaline cartilage covering the surface long bone
Osteon: Basic structural unit of
of the epiphysis
Haversian canal: A central canal in compact bone consisting of a
Canaliculi: Microscopic passageways compact bone containing blood haversian canal and surrounding
that connect lamellae to each other vessels and nerves; surrounded by lamellae
lamellae
Cancellous bone: Spongy bone found Periosteum: Dense fibrous membrane
in the ends of long bones and the Intramembranous ossification: Process covering the diaphysis
middle of most other bones in the fetus whereby fibrous connective
Remodeling: Reshaping or
tissue evolves into bone
Compact bone: Dense solid bone that reconstructing part of a bone
forms the shafts of long bones and the Lacunae: Tiny gaps between rings of
Resorption: The destruction of old
outer surfaces of other bones lamellae in compact bone
bone; part of the bone remodeling
Diaphysis: The central shaft-like Lamellae: Concentric rings of matrix process
portion of a long bone surrounding haversian canal in
Spongy bone: Also called cancellous
compact bone
Endochondral ossification: Process in bone; found in the ends of long bones
the fetus whereby cartilaginous Medullary cavity: Thecentral hollow and the middle of most other bones
skeleton transforms into bone portion of a long bone that contains
Trabeculae: Latticework of osseous
bone marrow
Endosteum: Thin epithelial membrane tissue that makes up the structure of
lining the inside of the medullary Osseous tissue: Bone tissue spongy or cancellous bone
cavity
Ossification: The creation of new bone
Epiphyseal plate:Layer of cartilage
Osteoblast: Bone-forming cell
separating the epiphysis from the
diaphysis at each end of a long bone; Bone cells that dissolve
Osteoclasts:
the site where bone growth occurs old or unhealthy bone

Own the Information

To make the information in this chapter part of your Key Topics for Chapter 6:
working memory, take some time to reflect on what you’ve • The roles of bone in the body
learned. On a separate sheet of paper, write down • The classification of bones by shape
everything you recall from the chapter. After you’re done, • The parts of a long bone
log on to the DavisPlus website, and check out the Study • The components of and qualities of bone tissue
Group podcast and Study Group Questions for the chapter. • Types of bone tissue
• Types and locations of bone marrow
• Two types of bone development
• Bone growth and remodeling
• Bone fractures and repair
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Test Your Knowledge

PART II Covering, Support, and Movement of the Body

1. Most fractures occur because c. Both red and yellow bone

bones lack: marrow
a. tensile strength. d. The medullary cavity
b. compressional strength. 5. The type of bone found in the
c. torsional strength. ends of long bones and in the
d. both tensile and compressional centers of most other bones is:
strength. a. compact bone.
Answers: Chapter 6 2. The head of a long bone is called b. cancellous bone.
1. Correct answer: c. Bone is highly resistant to the: c. membranous bone.
stretching forces (tensile strength) and squeezing
forces (compressional strength). It lacks the ability a. epiphysis. d. endochondral bone.
to endure twisting (torsional strength). b. endosteum. 6. What effect does physical stress
2. Correct answer: a. The endosteum is the c. diaphysis.
membrane lining the inside of the medullary have on bone?
cavity. The diaphysis is the shaft-like portion of d. periosteum. a. It stimulates osteoblasts to
the long bone. The periosteum is the fibrous
membrane covering the diaphysis. 3. The periosteum is crucial to bone break down bone.
3. Correct answer: c. The periosteum has no role in survival because it: b. It stimulates bone marrow to
helping prevent fractures; it does not produce
bone marrow; it does not secrete immunoglobulin. a. helps prevent fractures. increase production of red
4. Correct answer: b. Yellow bone marrow is mostly b. produces bone marrow. blood cells.
fat and does not produce blood cells. The c. contains blood vessels and c. It impairs longitudinal growth.
medullary cavity contains bone marrow, but it
does not produce blood cells. bone-forming cells. d. It stimulates osteocytes to
5. Correct answer: b. Compact bone is found in the d. secretes immunoglobulin to create new bone.
shafts of long bones and surrounding all other
bones. There is no such thing as membranous or protect the bone against 7. A fetus’s first skeleton is
endochondral bone. infection. composed primarily of:
6. Correct answer: d. Physical stress stimulates the
creation of new bone, not the destruction of bone. 4. Which part of bone produces a. epithelial tissue.
Physical stress has no effect on the production of blood cells? b. osseous tissue.
red blood cells or on longitudinal growth.
7. Correct answer: c. Epithelial tissue is not involved a. Yellow bone marrow c. cartilage.
in the formation of bone. Osseous tissue is bone b. Red bone marrow d. fibrous connective tissue.
tissue. Parts of the skull start out as fibrous
connective tissue; however, most bones evolve
from cartilage.
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CHAPTER 6 Bones and Bone Tissue

8. Correct answer: a. Lacunae are the tiny gaps 8. What is the name of the basic 10. What is the name of a fracture in
between rings of lamellae that contain osteocytes.
Canaliculi are microscopic passageways connecting structural unit of bone? which the bone pierces the skin?
the lamellae to each other. An osteocyte is a bone a. Osteon a. Greenstick
cell (not a structural unit).
b. Lacunae b. Compound
9. Correct answer: d. Bone growth and maintenance
are affected by a number of factors, including c. Canaliculi c. Comminuted
heredity, nutrition, hormones (including the sex d. Osteocyte d. Spiral
hormones estrogen and testosterone), and exercise.
However, epinephrine does not affect bone growth
or maintenance.
9. Which of the following does
10. Correct answer: b. A greenstick fracture is an not affect bone growth and
incomplete fracture. A comminuted fracture is one maintenance?
in which the bone is broken into pieces. A spiral
fracture is one in which the fracture line spirals a. Exercise
around the bone. b. Sex hormones
c. Nutrition
d. Epinephrine

Go to http://davisplus.fadavis.com Keyword:
Thompson to see all of the resources available
with this chapter.