;

SULTAN KUDARAT EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

National Highway, Tacurong City
NURSING DEPARTMENT
BIOCHEMISTRY

Introduction:

This module discusses the structural organization and

chemical substances that compose the cell. It illustrates the
cell as fundamental unit of structure and function of all
organisms. Here, you will understand how the complex life
functions are coordinated in the minuteness of a cell.

CONTENTS:

THE CELLULAR BASIS OF LIFE

 Cell Theory
 Cell Structure and Composition
 Variation in Cell Structure and Function
 Levels of Cellular Organization and
Specialization

GRADING SYSTEM
Written Works Performance Task Quarterly
Assessment

REMINDERS:

Topics are presented in modules (printed/digitized) and video clips

Answers to Self Check, Task and Review portions will serve as your written works.

MONILYN P. GREGORIO, LPT, MIB

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MODULE 2: THE CELLULAR BASIS OF LIFE
Competencies:
 explain the postulates of the cell theory
 describe the structure and function of major and subcellular organelles
OBJECTIVES:

In this module, you will:

a.) explain the concepts of the cell theory;

b.) identify the parts of the cell;
c.) describe the function of each cell part;
d.) differentiate prokaryotic from eukaryotic cells;
e.) compare plant and animal cells; and
f.) compare the levels of organization and specialization in unicellular,
colonial and multicellular organisms.

2.1 CELL THEORY

All living things are made up of cells. Some organisms are unicellular, made
up of only one cell. Some unicellular organisms may be held together by a matrix
or binding material to form a colony. Other organisms are multicellular, composed
of even the most complicated multicellular organisms still starts from a cell- a
fertilized egg or zygote. A zygote divides into two, and each newly formed cells
subdivides. Further divisions of cells organize into tissues, tissues into organs, and
organs into organ systems of a multicellular organism. The complex life processes
which occur in each organ system are the same life-sustaining reactions which the
single cell of a unicellular organisms performs. These are the biological concepts
that comprise the so-called ‘cell theory’. Basically, the concepts may be
summarized into three statements as follows:
1. All living things are structurally made up of cells.
2. The cell is the fundamental unit of life.
3. Cells come from the division of preexisting cells.
The cell theory is one of the most important concepts in biology. The three
statements answer three important questions about life.
1. What are living things made of?
2. What can cells do?
3. Where do cells come from?

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 With the estimated five million species of diverse organisms worldwide, it is
amazing to know that they all share a common characteristic, their cellular
structure.

How was the cell theory developed? The cell theory was the product of the
work, not of one, but of many biologists of various nationalities through a long
span of about three centuries.

ROBERT HOOKE ( 1635-1703), an Englishman, coined the term cell and was
responsible for the beginnings of cytology as a subdiscipline in biology.

ANTON VAN LEEUWENHOEK (1632-1723), Dutch naturalist, discovered

bacteria and other microscopic organisms in rainwater and studied the structure of
plant and animal cells.

FRANCESCO REDI (1627-1697) and LAZZARO SPALLANZANI (1729-1799),

Italian physician and biologist, respectively, disproved the Theory of Spontaneous
Generation.

ROBERT BROWN (1773-1858), a Scottish botanist, discovered the presence

of nuclei within cells.

FELIX DUJARDIN (1801-1860), a French man, noted that all living things
contain a thick jelly fluid which he called sarcode at that time.

MATTHIAS SCHLEIDEN (1804-1881) and THEODOR SCHWANN (1810-1882),

German botanist and zoologist, respectively, introduced the concept that all plants
and animals are made up of cells.

JOHANNES PURKINJE (1787-1869), a Czechoslovakian, coined the term

protoplasm to refer to the living matter of cell.

RUDOLF VIRCHOW (1821-1902), a German physician, found that cells divide

to form new cells. He concluded that “omnis cellula e cellula” or cells come from
preexisting cells.

LOUIS PASTEUR (1822-1895), a French chemist, supplied the proof for

Virchow’s Theory if Biogenesis.

SELF CHECK

1. Who are the three principal contributors to the cell theory? State
their contribution to the development of the theory.
2. What enabled cytologists to gain more knowledge and better
understanding of the cell theory?

The following section discusses the structure and composition of cells. It

presents first the fundamental parts of a cell followed by a comparison of the types
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of cells based on one important criterion. The main bulk of the section contains a
detailed discussion of each part of both plant and animal cells.

2.2 CELL STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION

Cells vary in their sizes and shapes according to the functions which they
perform. But no matter how diverse cell forms are, they share common
characteristics and possess similar basic structure and composition.

Microscopic studies that show that a cell has three fundamental parts. They
are: (a) cytoplasm, the region where the main metabolic life activities take place,
(b) cell membrane which protectively surrounds the cytoplasm, and (c) nucleus
(plural, nuclei) or region of the cell where the genetic material is located.

It was observed that, based on the structure of the nucleus, cells may be one
of two types; prokaryotic (Figure 8.1) or eukaryotic (Figures 8.2 and 8.3). the main
difference is that the prokaryotic (pro-before; karyote –nucleus) cell lacks a nuclear
membrane. Its nuclear materials occupy a space in the cell called the central body
or nucleoid. The prokaryotic nucleus is described as incipient and the organisms
with this type of nucleus are referred to as prokaryotes. Meanwhile, the eukaryotic
(eu-true) cell has a so-called ‘true’ nucleus, which means that its nuclear materials
are enclosed by a nuclear membrane. And the organisms which possess a true
nucleus are known as eukaryotes.

From the evolutionary point of view, such main difference considers

prokaryotes to be the ancestors of eukaryotes. Examples of prokaryotes are
bacteria and blue-green algae. On the other hand, eukaryotes include the
unicellular protists and the multicellular plants and animals.

2.2.1 Cytoplasm

For the living matter of the cell, Purkinje coined the term protoplasm. At
that time, the protoplasm was perceived to be just a mass of jellylike material.
However, with the development of the electron microscope, the protoplasm was

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discovered to be a highly organized mass of complex molecules. Hence, the term
protoplasm is seldom used today. If the term protoplasm is used, it is structurally
defined as being made up of two main parts: the cytoplasm bounded by a cell or
plasma membrane, and the nucleoplasm bounded by a nuclear membrane.

The cytoplasm contains all the necessary life-sustaining components. It

consists of a thick, semifluid aggregate of chemical compounds called cytosol,
various structures, and internal membrane or cytomembrane. The cytoplasm is
composed of organic and inorganic materials. The organic compounds consist of
proteins, fats and lipids, carbohydrates and nucleic acids. The inorganic compounds
such as water constitute the nonliving matter but still play important roles in living
things.

The cytoplasm is largely water. This is highly significant considering the fat
that the water can dissolve more materials compared to many other solvents.
Hence, the presence of many health-sustaining substances in the cytoplasm.
Likewise, protein is the most abundant among the organic components of the
cytoplasm. Protein provides materials for the growth and development of the cell.

The cytoplasm serves as the reservoir for the entry and exit of materials in
the cell. It has a network of membrane-bound pathways for materials which the
cell needs to sustain its life activities. In addition, the cytoplasm has a machinery
for maintaining the shape and general form of the cell.

2.2.2 Cell Membrane

The cell membrane or plasma membrane, also known as plasmalemma,

serves as the outer boundary of the cell. Ranging from 7.5 to 10 nm, it is so thin
that it could hardly be noticed under the light microscope. However, the modern
electron microscope shows that the cell membrane consists of a double layer of
fats or lipid (phospholipid or glycolipid) with scattered proteins (figure 8.4). The
large protein molecules are either located inside or merely on the surface of the
phospholipid bilayer. They are long and easily folded, which accounts for the
elasticity of the cell membrane.

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 The cell membrane is differentially permeable. Some materials can pass
through it readily, others less readily, and some others not at all. For instance,
gases and alcohol pass through the cell membrane more rapidly than water. On the
other hand, the macromolecules of carbohydrates, fats and proteins cannot pass
through it. They have to be digested or broken down into simpler and smaller
molecules first before the cell membrane permits them to pass through.
Otherwise, the passage of these large molecules in and out of the cell will require
the process of active transport or other special mechanisms.

The cell membrane performs three major functions: (a) separates the
contents of the cell from the external environment; (b) regulates the passage of
materials into and out of the cells; and (c) allows communication with other cells.

2.2.3 Nucleus

The nucleus is generally an oval-shaped or spherical-shaped structure.

Particularly in animals, it is the most conspicuous part of the cell. Usually located at
the center, it is known as the ‘control center’ of the cell. The nucleus regulates and
coordinates all the activities of the cell. It is filled with a semifluid medium called
nucleoplasm or karyoplasm, also known as nuclear sap, which is separated from
the cytoplasm by a nuclear membrane.

The nuclear membrane, unlike the cell membrane, is not a single membrane.
It is a double membrane. Each membrane is a phospholipid bilayer. Unlike the cell
membrane, it has clear pores which serve as pathways for the exchange of
materials between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.

The nucleoplasm consist of nucleoproteins, granules and fibrils. Suspended

in the nucleoplasm is the nucleolus (plural, nucleoli) which is composed of
ribonucleic acid (RNA) and protein molecules. It is the site where the subunits of
ribosomes are formed. Also found in the nucleus is the chromatin (chromo-color;
teino-stretch) material which is composed of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and
protein molecules. During cell division, the chromatin coils and becomes
condensed into rod-shaped structures called chromosomes. The DNA found in
these chromosomes makes up the so called genes which are the bearers of
hereditary traits.
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 2.2.4 Organelles in the Cytoplasm

One basic concept in the cell theory states that the cell is the functional unit
of life. As such, the cell possesses structures which enable it to perform all
metabolic life processes. These structures are called organelles. They are generally
found in the cytoplasm of the cell.

Mitochondria

Known as the ‘powerhouse’ of eukaryotic cells, the mitochondria (singular,

mitochondrion) are the sites of cellular respiration. They harness energy by
breaking down food molecules to make adenosine triphosphate or ATP, which is
the main carrier of energy in cells.

Figure 8.6 shows that the mitochondrion is bounded by a double membrane.

Each membrane is a phospholipid bilayer. The inner membrane is thrown into folds
called cristae which provide more surface area for a greater cellular respiratory
productivity, an example of the complementarity of structure and function.

The inner cavity into which the cristae project is called the matrix. It is filled
with a semi-fluid medium containing enzymes that break down carbohydrates
products. The narrow region between the inner and outer membranes is called the
intermembrane space.

Ribosomes

Found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, ribosomes are the sites of

protein synthesis. They receive coded message from DNA as to the kind of
protein to be synthesized or produced. Such message is carried by the
messenger RNA (mRNA) from the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm.

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 Some ribosomes are bound or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.
Others are free or suspended in cytosol. Bound ribosomes make secretory
proteins while free ribosomes produce proteins that are localized in the cytosol.
However, bound and free ribosomes are so structurally identical that they can
function interchangeably.

Cytomembrane System

The cytomembrane system, also known as endomembrane system, refers

to a network of pathways through which materials flow to the different parts of
the cytoplasm. It also serves as a passage for the entry and exit of certain
substances in the cell. Like the cell membrane, the membranes that make up
the cytomembrane system also consist of a phospholipid bilayer. The system of
membrane pathways includes the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi bodies, some
enzyme-filled sacs and various transport vesicles.

Endolpasmic Reticulum (ER)

The endoplasmic reticulum (endon-within; plasma-something molded;

reticulum – net)n consists of flattened sheets, sacs and tubes of membranes
that extend throughout the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells. It is structurally
continuous with the nuclear membrane and it specializes in the transport of
lipids and membrane proteins.

Study closely Figure 8.3. It shows the two kinds of ER: the rough
endoplasmic reticulum or RER and the smooth endoplasmic reticulum or SER.
The RER generally occurs as flattened sheets, studded on its outer surface with
small spherical bodies, the ribosomes that are engaged in protein synthesis.
Without attached ribosomes, the SER is usually a site for fat metabolism and
forms vesicles for transporting large molecules to other cell parts.

Golgi Apparatus

Named after Camillo Golgi who discovered it in 1989, the golgi apparatus
is a system of flattened, membrane-bound sac that look like a stack of pancakes
( see Figure 8.7). It is involves in modifying, sorting and packaging macro
molecules for secretion or for delivery to other organelles. Associated with the
apparatus are the rounded vesicles which have been pinched off from the ends
of the flattened sacs of the Golgi apparatus and the other parts of the cell. The
number of Golgi bodies in a cell depends on the function and stage of
development of the cell. Numerous Golgi bodies are found in dividing plant cells
and in enzyme-secreting animal cells.

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 Lysosomes

Another membrane-bound organelle is the lysosome which is also

produced by the Golgi apparatus ( see Figure 8.7). Of various sizes and shapes,
lysosomes are known as ‘digestive sacs’ in the cell. They contain numerous
hydrolytic or digestive enzymes for the breakdown of carbohydrates, proteins
and fats within the cell. They playa role in the destruction or repair of defective
parts of the cell.

They play a role in the destruction or repair of defective parts of the cell.

Peroxisomes

Peroxisomes are membrane-bond vesicles which contain oxidative

enzymes. They have enzymes for oxidizing certain organic molecules resulting in
the formation of hydrogen peroxide. A toxic substance, hydrogen peroxide is
broken down by another peroxisomal enzymr into water and oxygen. They are
abundantly found in cells that metabolize fats or lipids such as liver cells. In
germinating seeds, they convert fatty acids into sugars needed by the growing
seedlings.

Vacuoles

The large membranous storage sacs in cells are called vacuoles; the
smaller ones are known as vesicles. Vacuoles in animal cells vary in their uses:
some are for storage of water or food, while others are for excretion of waste
materials. In plant cells, they are very large, occupying up to 90% of the cell
volume. They function for intracellular digestion, space filling and control of cell
turgor. Aside from water, sugar and salts, vacuoles in plant cells also contain
pigments (anthocyanins) and toxic molecules. The latter help protect plants
from herbivorous animals. In some protists, contractile vacuoles rid the cell of
excess water.

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 2.2.5 Special Organelles in the Cytoplasm

Certain structures in the cell exist for very specific functions. These
include the centrioles, cytoskeleton and plastid.

Centrioles

In animal cells and in some protists, the centrosome is found just

outside the nucleus. It consists of two rod-shaped centrioles which are at
right angle to each other. When a cell is about to divide, the centrioles
replicate, resulting in two pairs of centrioles. The two pairs of centrioles
move apart, and each pair becomes part of the newly formed cells. The
centrioles are believed to function in the formation of the spindle fibers (the
structures which bring about movement of chromosomes during cell
division)

Cytoskeleton

The cytoskeleton is a network of interconnected protein filaments

which extends throughout the cytoplasm. Three types of cytoskeleton
components have been identified: actin filaments, intermediate filaments
and microtubules. They provide the cell’s structural support and are
responsible for cell shape and motility.

TASK:

The activities/ functions of the different cell organelles

are responsible for the occurrence of many natural
processes. Explain the role of:

1. lysosome in the disintegration of tails in tadpoles

2. mitochondria in leg muscle cells of a runner
3. vacuoles in the growth of plant cells.

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 Plastids

Plastids are double-membrane organelles found in plant and

photosynthetic protists. They serve as storage containers of pigments and
starch molecules. Plastids are classified into three: chloroplasts,
chromoplasts and leucoplasts.

The chloroplasts (chloro –green; plas-formed) are the green-colored

plastids. Their green color is due to a class of green pigment called
chlorophyll. They also contain carotenoids (mainly yellow pigments) but
these are masked from view by chlorophyll. The chloroplasts are the sites of
photosynthesis, the process by which green plants manufacture food.

The chromoplasts are the colored plastids other than green that are
specialized to synthesize and store carotenoids pigments (red, orange and
yellow) instead of chlorophyll. Other pigments found in plant cells are the
anthocyanins (like red and violet) which are not found in plastids but are
dissolved in the cell sap found in vacuoles. The carotenoids and anthocyanins
are mainly responsible for the nongreen multi-colored appearance of
flowers, leaves, fruits and root crops such as carrots and sweet potatoes.

The leucoplasts are colorless plastids. They may contain stored food.
For instance, those rich in starch are called amyloplasts.

2.3 VARIATION IN CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

While the previous sections amazed you with the basic unity of cellular
organization among diverse organisms, this section will plunge you into the
fascinating variations in cell structures. Cells vary greatly in size, shape and
general forms. They exhibit unique characteristic features. They possess
these special structural characteristics in relation to the functions they
perform.

2.3.1 Prokaryotic Cells vs. Eukaryotic Cells

You have learned in the earlier sections that the main difference
between prokaryotes and eukaryotes is that the prokaryotic cells lacks a
nuclear envelope. Its DNA occupies a space in the cell called the central body

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 or nucleoid. Table 8 shows more contrasting characteristics of these two
types of cells.

2.3.2 Plant Cells vs. Animal Cells

Make a close study of Figure 8.2 (plant cell) and Figure 8.3 (animal
cell). Compare and contrast the parts of plant and animal cells. Then answer
the Self-Check item in Nos. 3 and 4.

Table 8 Comparison of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

Characteristics Prokaryocyte Eukaryocyte

Organisms Bacteria and cyanobacteria Protists, fungi, plants and

animals
Nuclear membrane Absent Present
DNA Loop of DNA in the cytoplasm Thin, very long DNA organized
into chromosomes in the
nucleus
RNA and protein Both synthesized in the same RNA synthesized in the nucleus;
compartment protein synthesized in the
cytoplasm
Cytoplasm No cytoskeleton; very few Cytoskeleton present; many
organelles present organelles present
Cellular Mainly unicellular Mainly multicellular with
organization differentiation of cells
Cell size Generally 1 to 10 µm in linear Generally to 100 µm in linear
dimension dimension

Variation in Plant Cells

Diversity of forms and structures in plant cells are shown in Figure 8.9.
The closely packed regular epidermal leaf cells form a protective covering of
underlying parts. The kidney-shaped guard cells are arranged in such a way as to
form breathing pores or stomata (singular, stoma). For the passage of food and
water, the stem has extremely elongated tubelike conducting cells with various
supportive thickenings. The root hairs or epidermal outergrowths of root cells
increase the absorbing capacity of the roots. In addition, some pollen grains are
light and small while others are provided with special structures such as hairs,
hooks and wings. These are structural adaptations for various agents of
pollination.

Variation in Animal Cells

Figure 8.10 presents examples of how certain characteristics of animal

cells are related to their functions. They continuously connected flat skin cells
are arranges into a protective sheath for body covering. The hairlike projections
called cilia(singular,cilium) in cells lining our windpipe or trachea help in filtering
dust particles from the air we inhale. The elastic cell membrane of white blood
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 cells can engulf germs and thus protect the body from diseases. The branching
extensions of elongated nerve cells facilitate the relay of nerve impulses.

In spite of variations in structure and function of cells, they share many

characteristics in common. Most of them have the three main parts: cell
membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus. In addition to these, plant cells have a cell
wall, plastids and large vacuoles; these are not found in animal cells. On the
other hand, animal cells and a few blue-green algae have a centrosome; this is
absent in plant cells. The other cellular structures described earlier are generally
found in both plant and animal cells.

Cells differ in size, but many plant and animal cells have diameters of five
to fifteen microns. Furthermore, the composition of living matter is similar in
plant and animal cells. Of course, there is a lot of variation in this respect. For
instance, the cells of a grain of corn have a much lower water content than the
cells of watermelon. And the muscle cells of your arm have a much lower water
content than the cells of jelly fish.

SELF CHECK:

3. Differentiate plant and animal cells as to their protective covering

or envelope.
4. Name two organelles which are
4.1 present in plant cells but nor in animal cells
4.2 present in animal cells but not in plant cells

2.4 LEVELS OF CELLULAR ORGANIZATION AND SPECIALIZATION

As to the nature of their nucleus, cells may either be prokaryotic or

eukaryotic. As regards their level of organization and specialization, cells may
be unicellular , colonial or multicellular.

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 Many organisms are multicellular, that is, composed of many cells. They
include the plants and animals that you can see around. Some are unicellular,
consisting of only one cell each. Others are composed of a colony of unicellular
organisms such as some protists.

A multicellular organism exhibits a hierarchy of cellular organization.

Cells are organized into tissues and tissues into organs for specific functions. A
system of organs work together to carry on particular life functions. For
instance, the bones and muscles of your body coordinate primarily for
movement and for body support while the heart pumps blood (carrying
absorbed) food from the small intestine and oxygen from the lungs) through
the blood vessels that branch out to reach every cell of your entire body.

On the other hand, some organisms are unicellular. Each consist of

only one cell. They are so tiny that you can see them only with the use of
instruments such as microscopes. Thus they are called microorganisms or
microbes. Inconspicuous as they are, the single cell of these microbes does an
amazing feat; it performs all the life functions which are being done by the
various organ systems of a multicellular organism. Examples of unicellular
organisms include bacteria, some protists and some fungi.

However, there are unicellular organisms which live in colonies. An

example is Volvox globator, a colonial protozoan which exhibits specialization
in functions. The cells in a colony of Volvox are of two (2) types. One type
functions as gametes, that is, they perform reproduction. The other type is
known as vegetative cells because they perform all life activities except
reproduction. Thus, the cells are differentiated to perform their respective
functions, the way multicellular organisms exhibit division of labor among their
organ systems. Figure 8.12 shows how division of labor among the cells in a
Volvox colony is carried out. Biologists consider this phenomenon in Volvox a
significant event towards the development of multicellular forms. What is your
opinion? ____________

KEY CONCEPTS/SUMMARY

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1. The cell theory states that all living things are composed of cells, that cells
are the fundamental units of life, and that all cells come from preexisting
cells.
2. Cells vary in structure in relation to the functions they perform.
3. No matter how different in size and shape cells are, they have the same
main parts: (a) cell membrane, (b) cytoplasm (c) nucleus.
4. a. The cell membrane defines the boundary of the cell, regulates the entry
and exit of materials in the cell, and makes possible communications with
other cells.
b. The cytoplasm is the site of the metabolic life processes because of the
structures it contains: mitochondria, ribosomes, lysosomes etc.
c. The nucleus regulates and coordinates all activities of the cell, and houses
the genetic material.
5. The two types of cells are prokaryotic cells. Prokaryotic organisms are
unicellular. They have a nucleoid that is not bound by a nuclear envelope,
and they lack most of the organelles that characterize eukaryotes.
Eukaryotic organisms are multicellular. Their nucleus is bound by a nuclear
envelope and their cytoplasm contains various organelles.
6. Cellular organization illustrates the unity of pattern despite great diversity of
forms in the living world.

7. REVIEW: For items 1 to 7, label the diagram of the animal cell below and
state a function of each part.

8.A series of membrane-bound channels free of ribosomes is called

a. mitochondrion c. smooth endoplasmic reticulum
b. plastid d. rough endoplasmic reticulum
9. Which structure contains a prokaryotic cell’s genetic material?
a. DNA c. nuclear envelope
b. nucleoid d. ribosome
10. Which of the following organelles is least likely to be associated with the
cytomembrane system? Explain your answer.

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 a. Golgi apparatus c. lysosome
b. endoplasmic reticulum d. mitochondrion

B. Answer briefly the following.

1. In what ways are cells similar? In what ways are they different?

2. Explain the statement “ A cell is a living unit greater than the sum of its
parts.” Give an example.
3. Where can we find a greater number of mitochondria, in a leg muscle or
in a skin cell? Explain your answer.

REFERENCES:

Lilia M. Rabago, Ph.D., et al. Functional Biology Modular Approach

Vibal Publishing House, Inc. Second Edition, 2010, pp 68-79.
https://youtu.be/fPCWrdLocqU. The Chemical Basis Of life Part 1
https://youtu.be/Gm7BT_0IkLc. Biology 1, Lecture 2: Chemistry of Life

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