CHAPTER SIX

CATEGORICAL PROPOSITIONS
 Categorical propositions are in general simple, easy or plain statements that
relate to two classes of things based on the rule of exclusion or inclusion
principles.
 Here are some examples of categorical propositions:
 Every human being is mortal
 Nothing that is a human which is eternal
 There exists a fish that is a shark.
 There are plants which are not edible.
 All the above statements are categorical propositions. This is due to the fact that
in each statement two sets of things are related either in the form of inclusion or
exclusion.
 Any categorical proposition asserts that either all or part of the class denoted by
the subject term is included in or excluded from the class denoted by the
predicate term, it follows that there are exactly four types of categorical
propositions.
Conti…
Standard-Forms of Categorical Proposition
The standard form of categorical propositions is designed by the rules
of the partial or whole inclusion and exclusion of the two classes stated
in the subject and predicate of the proposition.
 The whole subject class is included in the predicate class. ( the
principle of total inclusion). E.g. All S are P
The whole subject class is excluded from the predicate class. (the
principle of total exclusion). E.g. No S are P.
Partially the subject class is included in the predicate class.(the
principle of partial inclusion). E.g. Some S are P
Partially the subject class is excluded from the predicate class.(the
principle of partial exclusion). E.g. Some S are not P
Conti…
The Components of Categorical Propositions
There are four propositions and each of these propositions has a quantifier, subject term,
sentential connective, and predicate term.
Quantifier = ‘All’, ‘No’ and ‘Some’ indicate the quantity or amount of the subject class.
Subject term = any term (word) or phrase that consists of set of things.
Copula = ‘Are’ and are ‘not’. The Latin copula is a sentential connective that relates the
subject and predicate terms.
Predicate term – A term consisting set of things, which has some relation with the
subject term.
Given the subject and predicate terms and their four components, categorical
propositions could be stated in standard form symbolically -as follows.
All S are P = All members of S are in P class.
No S are P = No members of S is in P class.
Some S are P = At least one member of S is in P class.
Some S are not P = At least one member of S is not in the P class
Conti…
Example: Some businesses are not profitable.
Quantifier: Some
Subject term: businesses
Copula: are not
Predicate term: Profitable
Standard form: Some S are not P
Attributes of Categorical Propositions: Quality, Quantity, and Distribution
Quality:
It refers to those sets of things stated in the subject term that are included or
excluded from those sets of things stated in the predicate term.
If the subject term refers to those classes of things, that are included
(partially/entirely) in the predicate term, the proposition is said to be affirmative,
while if the subject term refers to those classes of things that are excluded
(partially/entirely) the proposition is said to be negative.
Conti…
Standard form Quality
All S are P Affirmative
No S are P Negative
Some S are P Affirmative
Some S are not P Negative
Quantity: The quantity of a categorical proposition is determined by the amount
or quantity of those set of things stated in the subject term.
Standard form Quantity
All S are P Universal
No S are P Universal
Some S are P Particular
Some S are not P Particular
Conti…
According to the quality and quantity of categorical propositions, logicians
devised letter names of the four propositions. Accordingly, the four-letter names:
A, E, I, and O are devised to represent the four standard forms of categorical
propositions.
Standard form Letter name
All S are P A
No S are P E
Some S are P I
Some S are not P O
Fill the blank space by writing “same” or “different”
Proposition A and I are _______ in quality and ______in quantity.
Proposition E and O are _______in quality and ______in quantity.
Conti…
Distribution
The concept of distribution is crucial in analyzing categorical propositions. Categorical
propositions are statements that affirm or deny something about a class or category of things.
There are four types of categorical propositions based on their quantity (universal or particular)
and quality (affirmative or negative):
Universal affirmative (A): These propositions affirm that all class members have a certain
attribute. For example, "All birds can fly." In this proposition, the term "birds" is distributed
because it refers to all members of the class of birds.
Universal negative (E): These propositions deny that any class member has a certain attribute.
For example, "No reptiles are mammals." In this proposition, both terms "reptiles" and
"mammals" are distributed because they refer to all members of their respective classes.
Particular affirmative (I): These propositions affirm that some class members have a certain
attribute. For example, "Some students like math." In this proposition, the term "students" is
undistributed because it does not refer to all members of the class of students.
Particular negative (O): These propositions deny that some class members have a certain
attribute. For example, "Some fruits are not sweet." In this proposition, the term "fruits" is
undistributed because it does not refer to all members of the class of fruits.
Conti…
Standard form Distributed Undistributed
All S are P S P
No S are P S &P --
Some S are P --- S&P
Some S are not P P S
Summary
Letter name Standard form Quality Quantity Distribution
A All S are P Affirmative Universal S
E No S are P Negative Universal S&P
I Some S are P Affirmative Particular None
O Some S are not P Negative Particular P
Conti…
Venn Diagrams and the Modern Square of Opposition
Squares of Opposition: Traditional and Modern Squares of
Opposition.
Evaluating Immediate Inferences: Using Venn Diagrams and
Square of Oppositions.
( The above topics are discussed by a group of students as
part of the assignment).
Conti…
Logical Operations
Conversion, Obversion, and Contraposition are operations that can be performed on a
categorical proposition, resulting in a new statement that may or may not have the same
meaning and truth value as the original statement.
Conversion
 The rule of conversion emphasizes the change of the position of the subject to the
predicate and vice versa.
For example:
Letter name Given proposition Conversion
A All S are P All p are S
E No S are P No p are S
I Some S are P Some P are S
O Some S are not P Some P are not S
Conti…
Conti…
According to the rule of conversion:
Propositions E and I always give the same truth value. Hence, we can form a valid
conversion from the two propositions, taking the given proposition as premise and
the converted one as conclusion. If the given proposition is true, then the new
converted proposition will be again true. If the premise is false, then the
conclusion will be false too. Symbolically as follows:
No S are P = No P are S
Some S are P = Some P are S
The above both propositions are equivalent and give us the same truth value.
Example :
No birds are featherless (T) = given. No featherless are birds (T) = New
(converted)
Based on the given and converted true statements we can form valid immediate
inferences. Immediate inference is an argument consisting of only one premise
and one conclusion.
Conti…
E propositions form a valid argument:
Since no birds are featherless, therefore no featherless are birds.
In other words, we can state this assumption by saying that
No birds are featherless, it implies that no featherless are birds.
The same is true for proposition I.
Some businesses are profitable = True (given)
Some profitable are businesses = True (converted)
 Propositions A and O would not always give us the same truth value as in the
case of propositions E and I. The truth values of the converted statements of A and
O are undetermined, that is, sometimes they give us the same truth value as the
truth value of the given proposition, and on other occasions, they can give us a
different truth value than a given proposition.
Conti…
Example: In proposition ‘A’
All men are mortal – True
All mortals are men = False which is different in truth value from the given
proposition.
All Muslims are Christians = False
All Christians are Muslims = False – which is the same truth value as the given
proposition.
 In Proposition (I)
Some athletes are not drug users = True
Some drug users are not athletes = True, The same truth value
Some Ethiopians are not Africans = False
Some Africans are not Ethiopians = True, different truth value
The above examples clearly show that we cannot form valid arguments from
propositions A and O .
Conti…
Obversion
The obverse of a categorical proposition is obtained using the next two steps:
Changing the quality (from affirmative to negative or vice versa) without changing the
quantity; and,
Replacing the predicate term with the complement of the predicate term.
The complement of a class is the group consisting of everything outside the class.
 For terms consisting of a single word, the term complement is usually formed by simply
attaching the prefix “non” to the term. Thus, the term complement of the term
“Ethiopian” is “non- Ethiopian” or those that are not Ethiopian. The term complement of
the term “dog” is “non-dog”.
To make the first rule or step of obversion, that is, change the quality without changing
its quantity.
Conti…
The affirmative quantifier “all” has to be replaced by the negative quantifier
“No”.
This is to change the affirmative quality “all” of the proposition into negative
quality “no” and the negative quantifier “no” has to be replaced by the affirmative
quantifier “all”.
Again the quantities of these propositions are universal, that is the propositions
that begin with “All S are P” as well as “No S are P” are both universal in
quantity.
Examples:
Letter name Given proposition Obversion
A All S are P NO S are non -P
E No S are P All S are non -P
I Some S are P Some S are not non- P
O Some S are not P Some S are non -P
Conti…
Contraposition
The contrapositive of a categorical proposition is obtained by two steps:
Replacing the subject term with the complement of the predicate term and,
Replacing the predicate term with the complement of the subject term.
Examples:
Letter name Given proposition Contraposition
A All S are P All non P are non -S
E No S are P No non P are non -S
I Some S are P Some non P are non-S
O Some S are not P Some non P are not non -S
Thank you!!