FUNDAMENTAL‌‌UNIT‌‌OF‌‌LIFE‌‌

WHAT‌‌ARE‌‌LIVING‌‌ORGANISMS‌‌MADE‌‌UP‌‌OF?‌‌
● In‌‌the‌‌year‌‌1665,‌‌a‌‌scientist‌‌named‌‌Robert‌‌Hooke‌‌uncovered‌‌the‌‌'cell'‌‌
(Latin‌‌for‌‌little‌‌room)‌‌W
‌ hile‌‌observing‌‌a‌‌slice‌‌of‌‌cork‌‌-‌‌the‌‌bark‌‌of‌‌a‌‌tree‌‌-‌‌
under‌‌a‌‌self-made‌‌microscope‌‌‌
‌‌

What‌‌are‌‌these‌‌structures?‌‌
● The‌‌size‌‌of‌‌the‌‌cell‌‌of‌‌a‌‌small‌‌onion‌‌will‌‌be‌‌the‌‌same‌‌as‌‌the‌‌size‌‌of‌‌the‌‌
cell‌‌of‌‌a‌‌big‌‌onion‌‌
● There‌‌are‌‌unicellular‌‌and‌‌multicellular‌‌organisms.‌‌Unicellular‌‌organisms‌‌have‌‌
a‌‌single‌‌cell‌‌whereas‌‌multicellular‌‌organisms‌‌have‌‌multiple‌‌cells‌‌
‌‌

DIFFERENCE‌‌IN‌‌SIZE‌‌AND‌‌SHAPE‌‌
● The‌‌shapes‌‌and‌‌sizes‌‌of‌‌cells‌‌can‌‌be‌‌vastly‌‌different.‌‌But‌‌this‌‌does‌‌not‌‌
depend‌‌on‌‌the‌‌size‌‌of‌‌the‌‌organism‌‌but‌‌on‌‌the‌‌function‌‌it‌‌has‌‌to‌‌perform‌‌
● For‌‌example,‌‌the‌‌neural‌‌cells‌‌in‌‌our‌‌brain‌‌are‌‌elongated‌‌and‌‌blood‌‌cells‌‌
are‌‌circular.‌‌
‌‌

Functions‌‌of‌‌cells:‌
● Each‌‌living‌‌cell‌‌has‌‌the‌‌capacity‌‌to‌‌perform‌‌multiple‌‌functions‌‌
● The‌‌functions‌‌that‌‌a‌‌cell‌‌has‌‌are‌‌divided.‌‌'division‌‌of‌‌labor'‌‌
● Each‌‌cell‌‌has‌‌many‌‌smaller‌‌components‌‌in‌‌it‌‌called‌‌cell‌‌organelles‌‌
● These‌‌cell‌‌organelles‌‌have‌‌specific‌‌functions‌‌which‌‌they‌‌perform‌‌
● All‌‌these‌‌functions‌‌are‌‌controlled‌‌by‌‌the‌‌nucleus‌‌also‌‌known‌‌as‌‌the‌‌brain‌‌
of‌‌the‌‌cell‌‌
● All‌‌cells‌‌are‌‌found‌‌to‌‌have‌‌the‌‌same‌‌organelles‌‌no‌‌matter‌‌their‌‌function.‌‌
 ‌‌

BASIC‌‌COMPONENTS‌‌OF‌‌A‌‌LIVING‌‌CELL‌‌
● In‌‌any‌‌cell‌‌you‌‌observe,‌‌you‌‌will‌‌always‌‌find‌‌three‌‌basic‌‌components:‌‌
○ Plasma‌‌membrane/cell‌‌membrane‌‌
○ Nucleus‌‌
○ Cytoplasm‌‌
‌
‌‌

Plasma‌‌membrane/cell‌‌membrane:‌ ‌
● The‌‌plasma‌‌membrane‌‌also‌‌known‌‌as‌‌the‌‌cell‌‌membrane‌‌is‌‌the‌‌
outermost‌‌covering‌‌of‌‌a‌‌cell.‌‌
● It‌‌protects‌‌the‌‌cell‌‌from‌‌its‌‌surroundings,‌‌gives‌‌it‌‌a‌‌definite‌‌shape‌‌and‌‌
permits‌‌the‌‌entry‌‌of‌‌specific‌‌materials‌‌in‌‌and‌‌out‌‌of‌‌the‌‌cell‌‌
● The‌‌flexibility‌‌of‌‌the‌‌plasma‌‌membrane‌‌also‌‌helps‌‌the‌‌unicellular‌‌to‌‌engulf‌‌
in‌‌food‌‌from‌‌the‌‌surrounding‌‌such‌‌as‌‌Amoeba.‌‌This‌‌process‌‌is‌‌called‌‌
endocytosis.‌‌
‌‌

Cell‌‌wall:‌ ‌
● Plant‌‌cells‌‌have‌‌an‌‌additional‌‌outer‌‌covering‌‌called‌‌the‌‌cell‌‌wall‌‌
● It‌‌is‌‌composed‌‌of‌‌cellulose‌‌
● When‌‌a‌‌living‌‌plant‌‌cell‌‌loses‌‌water‌‌due‌‌to‌‌osmosis,‌‌components‌‌away‌‌
from‌‌the‌‌cell‌‌wall‌‌shrink.‌‌This‌‌is‌‌called‌‌plasmolysis‌‌
‌‌

Nucleus‌:‌‌
● It‌‌controls‌‌all‌‌the‌‌functions‌‌of‌‌the‌‌cell‌‌
● After‌‌coloring‌‌of‌‌the‌‌cell,‌‌the‌‌nucleus‌‌can‌‌be‌‌identified‌‌as‌‌a‌‌darker‌‌
dot-shaped‌‌part.‌‌
 ● The‌‌nucleus‌‌is‌‌covered‌‌by‌‌a‌‌nuclear‌‌membrane,‌‌which‌‌is‌‌also‌‌
semi-permeable‌‌
● It‌‌contains‌‌chromosomes,‌‌which‌‌are‌‌visible‌‌as‌‌rod-like‌‌structures‌‌only‌‌
when‌‌dividing‌‌the‌‌cells.‌‌
● Chromosomes‌‌contain‌‌DNA‌‌-‌‌which‌‌contain‌‌the‌‌genes‌‌from‌‌the‌‌parent‌‌to‌‌
the‌‌offspring‌‌
● When‌‌the‌‌cell‌‌is‌‌not‌‌dividing,‌‌chromosomes‌‌are‌‌present‌‌as‌‌chromatin‌‌
material‌‌-‌‌entangled‌‌mass‌‌of‌‌threads‌‌like‌‌structure‌‌
● The‌‌nucleus‌‌is‌‌important‌‌for‌‌nuclear‌‌reproduction.‌‌‌
● It‌‌also‌‌controls‌‌the‌‌chemical‌‌activities‌‌in‌‌the‌‌cell,‌‌making‌‌it‌‌an‌‌important‌‌
part‌‌in‌‌the‌‌process‌‌of‌‌the‌‌maturity‌‌of‌‌the‌‌cell.‌‌
‌‌
PROKARYOTES‌‌AND‌‌EUKARYOTES:‌ ‌
● Prokaryotic‌‌cells,‌‌simply‌‌defined,‌‌are‌‌cells‌‌which‌‌lack‌‌a‌‌nuclear‌‌membrane.‌‌
Therefore,‌‌their‌‌nuclear‌‌structure‌‌is‌‌poorly‌‌defined.‌‌
● Examples‌‌include‌‌bacteria‌‌
● Organisms‌‌which‌‌contain‌‌a‌‌well‌‌defined‌‌nuclear‌‌structure‌‌with‌‌a‌‌nuclear‌‌
membrane‌‌are‌‌called‌‌eukaryotes‌‌
● Example:‌‌Humans‌‌
● Prokaryotic‌‌cells‌‌also‌‌lack‌‌some‌‌of‌‌the‌‌cell‌‌organelles‌‌present‌‌in‌‌
eukaryotic‌‌cells.‌‌
● Due‌‌to‌‌this‌‌reason,‌‌prokaryotic‌‌cells‌‌perform‌‌their‌‌basic‌‌functions‌‌by‌‌
other‌‌poorly‌‌defined‌‌organelles.‌‌
● For‌‌example,‌‌the‌‌chlorophyll‌‌in‌‌photosynthetic‌‌prokaryotic‌‌bacteria‌‌is‌‌
associated‌‌with‌‌membranous‌‌vesicles‌‌but‌‌not‌‌with‌‌plastids,‌‌as‌‌in‌‌
eukaryotic‌‌cells.‌‌
● Prokaryotic‌‌cells‌‌also‌‌lack‌‌membrane‌‌bound‌‌organelles‌‌whereas‌‌
eukaryotic‌‌cells‌‌have‌‌them‌‌
‌‌
Cytoplasm:‌‌
● The‌‌gel‌‌like‌‌substance‌‌between‌‌the‌‌cell‌‌membrane‌‌and‌‌the‌‌nucleus‌‌is‌‌
what‌‌holds‌‌the‌‌parts‌‌of‌‌the‌‌cell‌‌in‌‌place‌‌as‌‌well‌‌as‌‌provides‌‌rigidity‌‌and‌‌
shape‌‌to‌‌the‌‌cell‌‌
● The‌‌cell‌‌organelles‌‌present‌‌here‌‌also‌‌have‌‌membranes‌‌but‌‌this‌‌depends‌‌
on‌‌the‌‌type‌‌of‌‌cell.‌‌(refer‌‌section‌‌of‌‌prokaryotes‌‌and‌‌eukaryotes)‌‌
‌‌

Cell‌‌organelles:‌ ‌
● To‌‌keep‌‌the‌‌functions‌‌a‌‌cell‌‌has‌‌to‌‌perform‌‌separate‌‌from‌‌each‌‌other,‌‌a‌‌
cell‌‌has‌‌membrane‌‌bound‌‌organelles.‌‌
● These‌‌organelles‌‌help‌‌perform‌‌the‌‌basic‌‌functions‌‌of‌‌the‌‌cell‌‌
● Eg:‌‌endoplasmic‌‌reticulum,‌‌mitochondria,‌‌plastids,‌‌Golgi‌‌apparatus,‌‌
lysosome‌‌
‌‌

ENDOPLASMIC‌‌RETICULUM:‌ ‌
● The‌‌endoplasmic‌‌reticulum‌‌is‌‌a‌‌large‌‌network‌‌of‌‌membrane‌‌bound‌‌sheets‌‌
● The‌‌membrane‌‌of‌‌the‌‌ER‌‌is‌‌very‌‌similar‌‌in‌‌composition‌‌to‌‌that‌‌of‌‌the‌‌
plasma‌‌membrane‌‌
● ER‌‌-‌‌RER‌‌-‌‌rough‌‌endoplasmic‌‌reticulum‌ ‌
‌SER‌‌-‌‌smooth‌‌endoplasmic‌‌reticulum‌‌
● The‌‌surface‌‌of‌‌the‌‌RER‌‌is‌‌rough‌‌due‌‌to‌‌the‌‌ribosomes‌‌present‌‌on‌‌it.‌‌
● Ribosomes‌‌manufacture‌‌protein‌‌for‌‌the‌‌cell.‌‌This‌‌protein‌‌is‌‌transferred‌‌
to‌‌parts‌‌of‌‌the‌‌cell‌‌using‌‌the‌‌ER‌‌
● The‌‌SER‌‌manufactures‌‌fat‌‌molecules‌‌aka‌‌lipids.‌‌
● Some‌‌of‌‌these‌‌lipids‌‌and‌‌proteins‌‌are‌‌used‌‌in‌‌the‌‌making‌‌of‌‌the‌‌plasma‌‌
membrane‌‌by‌‌a‌‌process‌‌called‌‌'membrane‌‌biogenesis'‌‌
● Functions‌‌of‌‌the‌‌ER‌‌thus‌‌include,‌‌transferring‌‌materials‌‌(specially‌‌protein)‌‌
to‌‌other‌‌parts‌‌of‌‌the‌‌cell‌‌and‌‌serving‌‌as‌‌a‌‌surface‌‌for‌‌performing‌‌
chemical‌‌activities‌‌(cytoplasmic‌‌framework)‌‌
 ‌‌

GOLGI‌‌APPARATUS:‌ ‌
● Golgi‌‌apparatus‌‌consists‌‌of‌‌a‌‌network‌‌of‌‌membrane‌‌bound‌‌vesicles‌‌
similar‌‌to‌‌those‌‌present‌‌in‌‌the‌‌ER‌‌
● The‌‌function‌‌of‌‌the‌‌Golgi‌‌is‌‌to‌‌store,‌‌modify‌‌and‌‌package‌‌the‌‌substances‌‌
manufactured‌‌by‌‌the‌‌ER.‌‌
● It‌‌helps‌‌in‌‌manufacturing‌‌lysosomes‌‌as‌‌well‌‌
‌‌

LYSOSOMES:‌ ‌
● Lysosomes‌‌are‌‌bags‌‌filled‌‌with‌‌digestive‌‌enzymes‌‌made‌‌by‌‌the‌‌RER‌‌
● Worn‌‌out‌‌cell‌‌organelles,‌‌foreign‌‌substances,‌‌etc.‌‌end‌‌up‌‌in‌‌the‌‌lysosome‌‌
and‌‌are‌‌broken‌‌down‌‌and‌‌digested‌‌by‌‌the‌‌strong‌‌digestive‌‌enzymes‌‌of‌‌
the‌‌lysosome.‌‌
● Sometimes,‌‌when‌‌the‌‌cell‌‌is‌‌damaged‌‌or‌‌there‌‌is‌‌any‌‌kind‌‌of‌‌disturbance‌‌
in‌‌the‌‌cellular‌‌metabolism,‌‌the‌‌lysosomes‌‌burst,‌‌letting‌‌the‌‌digestive‌‌
enzymes‌‌digest‌‌the‌‌entire‌‌cell.‌‌
● Therefore,‌‌they‌‌are‌‌also‌‌known‌‌as‌‌'suicidal‌‌bags'‌‌of‌‌the‌‌cell.‌‌

‌‌

MITOCHONDRIA:‌ ‌
● They‌‌are‌‌known‌‌as‌‌the‌‌powerhouses‌‌of‌‌the‌‌cell‌‌
● They‌‌produce‌‌an‌‌energy‌‌substance‌‌called‌‌ATP‌‌(adenosine‌‌triphosphate)‌‌
aka‌‌energy‌‌currency‌‌of‌‌the‌‌cell‌‌
● They‌‌have‌‌two‌‌membranes.‌‌One‌‌is‌‌porous‌‌the‌‌other‌‌one‌‌is‌‌folded‌‌to‌‌
provide‌‌more‌‌surface‌‌area‌‌for‌‌ATP‌‌manufacturing.‌‌
● Mitochondria‌‌have‌‌their‌‌own‌‌DNA‌‌structure‌‌like‌‌ribosomes,‌‌therefore‌‌they‌‌
can‌‌make‌‌their‌‌own‌‌proteins.‌‌
‌‌
 PLASTIDS:‌ ‌
● o‌ nly‌‌present‌‌in‌‌plant‌‌cells,‌‌plastids‌‌are‌‌of‌‌two‌‌types‌‌-‌‌chromoplasts‌‌and‌‌
leucoplasts‌‌
● Chromoplasts‌‌are‌‌colored‌‌plastids‌‌and‌‌leucoplasts‌‌are‌‌colorless‌‌
● Chloroplasts‌‌are‌‌chromoplasts‌‌with‌‌chlorophyll‌‌
● Leucoplasts‌‌contain‌‌oil,‌‌starch‌‌and‌‌protein‌‌granules‌
● They‌‌also‌‌have‌‌their‌‌own‌‌DNA‌‌and‌‌ribosomes‌‌
‌‌

VACUOLES:‌ ‌
● Vacuoles‌‌are‌‌simple‌‌storage‌‌bags‌‌
● Small‌‌in‌‌animal‌‌cells,‌‌and‌‌large‌‌in‌‌plant‌‌cells.‌‌
● In‌‌plant‌‌cells,‌‌they‌‌occupy‌‌50‌‌-‌‌90%‌‌of‌‌the‌‌total‌‌area.‌‌They‌‌are‌‌filled‌‌with‌‌
cell‌‌sap‌‌to‌‌provide‌‌rigidity‌‌and‌‌strength‌‌
● In‌‌unicellular‌‌organisms,‌‌vacuoles‌‌also‌‌help‌‌eliminate‌‌excess‌‌substances.‌‌
‌‌

Cell‌‌division:‌ ‌
● In‌‌order‌‌to‌‌grow,‌‌replace‌‌old‌‌cells‌‌or‌‌injured‌‌cells,‌‌new‌‌cells‌‌must‌‌be‌‌
formed.‌‌
● This‌‌process‌‌is‌‌called‌‌cell‌‌division.‌‌
● It‌‌is‌‌of‌‌two‌‌types,‌‌mitosis‌‌and‌‌meiosis‌‌
● Mitosis‌‌is‌‌the‌‌process‌‌by‌‌which‌‌the‌‌mother‌‌cell‌‌divides‌‌into‌‌2‌‌new‌‌
daughter‌‌cells.‌‌These‌‌cells‌‌are‌‌absolutely‌‌identical,‌‌down‌‌to‌‌the‌‌number‌‌of‌‌
chromosomes.‌‌
● The‌‌cells‌‌of‌‌certain‌‌reproductive‌‌organs‌‌produce‌‌their‌‌offspring‌‌by‌‌the‌‌
process‌‌of‌‌meiosis.‌‌Here,‌‌the‌‌cell‌‌divides‌‌into‌‌4,‌‌halving‌‌the‌‌number‌‌of‌‌
chromosomes.‌‌‌
‌