Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide

Contents
A. Overall Body Organization ........................................................................................................................ 2
B. Cytology .................................................................................................................................................... 8
C. Histology ................................................................................................................................................. 16
D. Integumentary System ........................................................................................................................... 20
E. Skeletal System ....................................................................................................................................... 23
F. Muscular System ..................................................................................................................................... 29
G. Nervous System ...................................................................................................................................... 34
H. Endocrine System ................................................................................................................................... 44
I. Cardiovascular System ............................................................................................................................. 46
Blood (CH 10) .......................................................................................................................................... 46
The Heart (CH 11).................................................................................................................................... 54
Blood Vessels (CH 11) ............................................................................................................................. 59
J. Lymphatic System (CH 12) ....................................................................................................................... 62
K. Respiratory System ................................................................................................................................. 63
L. Digestive System ..................................................................................................................................... 71
M. Urinary System ...................................................................................................................................... 77
N. Reproductive System .............................................................................................................................. 84
Male Reproductive System ..................................................................................................................... 84
Female Reproductive System.................................................................................................................. 86
LABELLING ................................................................................................................................................... 89
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
A. Overall Body Organization
• Define and provide examples of REGIONAL anatomical terms used to describe body regions.

 abdominal: anterior body trunk inferior to ribs

 acromial: point of shoulder
 antebrachial: forearm
 antecubital (BLOOD TEST ZONE): anterior surface of elbow
 axillary: armpit
 brachial: arm
 buccal: cheek area
 carpal: wrist
 cervical: neck region
 coxal: hip
 crural: anterior leg; the shin
 deltoid: curve of shoulder formed by large deltoid muscle
 digital: fingers, toes
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
 femoral: thigh (applies to both anterior and posterior)
 fibular: lateral part of leg
 frontal: forehead
 inguinal: area where thigh meets body trunk; groin
 mental: chin
 nasal: nose area
 oral: mouth
 orbital: eye area
 patellar: anterior knee
 pectoral: relating to, or occurring in or on, the chest
 pelvic: area overlying the pelvis anteriorly
 pubic: genital region
 sternal: breastbone area
 tarsal: ankle region
 thoracic: area between the neck and abdomen, supported by the ribs, sternum and costal
cartilages; chest
 umbilical: navel

• Define the body planes.

Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
• Define and provide examples of DIRECTIONAL terminology.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
• Define the body cavities and the organs contained within each cavity.

1 -- Dorsal Body Cavity

 Cranial cavity
• Houses the brain
 Spinal cavity
• Houses the spinal cord
2 -- Ventral Body Cavity
 Thoracic cavity
• Houses lungs and heart and trachea, bronchi and bronchial tree, esophagus, thymus,
and thoracic duct
• Central region called the mediastinum separates the lungs into left and right cavities
within. It houses the heart, trachea, etc.
• Separated from the abdominal cavity by the diaphragm
 Abdominal cavity
• Houses the stomach, liver, intestines, pancreas, spleen
 Pelvic cavity
• Houses the reproductive organs, bladder, and rectum
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
Other Body Cavities
 Oral cavity and digestive cavity
• The oral cavity, or the mouth, contains the teeth and tongue
• This cavity is part of and continuous with the digestive organs, which open to the
exterior at the anus
 Nasal cavity
• Located within and posterior to the nose, the nasal cavity is part of the respiratory
system
 Orbital cavities
• The orbital cavities (orbits) in the skull house the eyes and present them in an anterior
position
 Middle ear cavities
• The middle ear cavities carved into the skull lie just medial to the eardrums
• These cavities contain tiny bones that transmit sound vibrations to the hearing receptor
in the inner ears
• Be able to identify the abdominal cavity into the 4 quadrants and Grid of 9.
The 4 quadrants:
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
The Grid of 9:

1. The umbilical region is the centermost region, deep to and surrounding the umbilicus (navel)
2. The epigastric region is located superior to the umbilical region (epi =upon, above; gastric =
stomach)
3. The hypogastric (pubic) region is inferior to the umbilical region (hypo = below)
4. The right iliac (inguinal) region and
5. The left iliac (inguinal) region are lateral to the hypogastric region (iliac = superior part of the hip
bone)
6. The right lumbar region and
7. The left lumbar region lie lateral to the umbilical region (lumbus = loins) and spinal column
between the bottom ribs and the hip bones; see Figure 1.4b
8. The right hypochondriac region and
9. The left hypochondriac region flank the epigastric region and contain the lower ribs (chondro =
cartilage)
• Define homeostasis.
The word homeostasis describes the body’s ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions even
though the outside world is continuously changing. Although the literal translation of homeostasis is
“unchanging” (homeo = the same; stasis = standing still), the term does not really mean an unchanging
state. Instead, it indicates a dynamic state of equilibrium, or a balance in which internal conditions
change and vary but always within relatively narrow limits.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
• Describe the components of a feedback system.

All homeostatic control mechanisms have three components:

(1) a receptor that responds to environmental changes (stimuli) and
(2) a control center that assesses those changes and produces a response by activating
(3) the effector
• Compare positive and negative feedback systems.
Most homeostatic control systems are negative feedback systems, which act to reduce or stop the
initial stimulus. Negative feedback mechanisms regulate heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate, the
release of hormones, and blood levels of glucose (blood sugar), oxygen, carbon dioxide, and minerals.

Some are positive feedback systems, which act to increase the initial stimulus, as in the case of blood
clotting or childbirth.

B. Cytology
• Describe the key components of the cell.
Cells have three major regions—nucleus, cytoplasm, and plasma membrane.
• Describe the composition of the cytoplasm.
The cytoplasm is where most cellular activities occur. Its fluid substance, the cytosol, contains inclusions,
stored or inactive materials in the cytoplasm (fat globules, water vacuoles, crystals, and the like) and
specialized bodies called organelles, each with a specific function
• Describe the structure and function of the following organelles:
Endoplasmic reticulum:
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
 Rough ER: studded with ribosomes, the cell’s membrane factory, found in cells that make and
export proteins such as pancreatic cells (which produce digestive enzymes to be delivered to the
small intestine)
 Smooth ER: plays no role in protein synth due to lack of ribosomes, instead it functions in lipid
metabolism (cholesterol and fat synthesis and breakdown) and the detoxification of drugs and
pesticides, abundant in liver cells (detox) and cells that produce steroid-based hormones like the
cells of the make testes that manufacture testosterone
Golgi apparatus: packages proteins for export from the cell
Mitochondria: the powerhouse of the cell, where ATP is made
Ribosomes: the site of protein synthesis
Lysosomes: carry out intracellular digestion
Peroxisomes: disarm dangerous chemicals in the cells
Proteasomes: protein complexes which degrade unneeded or damaged proteins by proteolysis
Centrosomes: helps to organize the microtubules that form the mitotic spindle in dividing cells, and
orchestrate a wide variety of cellular processes, including cell motility, signaling, adhesion, coordination
of protein trafficking by the microtubule cytoskeleton and the acquisition of polarity
Cytoskeleton: a structure that helps cells maintain their shape and internal organization, and it also
provides mechanical support that enables cells to carry out essential functions like division and
movement. There is no single cytoskeletal component.
Centrioles: play a role in cell division and form the bases of cilia and flagella
• Describe the composition of the plasma membrane.
The plasma membrane encloses the cytoplasm and acts as a semipermeable barrier to the movement of
substances into and out of the cell. The fluid mosaic model – It is composed of a phospholipid bilayer
containing proteins, sugars, and cholesterol. The water-impermeable lipid portion forms the basic
membrane structure. The proteins (many of which are glycoproteins) act as enzymes or carriers in
membrane transport, form membrane channels, provide receptor sites for hormones and other
chemicals, or play a role in cellular recognition and interactions during development and immune
reactions. Specializations of the plasma membrane include microvilli (which increase the absorptive
surface area) and cell junctions (desmosomes, tight junctions, and gap junctions).
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
• Describe the structure of phospholipids.

• Describe the structure and function of the lipid bilayer.

The olive oil–like phospholipid bilayer forms the basic “fabric” of the membrane. The polar “heads” of
the lollipop-shaped phospholipid molecules are hydrophilic (“water loving”) and are attracted to water,
the main component of both the intracellular and extracellular fluids, and so they lie on both the inner
and outer surfaces of the membrane. Their nonpolar fatty acid “tails,” being hydrophobic (“water
fearing”), avoid water and line up in the center (interior) of the membrane. The self-orienting property
of the phospholipids allows biological membranes to reseal themselves quickly when torn. The
hydrophobic makeup of the membrane interior makes the plasma membrane relatively impermeable to
most water-soluble molecules. The cholesterol helps to both stabilize the membrane and keep it
flexible.
• Explain the function of cholesterol in the plasma membrane.
Cholesterol stabilizes the membrane and keeps it flexible
• Describe the structure and function of plasma membrane proteins.
The proteins scattered in the lipid bilayer are responsible for most of the specialized functions of the
membrane. Some proteins are enzymes. Many of the proteins protruding from the cell exterior are
receptors for hormones or other chemical messengers or are binding sites for anchoring the cell to
fibers or to other structures inside or outside the cell. Most proteins that span the membrane are
involved in transport. For example, some cluster together to form protein channels (tiny pores) through
which water and small water-soluble molecules or ions can move; others act as carriers that bind to a
substance and move it through the membrane. Branching sugar groups are attached to most of the
proteins abutting the extracellular space. Such “sugar-proteins” are called glycoproteins, and because of
their presence, the cell surface is a fuzzy, sticky, sugar-rich area called the glycocalyx. (You can think of
your cells as being sugar coated.) Among other things, these glycoproteins determine your blood type,
act as receptors that certain bacteria, viruses, or toxins can bind to, and play a role in cell-to-cell
recognition and interactions. Definite changes in glycoproteins occur in cells that are being transformed
into cancer cells.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
• Describe the structure and function of the nucleus.
The nucleus, or control center, directs cell activity and is necessary for reproduction. The nucleus
contains genetic material (DNA), which carries instructions for synthesis of proteins.
• Describe the structure of DNA, chromatin, and chromosomes.
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): nucleic acid found in all living cells; carries the organism’s hereditary
information
Chromatin: the structures in the nucleus that carry the hereditary factors (genes)
Chromosomes: barlike body of tightly coiled chromatin; visible during cell division
• Describe the structure of genes and the genetic code.
• Describe the processes of transcription and translation in protein synthesis.
Protein synthesis involves both DNA (the genes) and RNA.
a. A gene is a segment of DNA that carries the instructions for building one protein. The information is in
the sequence of bases in the nucleotide strands. Each three-base sequence (triplet or codon) specifies
one amino acid in the protein (the genetic code).
b. Messenger RNA carries the instructions for protein synthesis from the DNA (gene) to the ribosomes.
Transfer RNA transports amino acids to the ribosomes. Ribosomal RNA forms part of the ribosomal
structure and helps coordinate the protein building process.
Transcription = DNA to RNA
Translation = RNA to protein
• Compare passive and active membrane transport mechanisms.
• Describe simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion (channel-mediated and carrier-mediated) and
provide examples of substances transported by these mechanisms.
• Define endocytosis, phagocytosis, and exocytosis.
Passive processes include diffusion and filtration:
(1) Diffusion is the movement of a substance from an area of its higher concentration to an area
of its lower concentration. It occurs because of kinetic energy of the molecules themselves; no
ATP is required. The diffusion of dissolved solutes through the plasma membrane is simple
diffusion. The diffusion of water across the plasma membrane is osmosis. Diffusion that
requires a protein channel or carrier is facilitated diffusion.
(2) Filtration is the movement of substances through a membrane from an area of high
hydrostatic pressure to an area of lower fluid pressure. In the body, the driving force of filtration
is blood pressure.
Active processes (active transport and vesicular transport) use energy (ATP) provided by the cell.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
(1) In active transport, substances are moved across the membrane against an electrical or a
concentration gradient by proteins called solute pumps. This accounts for the transport of
amino acids, some sugars, and most ions.
(2) The two types of ATP-activated vesicular transport are exocytosis and endocytosis.
Exocytosis moves secretions and other substances out of cells; a membrane-bounded vesicle
fuses with the plasma membrane, ruptures, and ejects its contents to the cell exterior.
Endocytosis, in which particles are taken up by enclosure in a plasma membrane sac, includes
phagocytosis (uptake of solid particles), pinocytosis (uptake of fluids), and the highly selective
receptor-mediated endocytosis. In the latter, membrane receptors bind with and internalize
only selected target molecules.
• Define osmosis and osmotic pressure.
Osmosis is the diffusion of water (a solvent) through a membrane from a dilute solution into a more
concentrated one.
Osmotic pressure is the pressure required to stop water from diffusing through a membrane by
osmosis. It is determined by the concentration of the solute. Water diffuses into the area of higher
concentration from the area of lower concentration. When the concentration of the substances in the
two areas in contact is different, the substances will diffuse until the concentration is uniform
throughout.

• Describe the effects of hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic solutions on cell volume.
An isotonic solution is one that has the same concentration of solutes both inside and outside the cell.
A hypertonic solution is one that has a higher solute concentration outside the cell than inside.
A hypotonic solution is one that has a higher solute concentration inside the cell than outside.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide

• Describe ion pumps and the function of the Na+/K+ pump, H+ pump, and Ca2+ pump.
Na+/K+ Pump (Sodium-Potassium Pump):
 The Na+/K+ pump is one of the most crucial ion pumps found in the plasma membrane of
animal cells.
 It actively transports three sodium ions (Na+) out of the cell and two potassium ions (K+) into
the cell for each ATP molecule hydrolyzed.
 This pump helps maintain the electrochemical gradient across the cell membrane by
establishing a high concentration of sodium ions outside the cell and a high concentration of
potassium ions inside the cell.
 The Na+/K+ pump is essential for various cellular functions, including maintaining cell volume,
generating membrane potential, and facilitating secondary active transport of other molecules,
such as glucose and amino acids.
H+ Pump (Proton Pump):
 Proton pumps, also known as H+ pumps, are found in the membranes of organelles such as
lysosomes, endosomes, and the Golgi apparatus, as well as in the plasma membrane of some
cells.
 These pumps actively transport hydrogen ions (protons, H+) across membranes, typically from
the cytoplasm to the extracellular space or into organelles.
 In the plasma membrane, proton pumps contribute to the acidification of the extracellular
environment, important for processes like gastric acid secretion in the stomach.
 Within organelles, proton pumps help create acidic conditions necessary for various functions,
such as lysosomal degradation of cellular components and protein processing in the Golgi
apparatus.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
Ca2+ Pump (Calcium Pump):
 Calcium pumps are responsible for actively transporting calcium ions (Ca2+) across cellular
membranes, primarily the plasma membrane and the membranes of organelles such as the
endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) in muscle cells.
 These pumps maintain low cytosolic calcium concentrations by transporting Ca2+ ions out of the
cytoplasm or into intracellular stores.
 In muscle cells, calcium pumps in the SR help regulate muscle contraction and relaxation by
controlling cytosolic calcium levels.
 Calcium pumps in the ER play a role in calcium signaling, protein folding, and the regulation of
intracellular calcium homeostasis.
In summary, ion pumps such as the Na+/K+ pump, H+ pump, and Ca2+ pump are essential for
maintaining ion gradients across cellular membranes, regulating cell volume, generating membrane
potential, and facilitating various cellular processes.
• Describe secondary active transport (symporters and antiporters) and the role of Na+ and ATP in this
transport mechanism.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
• Describe the stages of the cell cycle.

• Describe the stages of mitosis.

Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
C. Histology
• Define histology.
Histology is the study of the microscopic anatomy of biological tissues.
• Describe epithelial tissue.
Epithelial tissue is the lining, covering, and glandular tissue of the body. Covering and lining epithelium
covers all free body surfaces, both inside and out, and contains versatile cells. Because epithelium forms
the boundaries that separate us from the outside world, nearly all substances that the body gives off or
receives must pass through epithelium. Epithelial functions include protection, absorption, filtration,
and secretion.
• Describe the specialized structures located on the apical and basolateral surfaces of epithelial cells.
Epithelium generally has the unique characteristics listed below:
 Except for glandular epithelium, epithelial cells fit closely together to form continuous sheets.
Neighboring cells are bound together at many points by specialized cell junctions, including
desmosomes and tight junctions.
 The membranes always have one free (unattached) surface or edge. This apical surface is
exposed to the body’s exterior or to the cavity of an internal organ. The exposed surfaces of
some epithelia are slick and smooth, but others exhibit cell surface modifications, such as
microvilli or cilia.
 The anchored (basal) surface of epithelium rests on a basement membrane, a structure less
material secreted by both the epithelial cells and the connective tissue cells deep to the
epithelium. Think of the basement membrane as the “glue” holding the epithelium in place.
 Epithelial tissues have no blood supply of their own (that is, they are avascular) and depend on
diffusion from the capillaries in the underlying connective tissue for food and oxygen.
 If well nourished, epithelial cells regenerate themselves easily.
• Describe the classification of epithelial tissue based on cell shape and the number of cell layers, and
provide examples.
Epithelial tissue classification has two parts: the number of layers (simple or stratified) and the shape of
the cells (squamous, cuboidal, and columnar).
“Simple”
1. Simple Squamous Epithelium Simple squamous epithelium is a single layer of thin squamous
cells resting on a basement membrane. The cells fit closely together, much like floor tiles. This
type of epithelium usually forms membranes where filtration or exchange of substances by
rapid diffusion occurs. Simple squamous epithelium is in the air sacs of the lungs (called alveoli),
where oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged, and it forms the walls of capillaries, where
nutrients and gases pass between the blood in the capillaries and the interstitial fluid. Simple
squamous epithelium also forms serous membranes, or serosae, the slick membranes that line
the ventral body cavity and cover the organs in that cavity.
2. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium Simple cuboidal epithelium, which is one layer of cuboidal cells
resting on a basement membrane, is common in glands and their associated small tubes called
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
ducts (for example, the salivary glands and pancreas). It also forms the walls of the kidney
tubules (Figure 3.18b) and covers the surface of the ovaries.
3. Simple Columnar Epithelium Simple columnar epithelium is made up of a single layer of tall cells
that fit closely together. Goblet cells, which produce a lubricating mucus, are often seen in this
type of epithelium. Simple columnar epithelium lines the entire length of the digestive tract
from the stomach to the anus. Epithelial membranes that line body cavities open to the body
exterior are called mucosae, or mucous membranes.
4. Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium All of the cells of pseudostratified columnar epithelium
rest on a basement membrane. However, some of its cells are shorter than others, and their
nuclei appear at different heights above the basement membrane. As a result, this epithelium
gives the false (pseudo) impression that it is stratified; hence its name. Like simple columnar
epithelium, this variety mainly functions in absorption and secretion. A ciliated variety (more
precisely called pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium) lines most of the respiratory
tract. The mucus produced by the goblet cells in this epithelium acts as a “sticky trap” to catch
dust and other debris, and the cilia propel the mucus upward and away from the lungs.
“Stratified”
1. Stratified Squamous Epithelium Stratified squamous epithelium is the most common stratified
epithelium in the body. It usually consists of many cell layers. The cells at the free edge are
squamous cells, whereas those close to the basement membrane are cuboidal or columnar.
Stratified squamous epithelium is found in sites that receive a good deal of abuse or friction,
such as the surface of the skin, the mouth, and the esophagus.
2. Stratified Cuboidal and Stratified Columnar Epithelia Stratified cuboidal epithelium typically has
just two cell layers with (at least) the surface cells being cuboidal in shape. The surface cells of
stratified columnar epithelium are columnar cells, but its basal cells vary in size and shape. Both
of these epithelia are fairly rare in the body, found mainly in the ducts of large glands.
3. Transitional Epithelium Transitional epithelium is a highly modified, stratified squamous
epithelium that forms the lining of only a few organs—the urinary bladder, the ureters, and
part of the urethra. As part of the urinary system, all of these organs are subject to considerable
stretching/changing. Cells of the basal layer are cuboidal or columnar; those at the free surface
vary in appearance. When the organ is not stretched, the membrane is many-layered, and the
superficial cells are rounded and domelike. When the organ is distended with urine, the
epithelium thins like a rubber band being stretched, and the surface cells flatten and become
squamouslike. This ability of transitional cells to slide past one another and change their shape
(undergo “transitions”) allows the ureter wall to stretch as a greater volume of urine flows
through that tubelike organ. In the bladder, it allows more urine to be stored.
4. Glandular Epithelium A gland consists of one or more cells that make and secrete a particular
product. This product, a secretion, typically contains protein molecules in an aqueous (water-
based) fluid. The term secretion also indicates an active process in which the glandular cells
obtain needed materials from the blood and use them to make their products, which they then
discharge by exocytosis. Two major types of glands develop from epithelial sheets: endocrine
and exocrine:
a. Endocrine glands lose their ducts; thus they are often called ductless glands. Their
secretions (all hormones) diffuse directly into the blood vessels that weave through the
glands. Examples of endocrine glands include the thyroid, adrenals, and pituitary.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
b. Exocrine glands retain their ducts, and their secretions exit through the ducts to the
epithelial surface. Exocrine glands, which include the sweat and oil glands, liver, and
pancreas, are both internal and external.
• Describe connective tissue.
Connective tissue, as its name suggests, connects body parts. It is found everywhere in the body. It is
the most abundant and widely distributed of the tissue types. Connective tissues perform many
functions, but they are primarily involved in protecting, supporting, and binding together other body
tissues. Variations in blood supply: most connective tissues are well vascularized (that is, they have a
good blood supply), but there are exceptions. Tendons and ligaments, for example, have a poor blood
supply, and cartilages are avascular. Consequently, all these structures heal very slowly when injured.
(This is why some people say that, given a choice, they would rather have a broken bone than a torn
ligament.)
• Describe the composition of the extracellular matrix of connective tissue.
Connective tissues are made up of many different types of cells plus varying amounts of a nonliving
substance found outside the cells, called the extracellular matrix.
• Describe the structure and function of collagen, reticular fibres, and elastic fibres.
Depending on the connective tissue type, various types and amounts of fibers contribute to the matrix.
These include:
1. Collagen (white) fibers: distinguished by their high tensile strength;
2. Elastic (yellow) fibers, which have the ability to stretch and recoil; and
3. Reticular fibers, which are fine collagen fibers that form the internal “skeleton” of soft organs
such as the spleen.
The building blocks, or monomers, of these fibers are made by the connective tissue cells and secreted
into the ground substance in the extracellular space, where they join together to form the various fiber
types
• Describe the classification of connective tissue based on physical properties (connective tissue
proper, cartilage, bone, blood, and lymph).
1. Connective tissue proper: This category includes loose connective tissue and f. It serves to
connect and support other tissues and organs.
2. Cartilage: Cartilage is a firm, flexible type of connective tissue found in various parts of the body,
such as the joints, nose, and ears. It provides structural support and cushioning.
3. Bone: Bone is a hard, mineralized connective tissue that forms the skeletal system. It provides
support, protection, and facilitates movement.
4. Blood: Blood is a fluid connective tissue composed of plasma and various types of cells (red
blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets). It transports nutrients, oxygen, hormones, and
waste products throughout the body.
5. Lymph: Lymph is a fluid connective tissue that circulates throughout the lymphatic system. It
plays a key role in immune function by transporting lymphocytes and removing waste products
from tissues.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
• Compare the structure, function, and location of loose and dense connective tissue proper.

Property Loose Connective Tissue Dense Connective Tissue

Structure Contains fewer collagen fibers, more ground Contains more collagen fibers densely
substance and cells (fibroblasts, adipocytes, packed with fewer cells and less ground
etc.). substance.

Function Provides support, flexibility, and nourishment Provides strong support and resists tensile
to surrounding structures. forces in various directions.

Location Found beneath the skin, around blood vessels, Found in tendons, ligaments, and deep
and organs. fascia.

• Compare the structure, function, and location of hyaline cartilage, fibrocartilage and elastic
cartilage.

Property Hyaline Cartilage Fibrocartilage Elastic Cartilage

Structure Contains a fine network of Contains thick bundles of Contains elastic fibers and
collagen fibers, chondrocytes collagen fibers, chondrocytes chondrocytes in lacunae,
(cartilage cells) embedded in in lacunae, and a dense embedded in a matrix with
lacunae (small cavities or matrix. abundant elastin.
spaces within the
extracellular matrix of
connective tissues,
particularly in cartilage and
bone), and a smooth, glassy
matrix.

Function Provides support and Resists compression and Provides elasticity and
flexibility to joints, respiratory absorbs shock in structures maintains shape in structures
structures, and developing such as intervertebral discs like the external ear and
bones. and pubic symphysis. epiglottis.

Location Found in the nose, trachea, Found in intervertebral discs, Found in the external ear,
larynx, and articular surfaces pubic symphysis, and menisci auditory tube, and epiglottis.
of bones. of knee joints.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
• Describe the structure of epithelial membranes.
Epithelial membranes, also known as mucous membranes or mucosae, are composed of epithelial tissue
and underlying connective tissue. They consist of three layers:
1. Epithelium: This layer faces the body surface or a body cavity and is composed of epithelial
cells specialized for secretion and absorption.
2. Lamina propria: This layer lies beneath the epithelium and consists of loose connective
tissue that supports the epithelium and contains blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic
vessels.
3. Muscularis mucosae: In some areas, there may be a thin layer of smooth muscle fibers
located beneath the lamina propria, known as the muscularis mucosae, which aids in the
movement and function of the mucous membrane.
• Compare mucous membranes and serous membranes in terms of structure, location, and function.

Property Mucous Membranes Serous Membranes

Consists of epithelium, lamina propria (loose Consists of a layer of simple squamous

connective tissue), and sometimes a muscularis epithelium (mesothelium) resting on a
Structure mucosae layer. thin layer of loose connective tissue.

Lines body cavities that open to the exterior, Lines closed body cavities, such as the
such as the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and pleural, pericardial, and peritoneal
Location reproductive tracts. cavities.

Produces serous fluid, which lubricates

Protects underlying tissues, provides lubrication, and reduces friction between the
and facilitates the exchange of gases, nutrients, opposing surfaces of organs within the
Function and waste products. body cavities.

D. Integumentary System
• Describe the structure and function of the cutaneous membrane.
The cutaneous membrane, commonly known as the skin, is the largest organ of the human body and
serves as a protective barrier between the internal organs and the external environment. It consists of
two main layers:
1. Epidermis: The outermost layer of the skin primarily consists of stratified squamous epithelium.
Its main function is to provide protection against pathogens, UV radiation, and mechanical
damage.
2. Dermis: The dermis lies beneath the epidermis and is composed of dense irregular connective
tissue. It contains blood vessels, nerves, hair follicles, sweat glands, and other structures. The
dermis provides structural support to the skin and contains sensory receptors for touch,
pressure, temperature, and pain.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
• Name and describe the epidermal layers.
The epidermis consists of several layers, including (from deepest to superficial):
 Stratum basale (basal layer): This layer is composed of a single row of columnar or cuboidal
keratinocytes attached to the basement membrane. It contains stem cells that continually divide
to produce new keratinocytes.
 Stratum spinosum (spinous layer): This layer consists of several layers of polygonal
keratinocytes connected by desmosomes. It provides strength and flexibility to the skin.
 Stratum granulosum (granular layer): This layer contains keratinocytes that are undergoing
apoptosis (programmed cell death). It is involved in the formation of keratin, a protein that
provides structural integrity to the skin.
 Stratum lucidum (clear layer): This translucent layer is present only in thick skin, such as the
palms of the hands and soles of the feet. It consists of flattened, densely packed keratinocytes.
 Stratum corneum (horny layer): The outermost layer of the epidermis consists of multiple layers
of dead, flattened keratinocytes called corneocytes. These cells are continuously shed and
replaced by cells from the deeper layers.
• Describe the function of keratinocytes, melanocytes, Langerhans cells, stem cells, and Merkel cells
of the epidermis.
 Keratinocytes: These are the most abundant cells in the epidermis and produce the protein
keratin, which provides mechanical strength and waterproofing to the skin.
 Melanocytes: Located in the stratum basale, melanocytes produce the pigment melanin, which
protects the skin from UV radiation and determines its color.
 Langerhans cells: These are immune cells found in the epidermis that play a role in detecting
and presenting antigens to activate the immune response against pathogens.
 Stem cells: Found in the stratum basale, stem cells continuously divide to produce new
keratinocytes, replenishing the epidermis.
 Merkel cells: These are specialized cells located in the stratum basale that function as touch
receptors, aiding in the sensation of light touch.
• Explain the function of the epidermis in protection and prevention of water loss.
The epidermis serves as a protective barrier against physical, chemical, and biological factors from the
external environment. It prevents water loss by forming a waterproof barrier through the production of
lipids and keratinocytes, which fill the intercellular spaces and reduce water permeability.
• Explain the role of melanin in the determination of skin colour and protection from DNA damage.
Melanin, produced by melanocytes in the epidermis, determines skin color by absorbing UV radiation
and protecting the skin from DNA damage induced by UV exposure. Higher levels of melanin result in
darker skin tones, providing greater protection against UV radiation and reducing the risk of skin cancer.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
• Describe the composition of the dermis layers.
The dermis consists of two main layers:
 Papillary layer: The superficial layer of the dermis contains loose connective tissue with papillae
that extend into the epidermis, forming dermal ridges. It contains blood vessels, lymphatic
vessels, and sensory receptors. Finger prints!
 Reticular layer: The deeper and thicker layer of the dermis consists of dense irregular
connective tissue with collagen and elastic fibers. It provides structural support, strength, and
elasticity to the skin.
• Explain how the dermis provides strength and elasticity to the skin.
The dermis provides strength to the skin through its dense network of collagen fibers, which resist
tensile forces. Elastic fibers provide elasticity, allowing the skin to return to its original shape after
stretching or compression.
• Describe the structure of hair and the hair follicle.
Hair is composed of keratinized cells that originate from hair follicles embedded in the dermis. The hair
follicle consists of several layers, including the outer root sheath, inner root sheath, and hair bulb. The
hair bulb contains the hair matrix, where actively dividing cells produce the hair shaft. Arrector pili
muscles attached to the hair follicle contract to produce goosebumps.
• Compare apocrine and eccrine sweat glands.
 Apocrine sweat glands: These glands are larger and less numerous than eccrine sweat glands.
They are found in the axillary (armpit) and genital regions and secrete a thicker, milky fluid
containing lipids and proteins. Apocrine sweat glands become active during puberty and are
involved in the production of body odor.
 Eccrine sweat glands: These glands are smaller and more numerous than apocrine sweat glands.
They are distributed throughout the body and secrete a watery fluid containing electrolytes.
Eccrine sweat glands play a crucial role in thermoregulation by producing sweat that evaporates
from the skin surface, cooling the body.
• Describe the composition and function of sweat.
Sweat, also known as perspiration, is primarily composed of water and electrolytes (such as sodium,
chloride, and potassium). It also contains small amounts of metabolic waste products, urea, and lactic
acid. Sweat helps regulate body temperature by evaporating from the skin surface, cooling the body.
Additionally, it contributes to the excretion of waste products and helps maintain electrolyte balance.
• Describe the structure and location of sebaceous glands.
Sebaceous glands are small, holocrine glands found in the dermis of the skin. They are usually associated
with hair follicles, although they can also exist independently. Sebaceous glands secrete an oily
substance called sebum into the hair follicle or directly onto the skin surface through pores.
The structure of sebaceous glands consists of a cluster of cells called sebocytes, which are filled with
lipid-rich cytoplasm. These cells undergo holocrine secretion, meaning the entire cell disintegrates to
release its contents (sebum).
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
• Describe the composition and function of sebum.
Sebum is an oily, lipid-rich substance produced by sebaceous glands. It consists of triglycerides, fatty
acids, wax esters, squalene, cholesterol, and cellular debris. Sebum helps lubricate the skin and hair,
preventing dehydration and maintaining flexibility. It also possesses antimicrobial properties, inhibiting
the growth of certain bacteria on the skin surface.
• Describe the function of the skin in the synthesis of vitamin D.
The skin plays a crucial role in the synthesis of vitamin D when exposed to ultraviolet B (UVB) radiation
from sunlight. Specifically, UVB radiation penetrates the skin and converts 7-dehydrocholesterol, a
precursor molecule present in the epidermis, into previtamin D3. Previtamin D3 is then converted into
vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) through a heat-dependent process.
Vitamin D3 is subsequently metabolized in the liver and kidneys into its active form, calcitriol, which
plays a vital role in calcium and phosphorus metabolism, bone health, immune function, and various
other physiological processes.
• Describe the function of the skin in body temperature regulation.
The skin plays a crucial role in thermoregulation, the process of maintaining stable internal body
temperature. It accomplishes this through several mechanisms:
 Sweating: Eccrine sweat glands produce sweat, which evaporates from the skin surface,
dissipating heat and cooling the body.
 Vasodilation: Blood vessels in the skin dilate (widen), allowing increased blood flow to the skin's
surface. This facilitates heat loss through radiation and convection.
 Vasoconstriction: Conversely, in response to cold temperatures, blood vessels in the skin
constrict (narrow), reducing blood flow to the skin's surface and minimizing heat loss.
 Piloerection: Arrector pili muscles attached to hair follicles contract, causing hairs to stand on
end (goosebumps). While this mechanism is less effective in humans, it can trap a layer of air
near the skin, providing some insulation.
Overall, these mechanisms allow the skin to regulate body temperature within a narrow range, despite
fluctuations in external environmental conditions.

E. Skeletal System
• Describe the classification of bones based on bone shape.
Bones can be classified into five categories based on their shape:
1. long bones (e.g., femur, humerus)
2. short bones (e.g., carpals, tarsals)
3. flat bones (e.g., skull bones, ribs, sternum)
4. irregular bones (e.g., vertebrae, facial bones)
5. sesamoid bones (e.g., patella) – can sometimes be lumped in with “irregular” bones
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
• Describe the structure of long bones.
A long bone is composed of a shaft (diaphysis) with two ends (epiphyses). The shaft is compact bone; its
cavity contains yellow marrow. The epiphyses are covered with hyaline cartilage; they contain spongy
bone (where red marrow is found).
• Compare the periosteum and endosteum.
 The periosteum is a dense membrane covering the outer surface of bones, consisting of fibrous
tissue.
 The endosteum is a thin membrane that lines the inner surface of bones, containing osteogenic
cells.
• Describe the composition of osseous tissue.
Osseous tissue, or bone tissue, is composed of organic components such as collagen fibers and inorganic
components such as calcium phosphate salts.
• Explain the importance of collagen fibres and calcium phosphate salts in bone tissue.

 Collagen fibers provide flexibility and tensile strength to bones.

 Calcium phosphate salts contribute to bone hardness and resilience.
• Compare osteoblasts, osteoclasts, and osteocytes.
 Osteoblasts are bone-forming cells.
 Osteoclasts are bone-resorbing cells.
 Osteocytes are mature bone cells embedded in the bone matrix.
• Compare spongy and compact bone.
Spongy bone has a porous, honeycomb-like structure, providing strength with less weight.
 Trabeculae are small, bony spicules or beams that form a lattice-like network within spongy
bone tissue. These trabeculae create a framework that provides structural support and helps to
distribute forces across the bone.
 Red bone marrow is primarily found in spongy bone.
Compact bone is dense and solid, providing strength and support.
 Yellow bone marrow is found in the medullary cavities of long bones.
• Describe the structure of the osteon.
An osteon, or Haversian system, is the basic unit of compact bone, consisting of concentric layers of
lamellae surrounding a central canal (Haversian canal), which contains blood vessels and nerves.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide

• Describe the structure and function of red and yellow bone marrow.
Red bone marrow is involved in hematopoiesis, producing red blood cells, white blood cells, and
platelets, while yellow bone marrow consists mainly of fat cells and serves as an energy reserve.
• Compare intramembraneous and endochondral bone growth.
 Intramembranous bone growth occurs within a membrane, resulting in the formation of flat
bones.
 Endochondral bone growth involves the replacement of cartilage with bone tissue, resulting in
the formation of long bones.
• Describe the process of bone remodeling.
Bone remodeling is the continuous process of bone resorption by osteoclasts followed by bone
formation by osteoblasts, maintaining bone integrity and regulating calcium levels.
• Describe the effects of growth hormone, sex hormones, nutrition, and exercise on bone growth and
remodeling.
o Growth hormone:
 Effect on bone growth: Growth hormone stimulates the growth of bones, especially during
childhood and adolescence. It acts on the epiphyseal plates of long bones, promoting
longitudinal bone growth by stimulating chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation.
 Effect on bone remodeling: Growth hormone also plays a role in bone remodeling by
enhancing bone formation and turnover. It stimulates osteoblast activity, leading to
increased bone formation, and helps maintain bone density and strength.
o Sex hormones (Estrogen and Testosterone):
 Effect on bone growth: Sex hormones, particularly estrogen and testosterone, play crucial
roles in bone growth and development. Estrogen, in particular, promotes closure of the
epiphyseal plates, contributing to the cessation of longitudinal bone growth. Testosterone
also contributes to bone growth and density, especially during puberty.
 Effect on bone remodeling: Estrogen and testosterone influence bone remodeling by
regulating the balance between bone resorption and formation. Estrogen inhibits osteoclast
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
activity, reducing bone resorption, while testosterone promotes osteoblast activity,
enhancing bone formation.
o Nutrition (Calcium and Vitamin D):
 Effect on bone growth: Adequate nutrition, particularly calcium and vitamin D, is essential
for optimal bone growth and development. Calcium is a key mineral component of bone
tissue, essential for bone mineralization and strength. Vitamin D facilitates calcium
absorption in the intestine, promoting bone mineralization and growth.
 Effect on bone remodeling: Calcium and vitamin D also play crucial roles in bone
remodeling. Calcium is required for osteoblast function and bone formation, while vitamin D
helps maintain calcium homeostasis and supports osteoclast activity, ensuring proper bone
turnover and remodeling.
o Exercise:
 Effect on bone growth: Weight-bearing and resistance exercises stimulate bone growth and
development by placing mechanical stress on bones. This mechanical loading induces bone
modeling and remodeling responses, leading to increased bone density, strength, and mass.
 Effect on bone remodeling: Exercise promotes bone remodeling by stimulating osteoblast
activity and bone formation in response to mechanical loading. It also helps maintain bone
density by slowing down age-related bone loss through increased bone turnover and
remodeling.
• Explain the role of bone in calcium homeostasis.
Bones serve as a reservoir for calcium, releasing calcium into the bloodstream when levels are low and
absorbing excess calcium when levels are high to maintain calcium homeostasis.
• Describe the stages of bone repair following a fracture.
The stages of bone repair include hematoma formation, fibrocartilaginous callus formation, bony callus
formation, and bone remodeling.
1. Hematoma formation:
 Timeframe: Immediately following the fracture and lasting for several hours.
 Description: When a bone fractures, blood vessels within the bone and surrounding tissues
are damaged, leading to bleeding and the formation of a hematoma (a blood clot) at the site
of the fracture. The hematoma contains a mixture of blood cells, inflammatory cells, and
tissue debris.
 Function: The hematoma serves as a temporary stabilizing structure, providing a framework
for subsequent tissue repair and the influx of cells involved in the healing process.
2. Fibrocartilaginous callus formation:
 Timeframe: Begins a few days after the fracture and lasts for several weeks.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
 Description: In this stage, fibroblasts and chondroblasts migrate to the site of the fracture
from surrounding tissues and the periosteum (the outer membrane covering the bone).
Fibroblasts produce collagen fibers, while chondroblasts produce cartilage matrix, resulting
in the formation of a fibrocartilaginous callus. This callus bridges the gap between the
fractured bone ends and stabilizes the fracture.
 Function: The fibrocartilaginous callus provides initial stability to the fracture site, allowing
for the subsequent deposition of mineralized bone tissue.
3. Bony callus formation:
 Timeframe: Begins several weeks after the fracture and can last for several months.
 Description: Osteoblasts, which are bone-forming cells, begin to replace the
fibrocartilaginous callus with woven bone tissue, a type of immature bone tissue composed
of collagen fibers and osteoid (unmineralized bone matrix). This woven bone is initially weak
but gradually strengthens over time.
 Function: The bony callus bridges the gap between the fractured bone ends more robustly
than the fibrocartilaginous callus, providing further stability and support to the healing
bone.
4. Bone remodeling:
 Timeframe: Begins several weeks to months after the fracture and can continue for several
years.
 Description: In the final stage of bone repair, the bony callus undergoes remodeling, where
woven bone is gradually replaced by lamellar (mature) bone tissue through the coordinated
action of osteoblasts (bone-forming cells) and osteoclasts (bone-resorbing cells).
Osteoblasts deposit new bone tissue, while osteoclasts remove excess or damaged bone
tissue, resulting in the restoration of the bone's original shape and structure.
 Function: Bone remodeling ensures that the healed bone is restored to its pre-fracture
strength and functionality. It also allows for the removal of excess callus tissue and the
adaptation of bone structure to functional demands.
• Identify the bones of the axial and appendicular skeleton.
***(See appendices at the end for list of bones to learn for the exam)
• Describe the classification of joints based on degree of movement and structure.
Joints can be classified based on their degree of movement into synarthroses (immovable joints),
amphiarthroses (slightly movable joints), and diarthroses (freely movable joints). They can also be
classified based on their structure into fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial joints.
• Provide examples of fibrous, cartilaginous and synovial joints.
 Fibrous joints (limited movement) include sutures in the skull.
 Cartilaginous joints (slightly movable or immovable) include the pubic symphysis.
 Synovial joints (freely moveable) include the knee and shoulder joints.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
• Describe the structure of synovial joints.
Synovial joints are characterized by the presence of a joint cavity filled with synovial fluid, articular
cartilage covering the bone ends, a synovial membrane producing synovial fluid, and ligaments providing
stability.
• Describe the function of ligaments and tendons.
 Ligaments connect bone to bone, stabilizing joints.
 Tendons connect muscle to bone, transmitting forces to produce movement.
• Describe the movements permitted by synovial joints.
Synovial joints permit various movements, including flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, rotation,
circumduction, and gliding.

Bonus info:
1. Medullary cavity:
 The medullary cavity, also known as the marrow cavity, is primarily found within the
central region of the shaft (diaphysis) of long bones. This cavity is surrounded by
compact bone tissue.
 The medullary cavity contains bone marrow, which may be red or yellow depending on
factors such as age and location within the bone. In adults, the medullary cavity typically
contains yellow bone marrow, while in infants and young children, it contains red bone
marrow.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
2. Epiphyseal line:
 The epiphyseal line, also known as the growth plate or epiphyseal plate, is located at the
junction between the epiphysis (end) and diaphysis (shaft) of long bones. This region is
composed of hyaline cartilage and is responsible for longitudinal bone growth during
childhood and adolescence.
 As bone growth ceases and the individual reaches skeletal maturity, the epiphyseal
plate undergoes closure and is replaced by bone tissue, resulting in the formation of the
epiphyseal line. The epiphyseal line is composed of compact bone.

F. Muscular System
• Compare skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle tissue.
 Skeletal muscle tissue is striated, voluntary, multinucleate, attached to bones and responsible
for movement. Connective tissue coverings (endomysium, perimysium, and epimysium) enclose
and protect the muscle fibers and increase the strength of skeletal muscles.
 Cardiac muscle tissue is also striated but involuntary, found in the heart, and responsible for
pumping blood. They are arranged in spiral bundles in the heart.
 Smooth muscle tissue is non-striated and involuntary, uninucleate, found in internal organs like
the digestive tract and blood vessels, and responsible for various involuntary movements like
peristalsis. They are spindleshaped and arranged in opposing layers in the walls of hollow
organs. When they contract, substances (food, urine, a baby) are moved along internal
pathways.
* In the context of muscle tissue, "striated" refers to a characteristic pattern of alternating dark and
light bands (stripes) that are visible under a microscope. These bands are caused by the arrangement of
contractile proteins within the muscle fibers.
• Describe the structure of skeletal muscle cells and the function of the sarcoplasmic reticulum,
transverse tubules, and myoglobin.
The multinucleate cylindrical skeletal muscle fibers are packed with unique organelles called myofibrils.
The banding pattern (striations) of the myofibrils and the fiber as a whole reflects the regular
arrangement of thin (actin-containing) and thick (myosin) filaments within the sarcomeres, the
contractile units (structurally and functionally) composing the myofibrils.
Each myofibril is loosely enclosed by a specialized ER, called the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR), which
plays an important role in storing and releasing calcium ions. Calcium ions are the final trigger for muscle
fiber contraction.
Transverse tubules (T-tubules) are invaginations of the sarcolemma (cell membrane) that allow action
potentials to spread quickly throughout the muscle fiber.
Myoglobin is a protein that stores oxygen within muscle cells, aiding in oxygen delivery during muscle
contraction.
• Describe the structure of thick and thin myofilaments.
 Thick myofilaments are made of myosin protein.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
 Thin myofilaments are made of actin, troponin, and tropomyosin proteins.
• Describe the structure of the sarcomere.
The sarcomere is the functional unit of a muscle fiber, composed of overlapping thick and thin filaments
arranged in a repeating pattern between two Z-lines.

A band:

 The A band is the dark region of the sarcomere that contains overlapping thick (myosin) and thin
(actin) filaments.
 Within the A band, the thick filaments (myosin) are present, and they do not change in length
during muscle contraction.
 The A band also contains portions of thin filaments (actin) that overlap with the thick filaments.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
I band:
 The I band is the light region of the sarcomere that contains only thin (actin) filaments.
 The I band appears lighter because it contains only thin filaments and lacks thick filaments.
 The I band shortens during muscle contraction as the sarcomere contracts, causing the thin
filaments to slide toward the center of the sarcomere.
H zone:

 The H zone is a lighter region found in the center of the A band, where thick filaments (myosin)
are present without overlapping thin filaments (actin).
 During muscle contraction, the H zone narrows as the thin filaments move inward, causing the
sarcomere to shorten.
Z line (or Z disc):
 The Z line is a dense, dark line that bisects the I band and marks the boundary between adjacent
sarcomeres.
 The Z line serves as the attachment point for thin filaments (actin) and provides structural
support to the sarcomere.
 During muscle contraction, the Z lines move closer together as the sarcomere shortens.
• Describe the sliding filament mechanism of muscle contraction.
During contraction, thick myosin filaments pull thin actin filaments toward the center of the sarcomere,
causing it to shorten.
• Describe the structure of the neuromuscular junction.
The neuromuscular junction is a specialized synapse between a motor neuron and a muscle fiber,
consisting of a motor neuron terminal, synaptic cleft, and motor end plate on the muscle fiber.
• Describe the process of muscle cell excitation by motor neurons.
 When an action potential reaches the motor neuron terminal, it triggers the release of
acetylcholine into the synaptic cleft.
 Acetylcholine binds to receptors on the motor end plate, generating an action potential in the
muscle fiber.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide

• Describe the contraction cycle.

The contraction cycle involves the binding of myosin heads to actin filaments, the power stroke (pulling
of actin filaments), and the release of myosin heads to reset for another cycle.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
• Explain the importance of calcium and ATP in muscle contraction.
 Calcium ions bind to troponin, causing a conformational change that exposes binding sites on
actin for myosin heads, initiating muscle contraction.
 ATP is required for the cross-bridge cycle, providing energy for myosin heads to bind to actin,
undergo the power stroke, and detach. It is stored in muscle fibers in small amounts that are
quickly used up. ATP is regenerated via three routes. From the fastest to the slowest, these are:
1. Fastest: via a coupled reaction of creatine phosphate with ADP
2. Medium: via anaerobic glycolysis* and lactic acid formation, and
3. Slowest: via aerobic respiration. Only aerobic respiration requires oxygen.
* If muscle activity is strenuous and prolonged, muscle fatigue occurs because ionic imbalances occur,
lactic acid accumulates in the muscle, and the energy (ATP) supply decreases. After exercise, the oxygen
deficit is repaid by rapid, deep breathing.
• Describe the points of origin and insertion of skeletal muscles.

 The origin of a muscle is the attachment point that remains relatively fixed during contraction.
 The insertion of a muscle is the attachment point that moves toward the origin during
contraction.
• Identify the major muscles and muscle groups of the muscular system.
*** (See appendices at the end for list of muscles to learn for the exam)
Bonus info
Muscle contractions are isotonic (the muscle shortens, and movement occurs) or isometric (the muscle
does not shorten, but its tension increases).
Troponin and tropomyosin are regulatory proteins involved in the process of muscle contraction,
particularly in regulating the interaction between actin and myosin, the two main proteins responsible
for muscle contraction. Here's a breakdown of their roles:
1. Troponin:
 Troponin is a complex of three protein subunits (troponin C, troponin I, and troponin T)
found on the thin filaments (actin) of muscle fibers.
 Troponin has binding sites for calcium ions.
 When a muscle cell is stimulated to contract, calcium ions are released from the
sarcoplasmic reticulum into the sarcoplasm of the muscle cell.
 Calcium ions bind to troponin C, causing a conformational change in the troponin complex.
 This conformational change in troponin exposes binding sites on the actin filament for
myosin heads to attach, initiating the contraction cycle.
2. Tropomyosin:
 Tropomyosin is a long, fibrous protein that runs along the groove of the actin filament,
covering the myosin-binding sites on actin when the muscle is at rest.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
 Tropomyosin blocks the attachment of myosin heads to actin in the absence of calcium ions
and prevents spontaneous muscle contraction.
 In a resting muscle, tropomyosin is held in place by troponin.
 When calcium ions bind to troponin, it induces a conformational change in troponin, which
moves tropomyosin away from the myosin-binding sites on actin, allowing myosin heads to
bind to actin and initiate muscle contraction.
In summary, troponin and tropomyosin work together to regulate muscle contraction by controlling the
availability of the myosin-binding sites on actin filaments in response to calcium ion concentration
changes within the muscle cell.

G. Nervous System
• Explain the role of the nervous and endocrine systems in homeostasis:
The nervous system and endocrine system work together to maintain homeostasis, which is the internal
balance of the body's physiological processes. The nervous system sends electrical signals through
neurons for rapid responses, while the endocrine system releases hormones into the bloodstream for
slower, longer-lasting effects.
• Describe the organization of the central, peripheral, somatic, and autonomic nervous systems:
The central nervous system (CNS) includes the brain and spinal cord, while the peripheral nervous
system (PNS) comprises nerves and ganglia outside the CNS. The somatic nervous system controls
voluntary movements, while the autonomic nervous system regulates involuntary functions.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
• Describe the structure and stimuli detected by sensory neurons:
Sensory neurons have a cell body, dendrites, and an axon. They detect stimuli such as touch,
temperature, pain, and pressure, converting them into electrical signals.
• Describe the structure and targets of motor neurons:
Motor neurons have a cell body, dendrites, and an axon. They transmit signals from the CNS to muscles
or glands, controlling movement or secretion.
• Describe the structure and function of the cell body, axon, dendrites, and axon terminals of neurons:
The cell body contains the nucleus and organelles. Dendrites receive signals, the axon transmits signals,
and axon terminals release neurotransmitters to communicate with other neurons or target cells.
• Describe the structure and function of neuroglia of the central and peripheral nervous systems:
 Astrocytes: astrocytes are the most abundant glial cells in the central nervous system (CNS).
They perform various functions, including: providing structural support to neurons and the
blood-brain barrier, regulating the extracellular environment by removing excess
neurotransmitters and ions, forming scar tissue in response to injury or disease, and
participating in synapse formation and neuronal communication.
 Oligodendrocytes: oligodendrocytes are glial cells found in the CNS. Their main function is to
produce myelin, a fatty substance that insulates axons and enhances the speed of nerve impulse
transmission. Each oligodendrocyte can myelinate multiple axons in its vicinity.
 Microglia: microglia are the resident immune cells of the CNS, derived from myeloid progenitor
cells. Their functions include: monitoring the brain environment for pathogens, damaged cells,
and debris, phagocytosing (engulfing and digesting) pathogens, dead neurons, and cellular
debris, and modulating inflammation and immune responses in the CNS.
 Ependymal cells: ependymal cells line the ventricles of the brain and the central canal of the
spinal cord. Their functions include: producing and circulating cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which
provides buoyancy and protection to the brain and spinal cord, forming a barrier between the
CSF and neural tissue.
 Schwann cells: Schwann cells are found in the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Their main
function is to produce myelin sheaths around axons, similar to oligodendrocytes in the CNS.
Each Schwann cell myelinates a single axon segment.
 Satellite cells: satellite cells are glial cells found in the peripheral nervous system (PNS),
specifically associated with neuronal cell bodies in sensory and autonomic ganglia. Their
functions include: providing structural support and maintaining the extracellular environment
around neuronal cell bodies, and regulating the exchange of nutrients and waste products
between neurons and their surrounding environment.
• Describe the synthesis and function of myelin:
Myelin is synthesized by oligodendrocytes in the CNS and Schwann cells in the PNS. It insulates axons,
speeding up signal transmission.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
• Compare gray and white matter of the brain and spinal cord:
Gray matter consists of neuron cell bodies and dendrites, while white matter contains myelinated
axons. In the brain, gray matter is on the surface (cerebral cortex), while white matter is deeper. In the
spinal cord, gray matter is centrally located, surrounded by white matter.

• Describe the resting membrane potential, threshold, and graded potential:

The resting membrane potential is the electrical charge across a neuron's membrane when it's not
transmitting signals. Threshold is the minimum depolarization needed to trigger an action potential.
Graded potentials are small changes in membrane potential that decay over time and space.
• Describe the depolarization, repolarization, and hyperpolarization phases of the action potential:
1. Depolarization involves a rapid influx of sodium ions, causing the membrane potential to
become less negative.
2. Repolarization occurs when potassium ions leave the cell, restoring the negative charge.
3. Hyperpolarization happens when the membrane potential becomes more negative than the
resting potential.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
• Compare continuous and saltatory action potential propagation:
 Continuous propagation occurs in unmyelinated fibers, where action potentials spread along
the entire length of the axon.
 Saltatory propagation occurs in myelinated fibers, where action potentials jump from one node
of Ranvier to the next, speeding up transmission.
• Describe the process of synaptic transmission:
Synaptic transmission involves the release of neurotransmitters from the presynaptic neuron's axon
terminals, which bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, leading to changes in its membrane
potential.
• Describe the cranial and spinal meninges:
The cranial meninges (dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater) cover the brain, while the spinal
meninges cover the spinal cord.
Dura mater:

 The dura mater is the outermost and toughest layer of the meninges. Its functions include:
o Providing a protective barrier for the brain and spinal cord against physical trauma.
o Containing and supporting the blood vessels that supply the brain and spinal cord.
o Assisting in the formation of dural venous sinuses, which collect venous blood from the
brain and drain it into the internal jugular veins.
Arachnoid mater:
 The arachnoid mater is the middle layer of the meninges, located between the dura mater and
the pia mater. Its functions include:
o Providing a protective barrier for the underlying brain and spinal cord.
o Acting as a cushioning layer that helps absorb shocks and impacts to the central nervous
system.
o Containing the subarachnoid space, which is filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) that
bathes and protects the brain and spinal cord.
Pia mater:

 The pia mater is the innermost and thinnest layer of the meninges, closely adhering to the
surface of the brain and spinal cord. Its functions include:
o Providing a protective covering directly over the delicate neural tissue of the brain and
spinal cord.
o Supporting and nourishing the underlying neural tissue by supplying blood vessels that
penetrate into the brain and spinal cord.
o Helping to anchor the blood vessels that supply the brain and spinal cord, preventing
excessive movement and damage.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide

• Identify the ventricles of the brain:

The brain has four ventricles filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF): two lateral ventricles, the third
ventricle, and the fourth ventricle.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
• Describe the function of the choroid plexus and the circulation of cerebral spinal fluid:
The choroid plexus produces CSF, which circulates through the ventricles and subarachnoid space,
providing buoyancy, protection, and waste removal for the brain and spinal cord.
• Describe the structure and function of the blood-brain barrier:
The blood-brain barrier is formed by tight junctions between endothelial cells in brain capillaries,
limiting the passage of substances from the bloodstream into the brain, protecting it from toxins and
pathogens.
• Identify and describe the function of the following central nervous system structures:
 Thalamus: Relays sensory and motor signals to the cerebral cortex.
 Hypothalamus: Regulates homeostasis, including temperature, hunger, and thirst.
 Cerebellum: Coordinates voluntary movements, balance, and posture.
 Limbic system: Regulates emotions, memory, and basic drives.
 Basal nuclei: Control voluntary motor movements.
 Medulla oblongata: Regulates vital autonomic functions such as breathing and heart rate.
 Pons and midbrain: Relay sensory information and regulate motor movements.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
• Identify the lobes of the cerebrum and the key functions of each lobe:
 Frontal lobe: Executive functions, motor control, and personality.
 Parietal lobe: Sensory perception and integration.
 Temporal lobe: Auditory processing, memory, and emotion.
 Occipital lobe: Visual processing.

• Identify and describe the function of the following cerebral structures:

 Central sulcus: Separates the frontal and parietal lobes.
 Longitudinal fissure: Separates the left and right hemispheres.
 Precentral gyrus: Primary motor cortex.
 Postcentral gyrus: Primary somatosensory cortex.
 Motor and sensory association areas: Integrate motor and sensory information.
 Prefrontal cortex: Higher cognitive functions, decision-making, and personality.
 Wernicke's area: Language comprehension.
 Broca's area: Speech production.
• Describe the structure of the spinal cord:
The spinal cord is cylindrical and extends from the brainstem to the lumbar region. It consists of gray
matter (neuron cell bodies) centrally surrounded by white matter (myelinated axons).
• Describe the following spinal nerve and spinal cord structures:
 Anterior and posterior nerve roots: Carry (anterior) motor and (posterior) sensory fibers,
respectively.
 Anterior, lateral, and posterior horns: Gray matter regions containing neuron cell bodies.
 Anterior, lateral, and posterior columns: White matter regions containing myelinated axons.
 Posterior root ganglion: Contains sensory neuron cell bodies.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide

• Describe the following ascending somatic sensory pathways:

 Anterior and lateral spinothalamic tracts: Transmit pain and temperature sensations.
 Posterior column: Carries proprioception, vibration, and fine touch sensations.
• Describe the following descending somatic motor pathways:
 Anterior and lateral corticospinal tracts: Control voluntary movements.
• Describe the posterior column pathway:
The posterior column pathway carries proprioception, vibration, and fine touch sensations from the
body to the brain.
• Identify the components of a spinal reflex:
Spinal reflexes involve sensory receptors, afferent neurons, interneurons, efferent neurons, and
effectors, resulting in rapid, involuntary responses to stimuli.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide

• Compare the functions of sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous
system:
The sympathetic division prepares the body for "fight or flight" responses, while the parasympathetic
division promotes "rest and digest" activities.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide

• Describe the organization of preganglionic neurons, autonomic ganglia, and postganglionic neurons:
Preganglionic neurons originate in the CNS and synapse with postganglionic neurons in autonomic
ganglia. Postganglionic neurons extend from autonomic ganglia to target organs.
BCIT info: preganglionic neurons convey nerve impulses from the CNS to autonomic ganglia, and
postganglionic neurons relay the impulses from autonomic ganglia to visceral effectors.
• Describe the neurotransmitters released by autonomic neurons and the different receptor types:
Body organs served by the autonomic nervous system receive fibers from both divisions. Exceptions are
most blood vessels and most structures of the skin, some glands, and the adrenal medulla, all of which
receive only sympathetic fibers (Table 7.4, p. 268). When both divisions serve the same organ, they
cause antagonistic effects, mainly because their postganglionic axons release different
neurotransmitters (see Figure 7.26). The parasympathetic fibers, called cholinergic (ko″lin-er′jik) fibers,
release acetylcholine. The sympathetic postganglionic fibers, called adrenergic (ad″ren-er′jik) fibers,
release norepinephrine. The preganglionic axons of both divisions release acetylcholine. To emphasize
the relative roles of the two arms of the ANS, we will focus briefly on situations in which each division is
“in control.”
• Explain how sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons act on the same target but produce opposite
effects:
Sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons release different neurotransmitters and activate distinct
receptors on target cells, leading to opposing physiological responses. For example, sympathetic
stimulation dilates the bronchi, while parasympathetic stimulation constricts them.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
H. Endocrine System
• Describe the key characteristics of hormones.
Hormones are chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands or cells that travel through the
bloodstream to target cells or organs to regulate various physiological processes. They exert their effects
by binding to specific receptors on target cells, initiating a cascade of signaling events that ultimately
lead to changes in cellular function.
• Compare water-soluble and lipid-soluble hormones.
 Water-soluble hormones (e.g., peptide hormones, catecholamines) are polar and cannot pass
through the cell membrane. They bind to receptors on the surface of target cells, triggering
intracellular signaling pathways through second messengers like cyclic AMP.
 Lipid-soluble hormones (e.g., steroid hormones, thyroid hormones) are non-polar and can
diffuse across the cell membrane. They bind to intracellular receptors in the cytoplasm or
nucleus, forming hormone-receptor complexes that directly regulate gene expression.
• Describe the mechanism of action of hormones on target cells (plasma membrane versus
intracellular receptors).
 Plasma membrane receptors: Hormones bind to receptors on the surface of target cells,
activating intracellular signaling cascades that often involve second messengers like cyclic AMP,
leading to cellular responses.
 Intracellular receptors: Lipid-soluble hormones diffuse across the cell membrane and bind to
intracellular receptors in the cytoplasm or nucleus. This hormone-receptor complex acts as a
transcription factor, directly influencing gene expression and protein synthesis.
• Describe the location and structure of the pituitary gland.
The pituitary gland, also known as the hypophysis, is located at the base of the brain below the
hypothalamus and is divided into anterior and posterior lobes.
• Identify the hormones of the anterior and posterior pituitary gland.
Anterior pituitary gland (adenohypophysis) secretes hormones including growth hormone (GH),
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), follicle-stimulating hormone
(FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), prolactin (PRL).
Posterior pituitary gland (neurohypophysis) releases hormones synthesized in the hypothalamus,
including oxytocin and vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone, ADH).
• Describe the stimulus for release and the actions of pituitary hormones on target cells.
Pituitary hormones are released in response to hypothalamic releasing or inhibiting factors, which are
secreted by the hypothalamus in response to various stimuli.
These hormones regulate growth, metabolism, reproduction, lactation, and water balance, among other
functions.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
• Describe the hypothalamic-pituitary axis.
The hypothalamic-pituitary axis refers to the connection and feedback loop between the hypothalamus
and the pituitary gland, where the hypothalamus releases hormones that regulate pituitary hormone
secretion.
• Describe the location and structure of the thyroid gland.
The thyroid gland is located in the neck, anterior to the trachea, and consists of two lobes connected by
an isthmus.
• Describe the synthesis of thyroid hormone, the stimulus for release, and actions on target cells.
 Thyroid hormone synthesis involves iodine uptake by thyroid follicular cells, synthesis of
thyroglobulin, iodination of thyroglobulin, and cleavage to release thyroid hormones (T3 and
T4).
 Release of thyroid hormones is stimulated by thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) from the
anterior pituitary.
 Thyroid hormones regulate metabolism, growth, and development by acting on target cells
through nuclear receptors.
• Describe the location and structure of the parathyroid gland.
The parathyroid glands are small glands located on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland, usually
four in number.
• Explain the role of parathyroid hormone and calcitonin in regulating calcium homeostasis.
 Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is released in response to low blood calcium levels and acts to
increase blood calcium levels by stimulating calcium release from bones, enhancing calcium
reabsorption in the kidneys, and promoting the activation of vitamin D, which enhances
intestinal calcium absorption.
 Calcitonin, released by the thyroid gland's parafollicular cells, opposes the actions of PTH by
decreasing blood calcium levels through inhibition of bone resorption and promoting calcium
deposition in bone.
• Describe the structure of the endo- and exocrine pancreas.
The pancreas contains both endocrine (Islets of Langerhans) and exocrine (acinar cells) tissues.
• Describe the synthesis of insulin and glucagon, the stimulus for release, and actions on target cells.
Insulin is synthesized and released by beta cells of the pancreatic islets in response to high blood
glucose levels. It promotes glucose uptake by cells, glycogen synthesis, and lipid storage.
Glucagon is synthesized and released by alpha cells of the pancreatic islets in response to low blood
glucose levels. It stimulates glycogen breakdown and gluconeogenesis in the liver, increasing blood
glucose levels.
• Describe the location and structure of the adrenal gland.
The adrenal glands are located on top of each kidney and consist of two distinct regions: the adrenal
cortex and the adrenal medulla.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
• Identify the hormones released by the adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla.
 Adrenal cortex hormones include glucocorticoids (e.g., cortisol), mineralocorticoids (e.g.,
aldosterone), and androgens (e.g., dehydroepiandrosterone, DHEA).
 Adrenal medulla secretes catecholamines, primarily adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline
(norepinephrine).
• Describe the stimulus for release and the actions of adrenal hormones on target cells.

 Adrenal hormones are released in response to various stimuli such as stress, ACTH, or
sympathetic nervous system activation.
 They regulate metabolism, stress response, electrolyte balance, and immune function by acting
on target cells through specific receptors and intracellular signaling pathways.

I. Cardiovascular System
Blood (CH 10)
• Describe the composition of blood.

Blood is a complex connective tissue in which living blood cells, the formed elements, are suspended in
plasma, a nonliving fluid matrix. The collagen and elastin fibers typical of other connective tissues are
absent from blood; instead, dissolved proteins become visible as fibrin strands during blood clotting. If a
sample of blood is separated, the plasma rises to the top, and the formed elements, being heavier, fall
to the bottom. Most of the reddish “pellet” at the bottom of the tube is erythrocytes (erythro = red), or
red blood cells, the formed elements that function in oxygen transport. There is a thin, whitish layer
called the buffy coat at the junction between the erythrocytes and the plasma (just barely visible in
Figure 10.1). This layer contains the remaining formed elements, leukocytes (leuko = white), white
blood cells that act in various ways to protect the body; and platelets, cell fragments that help stop
bleeding. Erythrocytes normally account for about 45 percent of the total volume of a blood sample, a
percentage known as the hematocrit (“blood fraction”). White blood cells and platelets contribute less
than 1 percent, and plasma makes up most of the remaining 55 percent of whole blood.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide

• List the key plasma proteins and describe the function of albumin.

Key plasma proteins:

 Albumin – functions to maintain osmotic balance, pH buffering, and is a carrier for some
molecules through the circulation.
 Fibrinogen – functions in the clotting of blood.
 Globulins – functions in defense (antibodies) and lipid transport.

• Describe the process of hematopoiesis.

Blood cell formation, or hematopoiesis, occurs in red bone marrow, or myeloid tissue. In adults, this
tissue is found chiefly in the axial skeleton, pectoral and pelvic girdles, and proximal epiphyses of the
humerus and femur. Each type of blood cell is produced in different numbers in response to changing
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
body needs and different stimuli. After they mature, they are discharged into the blood vessels
surrounding the area. On average, the red marrow turns out an ounce of new blood containing 100
billion new cells every day. All the formed elements arise from a common stem cell, the hemocytoblast
(“blood cell former”), which resides in red bone marrow. Their development differs, however, and once
a cell is committed to a specific blood pathway, it cannot change. The hemocytoblast forms two types of
descendants—the lymphoid stem cell, which produces lymphocytes, and the myeloid stem cell, which
can produce all other classes of formed elements.

Lost blood cells are replaced more or less continuously by the division of hemocytoblasts in the red bone
marrow. The developing RBCs divide many times and then begin synthesizing huge amounts of
hemoglobin. When enough hemoglobin has been accumulated, the nucleus and most organelles are
ejected, and the cell collapses inward. The result is the young RBC, called a reticulocyte because it still
contains some rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The reticulocytes enter the bloodstream to begin their
task of transporting oxygen. Within 2 days of release, they have ejected the remaining ER and have
become fully functioning erythrocytes. The entire developmental process from hemocytoblast to
mature RBC takes 3 to 5 days.

• Describe the structure of red blood cells.

Red blood cells or erythrocytes function primarily to ferry oxygen to all cells of the body. RBCs differ
from other blood cells because they are anucleate; that is, they lack a nucleus. They also contain very
few organelles. In fact, mature RBCs circulating in the blood are literally “bags” of hemoglobin
molecules.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
Erythrocytes are small, flexible cells shaped like biconcave discs—flattened discs with depressed centers
on both sides. Their small size and peculiar shape provide a large surface area relative to their volume,
making them ideally suited for gas exchange. RBCs outnumber white blood cells by about 1,000 to 1 and
are the major factor contributing to blood viscosity.

• Describe the structure and function of hemoglobin.

Hemoglobin (Hb) is an iron-bearing protein and transports most of the oxygen that is carried in the
blood. It consists of four globin chains, each containing a heme group containing an iron ion (Fe^2+) at
its center, which is the key component responsible for binding oxygen. Each red blood cell contains
millions of hemoglobin molecules, which are responsible for carrying oxygen and carbon dioxide.

• Describe erythropoiesis and the function of erythropoietin.

The rate of erythrocyte production is controlled by a hormone called erythropoietin. Normally a small
amount of erythropoietin circulates in the blood at all times, and red blood cells are formed at a fairly
constant rate. Although the liver produces some, the kidneys play the major role in producing this
hormone. When the blood level of oxygen begins to decline for any reason, the kidneys step up their
release of erythropoietin. Erythropoietin targets the bone marrow, prodding it into “high gear” to turn
out more RBCs. As you might expect, an overabundance of erythrocytes, or an excessive amount of
oxygen in the bloodstream, depresses erythropoietin release and red blood cell production. However,
RBC production is controlled not by the relative number of RBCs in the blood, but by the ability of the
available RBCs to transport enough oxygen to meet the body’s demands.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
• Describe the process of red blood cell degradation in the spleen.

Because they are anucleate, RBCs are unable to synthesize proteins, grow, or divide. As they age, RBCs
become rigid and begin to fall apart in 100 to 120 days. Their remains are eliminated by phagocytes in
the spleen, liver, and other body tissues. RBC components are salvaged. Iron is bound to protein as
ferritin, and the balance of the heme group is degraded to bilirubin, which is then secreted into the
intestine by liver cells. There it becomes a brown pigment called stercobilin that leaves the body in
feces. Globin is broken down to amino acids, which are released into the circulation.

See the steps of red blood cell degradation below:

1. Entrapment in splenic sinusoids:

 As red blood cells age, they become more fragile and less flexible.
 When passing through the spleen, the old or damaged red blood cells are recognized by
macrophages within the splenic sinusoids.
2. Phagocytosis by macrophages:
 Macrophages in the spleen are part of the mononuclear phagocytic system and are
equipped to recognize and engulf particles, including aging red blood cells.
 Macrophages extend pseudopodia (projections) to engulf the red blood cells in a process
called phagocytosis.
3. Hemolysis and heme breakdown:
 Once engulfed, the red blood cell undergoes hemolysis, during which the cell membrane is
broken down.
 Hemoglobin is released from the red blood cell and broken down into its constituent parts:
o Globin chains: These are further broken down into amino acids.
o Heme groups: These are broken down into iron and biliverdin.
4. Iron recycling:
 The iron released from heme is recycled and transported back to the bone marrow to be
used in the production of new red blood cells.
5. Biliverdin conversion:
 Biliverdin is converted to bilirubin, a yellowish pigment.
 Bilirubin is released into the bloodstream and binds to albumin for transport to the liver.
6. Liver processing:
 In the liver, bilirubin is further metabolized and conjugated with glucuronic acid to form
conjugated bilirubin.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
 Conjugated bilirubin is excreted into bile and eventually eliminated from the body through
feces.
7. Excretion of waste products:
 The by-products of hemoglobin breakdown, including bilirubin and other waste products,
are eventually excreted from the body.
• Define hematocrit.

Erythrocytes normally account for about 45 percent of the total volume of a blood sample, a percentage
known as the hematocrit (“blood fraction”).

White blood cells and platelets contribute less than 1 percent, and plasma makes up most of the
remaining 55 percent of whole blood.

• Describe the ABO blood group.

The plasma membranes of RBCs, like those of all other body cells, bear genetically determined proteins
(antigens), which identify each person as unique. An antigen is a substance that the body recognizes as
foreign; it stimulates the immune system to mount a defense against it. Most antigens are foreign
proteins, such as those that are part of viruses or bacteria that have managed to invade the body.
Although each of us tolerates our own cellular (self) antigens, one person’s RBC proteins will be
recognized as foreign if transfused into another person with different RBC antigens.

The ABO blood groups are based on which of two antigens, type A or type B, a person inherits (Table
10.3). Absence of both antigens results in type O blood, presence of both antigens leads to type AB, and
the presence of either A or B antigen yields type A or B blood, respectively. In the ABO blood group,
antibodies form during infancy against the ABO antigens not present on your own RBCs. As shown in the
table, a baby with neither the A nor the B antigen (group O) forms both anti-A and anti-B antibodies;
those with type A antigens (group A) form anti-B antibodies, and so on. To keep this idea straight,
remember that antibodies against a person’s own blood type will not be produced.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
• Describe the structure and function of neutrophils, monocytes/macrophages, basophils, eosinophils,
and lymphocytes.

WBCs are classified into two major groups— granulocytes and agranulocytes—depending on whether
or not they contain visible granules in their cytoplasm.

1. Granulocytes are granule containing WBCs. They have lobed nuclei, which typically consist of
several rounded nuclear areas connected by thin strands of nuclear material. The granules in their
cytoplasm stain specifically with Wright’s stain.
 Neutrophils are the most numerous WBCs. They have a multilobed nucleus and very fine
granules that respond to both acidic and basic stains. Consequently, the cytoplasm as a
whole stains pink. Neutrophils are avid phagocytes at sites of acute infection. They are
particularly partial to bacteria and fungi, which they kill during a respiratory burst that
deluges the phagocytized invaders with a potent brew of oxidizing substances (bleach,
hydrogen peroxide, and others).
 Eosinophils have a blue-red nucleus that resembles earmuffs and brick-red cytoplasmic
granules. Their number increases rapidly during infections by parasitic worms (tapeworms,
etc.) ingested in food such as raw fish or entering through the skin. When eosinophils
encounter a parasitic worm, they gather around and release enzymes from their cytoplasmic
granules onto the parasite’s surface, digesting it away.
 Basophils, the rarest of the WBCs, have large histamine-containing granules that stain dark
blue. Histamine is an inflammatory chemical that makes blood vessels leaky and attracts
other WBCs to the inflamed site.

2. The second group of WBCs, agranulocytes, lack visible cytoplasmic granules. Their nuclei are closer
to the norm—that is, they are spherical, oval, or kidney-shaped.
 Lymphocytes have a large, dark purple nucleus that occupies most of the cell volume. Only
slightly larger than RBCs, lymphocytes tend to take up residence in lymphatic tissues, such
as the tonsils, where they play an important role in the immune response. They are the
second most numerous leukocytes in the blood.
 Monocytes are the largest of the WBCs. Except for their more abundant cytoplasm and
distinctive U- or kidney-shaped nucleus, they resemble large lymphocytes. When they
migrate into the tissues, they change into macrophages (macro = large; phage = one that
eats) with huge appetites. Macrophages are important in fighting chronic infections, such as
tuberculosis, and in activating lymphocytes.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide

• Describe the structure and function of platelets.

Platelets:

 Structure: Platelets, also called thrombocytes, are small, disc-shaped cell fragments without a
nucleus. They contain granules containing clotting factors and enzymes.
 Function: Platelets play a crucial role in hemostasis, the process of blood clotting. When blood
vessels are injured, platelets adhere to the site of injury, become activated, and aggregate to form a
plug that stops bleeding. They also release factors that promote blood clotting and repair damaged
blood vessels.

• Describe the process of hemostasis (platelet plug formation/blood clotting).

Hemostasis involves three major phases, which occur in rapid sequence: vascular spasms, platelet plug
formation, and coagulation/blood clotting. Blood loss at the site is prevented when fibrous tissue grows
into the clot and seals the hole in the blood vessel.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide

The Heart (CH 11)

• Describe the location of the heart.

 The heart is located in the thoracic cavity, slightly to the left of the midline.
 It rests on the diaphragm, posterior to the sternum (breastbone) and anterior to the vertebral
column.
 It is situated between the lungs, in a region called the mediastinum.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide

• Describe the pericardium and layers of the heart wall.

 Pericardium: The heart is surrounded by a double-layered sac called the pericardium. The outer
layer is the fibrous pericardium, and the inner layer is the serous pericardium.
 Heart wall layers: The heart wall consists of three layers: the epicardium* (outer layer),
myocardium (middle layer composed of cardiac muscle), and endocardium (inner layer lining the
chambers of the heart).
* In other words, the epicardium is the innermost layer of the pericardium and the outermost layer
of the heart wall.

• Identify the heart chambers, heart valves, and great vessels.

 Heart chambers: The heart has four chambers: two atria (right and left) and two ventricles (right
and left).
 Heart valves: The heart has four valves: the atrioventricular valves (tricuspid and mitral/bicuspid)
between the atria and ventricles, and the semilunar valves (pulmonary and aortic) between the
ventricles and the great vessels.
 Great vessels: The great vessels include the pulmonary trunk, pulmonary arteries, pulmonary veins,
aorta, superior, and inferior vena cavae.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide

• Describe the function of atrioventricular and semilunar heart valves.

 Atrioventricular valves: These valves prevent backflow of blood from the ventricles into the atria
during ventricular contraction (systole). Tricuspid and bicuspid/mitral atrioventricular valves.
 Semilunar valves: These valves prevent backflow of blood from the arteries into the ventricles
during ventricular relaxation (diastole). Pulmonary and aortic semilunar valves.

• Describe the flow of blood through the heart and circulation.

 Deoxygenated blood from the body enters the right atrium, passes through the tricuspid valve into
the right ventricle, then through the pulmonary valve into the pulmonary trunk and pulmonary
arteries to the lungs for oxygenation.
 Oxygenated blood returns from the lungs via the pulmonary veins to the left atrium, passes through
the mitral valve into the left ventricle, then through the aortic valve into the aorta for distribution to
the body.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide

• Describe the pacemaker and conduction system of the heart.

 The sinoatrial (SA) node serves as the heart's natural pacemaker, initiating electrical impulses that
regulate heart rate.
 The electrical impulse travels through the atria, stimulating atrial contraction, then passes through
the atrioventricular (AV) node and the bundle of His to the Purkinje fibers, which stimulate
ventricular contraction.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide

• Describe the phases of the cardiac cycle.

 The cardiac cycle consists of systole (contraction) and diastole (relaxation).

 During systole, the ventricles contract, forcing blood into the pulmonary and systemic circulation.
 During diastole, the ventricles relax, allowing them to fill with blood from the atria.

• Define cardiac output, heart rate, and stroke volume.

 Cardiac Output (CO): The volume of blood pumped by the heart per minute.
 CO = Heart Rate (HR) x Stroke Volume (SV).
 Heart Rate (HR): The number of heartbeats per minute.
 Stroke Volume (SV): The volume of blood ejected by the ventricles with each heartbeat.

• Describe the factors that affect heart rate and stroke volume.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
 Heart rate is influenced by factors such as autonomic nervous system activity, hormones, body
temperature, and medications.
 Stroke volume is affected by factors including preload (volume of blood in the ventricles at the end
of diastole), afterload (resistance to ventricular ejection), and contractility (force of ventricular
contraction).

Blood Vessels (CH 11)

• Describe the structure and function of elastic arteries, muscular arteries, arterioles, capillaries,
venules and veins.

 Elastic arteries: Large arteries near the heart (e.g., aorta) with elastic fibers in their walls, allowing
them to stretch and recoil to accommodate blood flow changes. Function: Conduct blood from the
heart to smaller arteries.
 Muscular arteries: Medium-sized arteries with thick muscular walls, controlling blood flow by
vasoconstriction and vasodilation. Function: Distribute blood to specific regions of the body.
 Arterioles: Small arteries with smooth muscle in their walls, regulating blood flow and blood
pressure by constricting or dilating. Function: Control blood flow into capillary networks.
 Capillaries: Microscopic vessels with thin walls (endothelium only) for exchange of gases, nutrients,
and wastes between blood and tissues. Function: Facilitate exchange of substances between blood
and tissues.
 Venules and veins: Venules are small vessels collecting blood from capillaries, while veins are larger
vessels returning blood to the heart. Veins have thinner walls and valves to prevent backflow.
Function: Collect blood from tissues and return it to the heart.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
• Compare arteries and veins in terms of wall layers.

 Arteries have thicker walls with more smooth muscle and elastic tissue to withstand high pressure.
 Veins have thinner walls and contain valves to prevent backflow of blood.

• Describe capillary pressures and capillary exchange.

 Capillary pressures include hydrostatic pressure (pushes fluid out of capillaries) and osmotic
pressure (pulls fluid into capillaries).
 Capillary exchange involves diffusion (of gases and small molecules), filtration (movement of fluid
out of capillaries), and reabsorption (movement of fluid back into capillaries).

• Define blood pressure.

Blood pressure is the force exerted by blood against the walls of blood vessels, especially arteries. It is
typically measured as systolic pressure (during ventricular contraction) over diastolic pressure (during
ventricular relaxation), e.g., 120/80 mmHg. It is the force that causes blood to flow down its pressure
gradient in the blood vessels. It is high in the arteries, lower in the capillaries, and lowest in the right
atrium.

• Describe the determinants of blood pressure.

Blood pressure is influenced by cardiac output, peripheral resistance (related to vessel diameter), and
blood volume. Arterial blood pressure is directly influenced by heart activity (increased heart rate leads
to increased blood pressure) and by resistance to blood flow. The most important factors increasing the
peripheral resistance are a decrease in the diameter or stretchiness of the arteries and arterioles and an
increase in blood viscosity.

Many factors influence blood pressure, including the activity of the sympathetic nerves and kidneys,
drugs, and diet.

• Describe the autoregulatory, neural, and hormonal mechanisms that regulate blood pressure and
cardiac output.

 Autoregulation: Local control of blood flow and pressure by tissues based on metabolic needs.
 Neural regulation: Involves sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
 Hormonal regulation: Hormones like adrenaline, aldosterone, and antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
affect blood pressure and volume.

• Describe the location and function of baroreceptors.

Baroreceptors are specialized pressure-sensitive receptors located in the carotid sinus and aortic arch
that detect changes in blood pressure. They relay information to the cardiovascular center in the brain
to regulate blood pressure.

• Compare pulmonary and systemic circulations.

 Systemic circulation: Carries oxygenated blood from the heart to the body and deoxygenated
blood back to the heart.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
 Pulmonary circulation: Transports deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs for
oxygenation and returns oxygenated blood to the heart.

• Identify the major blood vessels of the body.

* (See appendices at the end for list of vessels to learn for the exam)

• Describe the fetal circulation and placental blood supply.

 Fetal circulation: the fetal circulation is a temporary circulation seen only in the fetus. It consists
primarily of three special vessels: the single umbilical vein that carries nutrient- and oxygen-
laden blood to the fetus from the placenta, and the two umbilical arteries that carry carbon
dioxide and waste-laden blood from the fetus to the placenta. Blood bypasses the fetal lungs
and liver through shunts like the foramen ovale and ductus arteriosus. (Think of the fetus as the
“heart” in this case = veins go TO the fetus from the placenta, and arteries go FROM the fetus to
the placenta.)
 Placental blood supply: maternal blood and fetal blood exchange nutrients, oxygen, and waste
products across the placenta.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
J. Lymphatic System (CH 12)
• Identify the structures of the lymphatic system.

 Lymphatic vessels: Thin-walled vessels that carry lymphatic fluid.

 Lymphatic capillaries: Microscopic vessels that collect excess tissue fluid.
 Lymph nodes: Small, bean-shaped structures that filter lymph.
 Thymus: Organ located behind the sternum, crucial for T cell maturation.
 Spleen: Largest lymphatic organ, involved in filtering blood and immune response.

• List the functions of the lymphatic system.

 Fluid balance: Draining excess interstitial fluid and returning it to the bloodstream.
 Immunity: Filtering pathogens and foreign particles from lymph, initiating immune responses.
 Lipid absorption: Absorbing dietary lipids from the small intestine and transporting them to the
bloodstream.

• Describe the process of lymph formation.

1. Interstitial fluid (tissue fluid) is collected by lymphatic capillaries.

2. Lymphatic capillaries converge into larger lymphatic vessels.
3. Fluid passes through lymph nodes, where filtration and immune response occur.
4. Lymph is eventually returned to the bloodstream via the thoracic duct or right lymphatic duct.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
 Lymph enters the bloodstream via the great veins at the root of the neck.

• Describe the structure of lymphatic capillaries.

 Endothelial cells overlap loosely, forming flap-like mini-valves.

 Capillaries are permeable, allowing large molecules and particles to enter.
 Lack a basement membrane, facilitating fluid entry.

• Describe the organization of lymphatic vessels and the flow of lymph.

 Lymphatic vessels parallel veins and arteries.

 Lymphatic vessels have valves to prevent backflow.
 Lymph flow is propelled by skeletal muscle contractions and respiratory movements.
 Lymphatic vessels converge into larger lymphatic trunks, eventually emptying into the
bloodstream.

• Describe the structure and function of lymph nodes, the thymus, and the spleen.

 Lymph nodes: Contain lymphocytes and macrophages for immune surveillance and filtration of
lymph.
 Thymus: Site of T cell maturation; important for the development of the immune system,
particularly in early life.
 Spleen: Filters blood, removes old or damaged blood cells, stores blood components, and
initiates immune responses against blood-borne pathogens.

K. Respiratory System
• List the structures of the upper and lower respiratory tracts.

Upper respiratory tract:

 Nasal cavity
 Pharynx (nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx)
 Larynx
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide

Lower respiratory tract:

 Trachea
 Bronchial tree (bronchi, bronchioles)
 Alveoli
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide

* Bonus: the mediastinum is a space in your chest that holds your heart and other important structures.
It's the middle section of your thoracic cavity, between your left and right pleural cavities (which hold
your lungs). Thoracic cavity = mediastinum + pleural cavities.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide

• Compare conducting and respiratory airways.

The conducting zone includes all respiratory passages from the nasal cavity to the terminal bronchioles;
they conduct air to and from the alveoli of the lungs. Respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts and sacs,
and alveoli—which have thin walls through which all gas exchange occurs with pulmonary capillary
blood—are respiratory zone structures.

Terminal bronchioles mark the end of the conducting division of air flow in the respiratory system while
respiratory bronchioles are the beginning of the respiratory division where gas exchange takes place.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
• Describe the structure and function of the respiratory epithelium along the respiratory tract.

 Structure: pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium with goblet cells.

 Function: Secretion of mucus to trap particles and cilia movement to propel mucus and foreign
particles out of the airways. The mucus produced by the goblet cells in this epithelium acts as a
“sticky trap” to catch dust and other debris, and the cilia propel the mucus upward and away
from the lungs.

• Describe the structure and function of the nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, and trachea.

 Nasal cavity: The nasal cavity (the chamber within the nose) is divided medially by a nasal
septum and separated from the oral cavity by the palate. The nasal cavity is lined with mucosa,
which warms, filters, and moistens incoming air. The mucosa also contains olfactory receptors
for sense of smell. Paranasal sinuses and nasolacrimal ducts (tear ducts) drain into the nasal
cavity.
 Pharynx: The pharynx (throat) is a mucosa-lined, muscular tube with three regions—
nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx. The nasopharynx functions in respiration only;
the others serve both respiratory and digestive functions. The pharynx contains tonsils, which
act as part of the body’s defense system.
 Larynx: The larynx (voice box) is a cartilaginous structure; most prominent is the thyroid
cartilage (Adam’s apple). The larynx connects the pharynx with the trachea inferiorly. The
laryngeal opening (glottis) is hooded by the epiglottis, which prevents entry of food or drink into
respiratory passages when swallowing. The larynx contains the vocal folds (true vocal cords),
which produce sounds used in speech.
 Trachea: The trachea (windpipe) extends from the larynx to the main bronchi. The trachea is a
smooth-muscle tube lined with a ciliated mucosa and reinforced with C-shaped hyaline cartilage
rings, which keep the trachea patent (open).

• Describe the location and structure of the lungs.

 The lungs are paired organs flanking the mediastinum in the thoracic cavity.
 Right lung has three lobes; left lung has two lobes.
 Each lung is covered with pulmonary (visceral) pleura; the thorax wall is lined with parietal
pleura. Pleural fluid decreases friction during breathing.
 The lungs are primarily elastic tissue and passageways of the bronchial tree.
 The smallest passageways end in clusters of air sacs called alveoli.

• Describe the structure and function of the pleural membranes.

Pleural membranes:

o Structure: double-layered serous membranes consisting of parietal and visceral layers.

o Function: provide lubrication and reduce friction during lung movements.

• Describe the organization of the bronchial tree.

o Trachea branches into bronchi, which further divide into bronchioles.

Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
o Bronchioles terminate in alveoli.

• Describe the structure and function of alveoli.

o Structure: small air sacs surrounded by capillaries.

o Function: site of gas exchange (oxygen and carbon dioxide) between air and blood.

• Define surface tension and explain the role of surfactant.

Surface tension is the tendency of liquid molecules at the surface to be drawn into the bulk of the liquid.
Surfactant is a substance produced by alveolar cells that reduces surface tension, preventing alveolar
collapse.

• Compare pulmonary and bronchial circulations.

o Pulmonary circulation: carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs for oxygenation.
o Bronchial circulation: provides oxygenated blood to the lung tissue itself.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
Bonus: internal vs. external respiration.

• Describe the pressure and volume changes that occur during ventilation.

o Inhalation: diaphragm contracts, thoracic volume increases, intrapulmonary pressure decreases.

o Exhalation: diaphragm relaxes, thoracic volume decreases, intrapulmonary pressure increases.

• Describe the function of the diaphragm, external intercostal muscles, and accessory muscles during
ventilation.

o Diaphragm: primary muscle of respiration, contracts during inhalation.

o External intercostal muscles: elevate ribs during inhalation.
o Accessory muscles: assist in increasing thoracic volume during inhalation.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
• Define minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation.

o Minute ventilation: total volume of air breathed in one minute.

o Alveolar ventilation: volume of fresh air that reaches the alveoli per minute.

• Define the lung volumes and capacities.

Volumes:

 Tidal volume: the volume of air inspired or expired during normal breathing at rest.
 Inspiratory reserve volume: the maximum volume of air that can be forcibly inhaled after a
normal inhalation.
 Expiratory reserve volume: the maximum volume of air that can be forcibly exhaled after a
normal exhalation.
 Residual volume: the volume of air remaining in the lungs after a maximum expiration. Residual
volume, which is nonexchangeable respiratory volume, allows gas exchange to go on
continually.

Capacities:

 Inspiratory capacity: maximum volume of air that can be inspired after a normal expiration.
 Functional residual capacity: volume of air remaining in the lungs after a normal expiration.
 Vital capacity: maximum volume of air that can be exhaled after a maximum inspiration.
 Total lung capacity: the total volume of the lungs.

• Describe the factors that influence diffusion across the alveolar-capillary membrane.

Surface area, thickness of membrane, diffusion coefficient of gas, partial pressure difference of gases.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
• Describe the mechanism of oxygen and carbon dioxide transport in the blood.

Oxygen moves from alveolar air into pulmonary blood. Most oxygen is transported bound to
hemoglobin inside RBCs. Carbon dioxide moves from pulmonary blood into alveolar air. Most carbon
dioxide is transported as bicarbonate ion in plasma. At body tissues, oxygen moves from blood to the
tissues, whereas carbon dioxide moves from the tissues to blood.

• Describe the location and function of the respiratory control centres of the brain.

Neural centers for control of respiratory rhythm are in the medulla and pons. The medulla is the
respiratory rate “pacemaker”. Reflex arcs initiated by stretch receptors in the lungs also play a role in
respiration by notifying neural centers of excessive over-inflation.

• Describe the location and function of peripheral and central chemoreceptors.

o Peripheral: located in carotid and aortic bodies; sensitive to changes in blood oxygen and
carbon dioxide levels.
o Central: located in medulla; sensitive to changes in cerebrospinal fluid pH (indirectly related to
carbon dioxide levels).

• Describe the stimuli that activate respiratory reflexes.

Changes in carbon dioxide levels are the most important stimuli affecting respiratory rhythm and depth.
Carbon dioxide acts directly on the medulla via its effect on reducing the pH of blood and brainstem
tissue. A rising level of carbon dioxide or a drop in pH independent of CO2 in the medulla results in
faster, deeper breathing; falling levels lead to shallow, slow breathing. Hyperventilation may result in
apnea and dizziness due to alkalosis. Oxygen, monitored by peripheral chemoreceptors, is less
important as a respiratory stimulus in healthy people. It is the stimulus for people whose systems have
become accustomed to a high level of carbon dioxide as a result of disease

L. Digestive System
• Identify the structures of the digestive system.

Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ileum), large intestine
(cecum, colon, rectum), anus, liver, gallbladder, pancreas.

Organs of the alimentary canal:

a. The mouth, or oral cavity, contains teeth and tongue and is bound by lips, cheeks, and palate. Tonsils
guard its posterior margin.

b. The pharynx is a muscular tube that provides a passageway for food and air.

c. The esophagus is a muscular tube that completes the passageway from the pharynx to the stomach.

d. The stomach is a C-shaped organ located on the left side of the abdomen beneath the diaphragm.
Food enters it through the cardioesophageal sphincter and leaves it to enter the small intestine through
the pyloric sphincter. The stomach has a third oblique layer of muscle in its wall that allows it to perform
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
mixing or churning movements. Gastric glands produce hydrochloric acid, pepsin, rennin, mucus, gastrin,
and intrinsic factor. Mucus protects the stomach itself from being digested.

e. The tubelike small intestine is suspended from the posterior body wall by the mesentery. Its
subdivisions are the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. Food digestion and absorption are completed here.
Pancreatic juice and bile enter the duodenum through a sphincter at the distal end of the bile duct.
Microvilli, villi, and circular folds increase the surface area of the small intestine for enhanced
absorption.

f. The large intestine frames the small intestine. Subdivisions are the cecum; appendix; ascending,
transverse, and descending colon; sigmoid colon; rectum; and anal canal. The large intestine delivers
undigested food residue (feces) to the body exterior.

g. The pancreas is a soft gland lying in the mesentery between the stomach and small intestine.
Pancreatic juice contains enzymes (which digest all categories of foods) in an alkaline fluid.

h. The liver is a four-lobed organ overlying the stomach. Its digestive function is to produce bile, which it
ducts into the small intestine.

i. The gallbladder is a muscular sac that stores and concentrates bile. When fat digestion is not
occurring, the continuously made bile backs up the cystic duct and enters the gallbladder.

• Describe the gastrointestinal tract wall layers and identify differences in wall layers between
gastrointestinal tract regions.

Layers of the GI tract wall:

 Mucosa: This innermost layer is in direct contact with the contents of the GI tract and is
responsible for absorption and secretion. It consists of three sublayers:
o Epithelium: A single layer of epithelial cells specialized for absorption or secretion,
depending on the region.
o Lamina propria: A layer of loose connective tissue containing blood vessels, lymphatic
vessels, and lymphoid tissue.
o Muscularis mucosae: Thin layer of smooth muscle fibers that aids in the movement of
the mucosa.
 Submucosa: This layer contains blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, nerves, and glands that supply
the mucosa. It also contains a layer of connective tissue with collagen and elastic fibers.
 Muscularis externa: This layer is responsible for peristalsis and segmentation, which propel food
through the GI tract and facilitate mixing with digestive enzymes. It consists of two layers of
smooth muscle fibers:
o Inner circular layer: Muscle fibers arranged circumferentially around the GI tract.
o Outer longitudinal layer: Muscle fibers oriented along the length of the GI tract.
 Serosa (or adventitia): The outermost layer provides protection and support to the GI tract. It is
composed of connective tissue and, in some regions, a layer of mesothelium called the serosa.

Differences in wall layers between GI tract regions:

Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
 Esophagus: The esophagus has a thicker mucosa and submucosa compared to other regions to
withstand the abrasion caused by the passage of food.
 Stomach: The stomach has an additional layer of muscle in the muscularis externa called the
oblique layer. This layer allows the stomach to perform churning motions, aiding in mechanical
digestion.
 Small intestine: The small intestine has a highly developed mucosa with finger-like projections
called villi and microvilli, which significantly increase the surface area for absorption.
Additionally, the muscularis externa in the small intestine is thicker and more organized
compared to other regions.
 Large intestine: The large intestine lacks villi and has a thinner mucosa and muscularis externa
compared to the small intestine. It contains numerous mucous-secreting goblet cells, which aid
in the lubrication of fecal material.

• Describe the structure and function of the peritoneum, mesenteries, and omentum.

 Peritoneum: a serous membrane that lines the abdominal cavity and covers the organs within it.
 Mesenteries and omentum: Double layers of peritoneum that support and stabilize organs and
provide a route for blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatics.

• Define chemical and mechanical digestion.

Both mechanical (chewing) and chemical food breakdown begin in the mouth. Saliva contains mucus,
which helps bind food together into a bolus, and salivary amylase, which begins the chemical breakdown
of starch. Saliva is secreted in response to food in the mouth, mechanical pressure, and psychic stimuli.
Essentially no food absorption occurs in the mouth.

 Chemical digestion: process of breaking down large food molecules into smaller molecules by
enzymes.
 Mechanical digestion: physical breakdown of food into smaller particles, increasing the surface
area for enzymatic action.

• Compare segmentation contractions and peristalsis.

 Segmentation contractions: mix chyme with digestive juices and increase absorption by moving
contents back and forth.
 Peristalsis: propulsive contractions that move contents along the length of the gastrointestinal
tract.

• Describe the enteric nervous system and the nervous regulation of gastrointestinal function.

 Enteric nervous system: intrinsic nervous system of the gastrointestinal tract involved in local
regulation of gastrointestinal function.
 Regulation: controlled by both intrinsic (enteric nervous system) and extrinsic (autonomic
nervous system) factors.

• Describe the composition and function of saliva.

Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
Salivary glands (three pairs—parotid, submandibular, and sublingual) secrete saliva into the oral cavity.
Saliva contains mucus and serous fluids. The serous component contains salivary amylase.

 Composition: contains water, electrolytes, mucus, enzymes (amylase), and antibacterial agents.
 Function: initiates starch digestion, moistens food, and lubricates the oral cavity.

• Describe the location and structure of the esophagus.

 Location: connects the pharynx to the stomach.

 Structure: composed of mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, and adventitia.

• Describe the swallowing reflex.

Swallowing has two phases: The buccal phase is voluntary; the tongue pushes the bolus into the
pharynx. The involuntary pharyngeal-esophageal phase involves the closing off of nasal and respiratory
passages and the conduction of food to the stomach by peristalsis.

• Describe the location and structure of the stomach.

 Location: located in the upper left portion of the abdominal cavity.

 Structure: divided into regions including the cardia, fundus, body, and pylorus.

• Describe the structure of gastric glands and identify the cell types that produce gastric secretions.

 Gastric glands: contain various cell types including mucous neck cells, parietal cells, chief cells,
and G cells.
 Secretions: include hydrochloric acid (HCl), pepsinogen, mucus, intrinsic factor, and gastrin.

• Describe the functions of the gastric secretions HCl, pepsinogen, mucus, intrinsic factor, and gastrin.

 HCl: Activates pepsinogen, denatures proteins, and kills bacteria.

 Pepsinogen: Converted to pepsin, which begins protein digestion.
 Mucus: protects the stomach lining from acid and enzymes.
 Intrinsic factor: essential for absorption of vitamin B12 in the small intestine.
 Gastrin: stimulates gastric acid secretion and gastric motility.

• Describe the regulation of gastric function during the cephalic, gastric, and intestinal phases of
digestion.

 Cephalic phase: initiated by the sight, smell, taste, or thought of food, leading to increased
gastric secretion via vagus nerve stimulation.
 Gastric phase: triggered by food entering the stomach, leading to increased gastric secretion
and motility via gastric distension and gastrin release.
 Intestinal phase: inhibits gastric secretion and motility in response to acidic chyme entering the
duodenum, mediated by hormonal and neural mechanisms.

When food enters the stomach, gastric secretion is stimulated by the vagus nerve and by gastrin (a local
hormone). Hydrochloric acid activates the prote indigesting enzyme pepsin, and digestion of proteins
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
begins. Food is also mechanically broken down by the churning activity of stomach muscles. Movement
of chyme into the small intestine is controlled by the enterogastric reflex.

• Describe the process of mechanical and chemical digestion in the stomach.

 Mechanical digestion in the stomach: mixing and churning actions of stomach muscles break
food into smaller particles.
 Chemical digestion in the stomach: HCl and pepsinogen initiate protein digestion, while gastric
lipase begins lipid digestion.

• Describe the location and structure of the small intestines.

 Location: extends from the pyloric sphincter to the ileocecal valve.

 Structure: divided into three segments: duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.

• Describe the structure and function of circular folds, villi, and microvilli.

 Circular folds (plicae circulares): increase surface area and slow movement of chyme in the
small intestine.
 Villi: finger-like projections containing blood vessels and lacteals for absorption. Most nutrient
absorption occurs by active transport into the capillary blood of the villi. Fats are absorbed by
diffusion into both capillary blood and lacteals in the villi.
 Microvilli: tiny projections on the surface of absorptive cells (enterocytes) that further increase
surface area for absorption.

• Describe the function of intestinal secretions.

 Intestinal secretions include mucus, electrolytes, and enzymes such as disaccharidases,

peptidases, and lipases.
 These secretions aid in the digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids, as well as in the
protection and lubrication of the intestinal lining.

• Describe the location and function of brush border enzymes.

 Located on the microvilli of enterocytes in the small intestine.

 Function to complete the digestion of carbohydrates (e.g., sucrase, maltase), proteins (e.g.,
aminopeptidase), and lipids (e.g., pancreatic lipase).

• Describe the location and structure of the pancreas.

 Location: located posterior to the stomach.

 Structure: composed of exocrine and endocrine glands; exocrine cells secrete digestive enzymes
into the duodenum via the pancreatic duct.

• Describe the functions of pancreatic secretions.

 Pancreatic secretions contain enzymes such as pancreatic amylase (for carbohydrate digestion),
trypsin and chymotrypsin (for protein digestion), and pancreatic lipase (for lipid digestion).
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
• Describe the location and structure of the liver.

 Location: located in the upper right portion of the abdominal cavity.

 Structure: divided into lobes and lobules; composed of hepatocytes arranged around a central
vein.

• Describe the key functions of the liver.

Key functions include bile production, detoxification of metabolic waste products, storage of nutrients
(such as glycogen and vitamins), and synthesis of proteins (such as albumin and clotting factors).

• Describe the composition of bile and the function of bile in lipid digestion.

 Composition of bile: contains bile salts, bilirubin, cholesterol, and phospholipids.

 Function of bile: emulsifies lipids, increasing their surface area for enzymatic digestion by
pancreatic lipase.

• Describe the location and functions of the gallbladder.

 Location: located beneath the liver.

 Function: stores and concentrates bile produced by the liver, releasing it into the duodenum in
response to the presence of fatty foods.

• Describe the location, structure, and function of the large intestines.

The large intestine receives bacteria-laden indigestible food residue. Activities of the large intestine are
absorption of water, of salts, and of vitamins made by resident bacteria. When feces are delivered to the
rectum by mass peristalsis, the defecation reflex is initiated.

 Location: extends from the ileocecal valve to the anus.

 Structure: divided into the cecum, colon (ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid), rectum,
and anus.
 Function: absorbs water and electrolytes, forms and stores feces, and houses intestinal flora.

• Describe the function of bacteria in the large intestines.

Intestinal flora (microbiota) ferment undigested carbohydrates, produce vitamins (such as vitamin K and
some B vitamins), and help in the digestion of certain nutrients.

• Describe the digestion and absorption of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids along the length of the
gastrointestinal tract.

Foods must be broken down to their building blocks to be absorbed. Building blocks of carbohydrates
are simple sugars, or monosaccharides. Building blocks of proteins are amino acids. Building blocks of
fats, or lipids, are fatty acids and glycerol, and building blocks of nucleic acids are nucleotides.

Digestion of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates is completed in the small intestine by intestinal enzymes
and, more important, pancreatic enzymes. Alkaline pancreatic juice neutralizes acidic chyme and
provides the proper environment for the operation of its enzymes. Both pancreatic juice (the only
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
source of lipases) and bile (formed by the liver) are necessary for normal fat breakdown and absorption.
Bile acts as a fat emulsifier. Secretin and cholecystokinin, hormones produced by the small intestine,
stimulate release of bile and pancreatic juice. Segmental movements mix foods; peristaltic movements
move foodstuffs along the small intestine.

M. Urinary System
• Identify the structures of the urinary system.

 Kidneys
 Ureters
 Bladder
 Urethra

• Identify the location of the kidneys.

The paired kidneys are retroperitoneal in the superior lumbar region.

 Retroperitoneal, on either side of the vertebral column

 T12 to L3 vertebrae level

Retroperitoneal refers to the anatomical location of an organ or structure situated behind the
peritoneum, which is the serous membrane that lines the abdominal cavity and covers most of the intra-
abdominal organs. In a retroperitoneal position, an organ lies outside the peritoneal cavity, typically
against the posterior abdominal wall. This positioning provides stability and protection for certain
organs.

The kidneys are a classic example of retroperitoneal organs. They are located behind the peritoneum, on
either side of the vertebral column, within the retroperitoneal space. Other retroperitoneal organs
include the pancreas, parts of the digestive tract (such as the duodenum and ascending colon), and
certain major blood vessels (such as the aorta and inferior vena cava).

• Describe the layers that surround and protect the kidneys.

Externally, the kidneys are surrounded by three layers:

1. The outermost layer is a tough connective tissue layer called the renal fascia.
2. The second layer is called the perirenal fat capsule, which helps anchor the kidneys in place.
3. The third and innermost layer is the renal capsule.

• Describe the organization of the internal kidney into the renal cortex, renal medulla, renal pyramids,
and renal columns.

Renal cortex:

 The renal cortex is the outermost layer of the kidney, extending from the renal capsule to the
renal medulla.
 It contains numerous renal corpuscles, which include glomeruli and Bowman's capsules, where
blood filtration occurs.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
 The renal cortex also houses renal tubules, including proximal and distal convoluted tubules,
where reabsorption and secretion processes take place.

Renal medulla:

 Situated deep within the kidney, the renal medulla lies beneath the renal cortex.
 It consists of renal pyramids, which are triangular-shaped structures with their bases facing the
cortex and their apexes (papillae) pointing toward the renal pelvis.
 The renal medulla contains tubules and collecting ducts responsible for concentrating urine and
maintaining water balance.

Renal pyramids:

 Renal pyramids are cone-shaped structures within the renal medulla.

 Each kidney typically contains multiple renal pyramids (usually between 8 to 18), depending on
the species.
 They are formed by parallel bundles of collecting ducts and loops of Henle, which transport
urine from the cortex to the renal pelvis.

Renal columns:

 Renal columns are extensions of cortical tissue that project into the renal medulla.
 These columns are located between adjacent renal pyramids, giving the kidney a striated
appearance.
 Renal columns provide support and contain blood vessels that supply the renal medulla.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
• Describe the route of blood flow through the kidney:

• Describe the structure the nephron.

Nephrons are structural and functional units of the kidneys. Each consists of a glomerulus and a renal
tubule. Subdivisions of the renal tubule (from the glomerulus onward) are glomerular capsule, proximal
convoluted tubule, nephron loop, and distal convoluted tubule. A second (peritubular) capillary bed is
also associated with each nephron.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
• Describe the route of urine drainage from the collecting duct to the ureter.

1. Collecting duct
2. Renal papilla
3. Minor calyx
4. Major calyx
5. Renal pelvis
6. Ureter

• Define filtration, reabsorption and secretion.

Nephron functions include filtration, reabsorption, and secretion. Filtrate formation is the role of the
high-pressure glomerulus. Filtrate is essentially plasma without blood proteins. In reabsorption, done by
tubule cells, needed substances are removed from filtrate (amino acids, glucose, water, some ions) and
returned to blood. The tubule cells also secrete additional substances into filtrate. Secretion is important
to rid the body of drugs and excess ions and to maintain acid-base balance of blood.

• Describe the structure and function of the renal corpuscle.

Renal corpuscle consists of:

 Glomerulus: tuft of capillaries where filtration occurs.

 Bowman's capsule: surrounds the glomerulus, collects filtrate.

• Identify the layers of the glomerular filtration membrane.

1. Fenestrated endothelium of glomerular capillaries

2. Basement membrane
3. Podocytes of Bowman's capsule
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
• Identify the filtration pressures at the level of the glomerulus.

 Glomerular hydrostatic pressure (GHP)

 Capsular hydrostatic pressure (CHP)
 Blood colloid osmotic pressure (BCOP)

• Define glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and describe how GFR is regulated.

 GFR: rate of filtrate formation per minute

 Regulated by renal autoregulation, neural regulation, and hormonal regulation (renin-
angiotensin-aldosterone system)

• Describe the processes of reabsorption and secretion at the level of the proximal convoluted tubule,
nephron loop, distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct.

 Proximal convoluted tubule: reabsorption of ions, nutrients (glucose and amino acids), and
water / secretion of H+ and some drugs and poisons
 Nephron loop: reabsorption of water and salt (NaCl)
 Distal convoluted tubule: secretion of ions (K+), acids, and some drugs / reabsorption of NaCl
 Collecting duct: reabsorption of water, NaCl, Urea and secretion of ions (K+)
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide

• Explain the role of the kidneys in regulating blood osmolarity and blood volume.

 Kidneys regulate blood osmolarity by adjusting water reabsorption.

 Kidneys regulate blood volume by adjusting sodium reabsorption.

• Describe the effects of aldosterone and antidiuretic hormone on nephron function.

 Aldosterone: increases sodium reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct.
 Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH): increases water reabsorption in the collecting duct.

• Describe the location, structure and function of the ureters.

 Muscular tubes connecting the kidneys to the bladder.

 Utilize peristalsis to propel urine towards the bladder.

• Describe the location, structure and function of the bladder.

 Muscular sac for temporary urine storage.

 Contains rugae to allow expansion.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
• Describe the micturition reflex.

 Reflexive emptying of the bladder initiated by stretch receptors.

 Involves contraction of the detrusor muscle and relaxation of the internal urethral sphincter.

• Describe the location, structure and function of the urethra.

 Tube connecting the bladder to the exterior of the body.

 Functions in the excretion of urine in both males and females.

N. Reproductive System
Male Reproductive System
• Describe the location and structure of the testes.

The testes are located within the scrotum, a sac of skin and muscle beneath the penis. Each testis is
oval-shaped and about the size of a large olive. They are suspended within the scrotum by the spermatic
cord. The outer layer of the testis is called the tunica albuginea, a tough fibrous capsule that surrounds
the testis. Inside the testis, there are numerous compartments called lobules, each containing one to
three highly coiled seminiferous tubules where sperm production occurs.

• Describe the structure of the wall of a seminiferous tubule.

The wall of a seminiferous tubule consists of several layers of cells. The outermost layer is composed of
myoid cells, which have contractile properties to help move sperm and fluids through the tubules. Inside
the myoid cells, there are layers of spermatogenic cells, including spermatogonia, spermatocytes, and
spermatids, which are all involved in the process of spermatogenesis.

• Describe the process of meiosis.

Meiosis is a specialized type of cell division that occurs in germ cells (spermatocytes in males) to
produce haploid gametes (sperm in males). It involves two successive divisions: meiosis i and meiosis ii,
resulting in the formation of four haploid cells. During meiosis i, homologous chromosomes pair up and
exchange genetic material through crossing over. These homologous chromosomes then separate into
two daughter cells. Meiosis ii is similar to mitosis but involves the separation of sister chromatids,
resulting in the formation of four haploid cells, each containing half the number of chromosomes as the
original cell.

• Describe the process of spermatogenesis and spermiogenesis.

Spermatogenesis is the process by which spermatogonia (stem cells) differentiate into mature sperm
cells (spermatozoa). It occurs within the seminiferous tubules of the testes. Spermiogenesis is the final
stage of spermatogenesis, during which spermatids undergo structural and functional changes to
become mature spermatozoa. This process involves the formation of the acrosome, elongation of the
nucleus, development of the flagellum (tail), and shedding of excess cytoplasm to form a streamlined
structure capable of swimming.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
• Compare spermatogonia, primary and secondary spermatocytes, spermatids, and spermatozoa.

Spermatogonia are undifferentiated stem cells located on the basal lamina of the seminiferous tubules.
Primary spermatocytes are diploid cells resulting from the division of spermatogonia. They undergo
meiosis i to form secondary spermatocytes, which are haploid cells. Secondary spermatocytes undergo
meiosis ii to form spermatids, which then differentiate into mature spermatozoa (sperm cells) through
spermiogenesis. Spermatozoa are highly specialized cells with a head containing the nucleus and
acrosome, a midpiece with mitochondria for energy production, and a tail (flagellum) for motility.

• Identify the location, structure and function of the following structures of the male reproductive
tract: epididymis, ductus deferens, ejaculatory duct, and urethra.

 Epididymis: a tightly coiled tube located on the posterior surface of each testis, where sperm
mature and are stored.
 Ductus (vas) deferens: a muscular tube that transports sperm from the epididymis to the
ejaculatory duct during ejaculation.
 Ejaculatory duct: formed by the union of the vas deferens and seminal vesicle duct, it passes
through the prostate gland and empties into the urethra.
 Urethra: a tube that carries urine from the bladder and semen from the ejaculatory duct out of
the body through the penis.

• Identify the location, structure and function of the following accessory glands: seminal glands,
prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands.

 Seminal vesicles (seminal glands): located behind the bladder, they secrete a fluid rich in
fructose and other substances that nourish and activate sperm.
 Prostate gland: surrounds the urethra just below the bladder, secreting a milky alkaline fluid
that enhances sperm motility and neutralizes acidic vaginal secretions.
 Bulbourethral glands (Cowper’s glands): located below the prostate gland, they secrete a clear
mucus-like fluid that lubricates the urethra and neutralizes any residual acidic urine.

• Identify the hormones involved in male reproductive function.

 Testosterone: produced by the Leydig cells in the testes, it is the primary male sex hormone
responsible for the development and maintenance of male reproductive tissues and secondary
sexual characteristics.
 Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): secreted by the anterior pituitary gland, FSH stimulates
spermatogenesis by acting on the Sertoli cells in the seminiferous tubules.
 Luteinizing hormone (LH): also secreted by the anterior pituitary gland, LH stimulates the Leydig
cells in the testes to produce testosterone.

1. Leydig cells = testosterone

2. Sertoli cells = Sperm(atogenesis)
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide

Female Reproductive System

• Identify the location, structure and function of the ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, and vagina.

1. Ovaries: located in the pelvic cavity, these almond-shaped organs produce eggs (ova) and
female sex hormones, primarily estrogen and progesterone.
2. Uterine tubes (fallopian tubes): extend from the ovaries to the uterus and serve as the pathway
for egg transport from the ovaries to the uterus. Fertilization typically occurs in the uterine
tubes.
3. Uterus: a muscular organ located in the pelvis between the bladder and rectum, where a
fertilized egg implants and develops into a fetus during pregnancy.
4. Vagina: a muscular tube connecting the external genitals to the cervix of the uterus, serving as
the birth canal during childbirth and also as the outlet for menstrual flow.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
• Describe the process of oogenesis.

1. Oogenesis is the process by which female gametes (oocytes) are produced.

2. It begins during fetal development when oogonia (precursor cells) undergo mitotic divisions to
form primary oocytes, which are arrested in prophase I of meiosis until puberty.
3. Each month during the menstrual cycle, one or more primary oocytes resume development and
complete the first meiotic division, resulting in a secondary oocyte and a polar body.
4. If fertilization occurs, the secondary oocyte completes meiosis II, forming a mature ovum (egg)
and another polar body.

• Compare the following phases of the menstrual cycle: ovarian cycle and uterine cycle.

 Ovarian cycle: involves changes in the ovaries, including follicular development, ovulation, and
formation of the corpus luteum.
 Uterine cycle: involves changes in the uterus in response to hormonal fluctuations, including the
1) proliferative phase, 2) secretory phase, and 3) menstrual phase.

• Identify the events of the follicular phase, ovulation, and luteal phase of the ovarian cycle.

 Follicular phase: begins with the development of follicles in the ovary, one of which becomes
dominant and matures into a Graafian follicle.
 Ovulation: release of a mature egg from the ovary into the fallopian tube.
 Luteal phase: formation of the corpus luteum from the remnants of the Graafian follicle, which
secretes progesterone to prepare the uterus for possible implantation of a fertilized egg.

• Describe the structure of ovarian follicles.

Ovarian follicles consist of an oocyte surrounded by layers of granulosa cells, enclosed in connective
tissue known as theca cells.

• Compare oogonia, primary oocyte, secondary oocyte, ovum, zygote, and polar body.

 Oogonia: precursor cells that give rise to primary oocytes.

 Primary oocyte: diploid cell that undergoes meiosis to produce a secondary oocyte and a polar
body.
 Secondary oocyte: haploid cell resulting from the first meiotic division of the primary oocyte.
 Ovum: mature haploid egg cell resulting from the second meiotic division of the secondary
oocyte, capable of fertilization.
 Zygote: diploid cell formed by the fusion of a sperm and an ovum during fertilization.
 Polar body: small haploid cell produced during oogenesis that typically degenerates.

• Identify the wall layers of the uterus.

The uterus has three layers: the innermost endometrium, the middle myometrium (muscular layer), and
the outermost perimetrium (serous membrane).
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
• Identify the events of the proliferative phase, secretory phase, and menses of the uterine cycle.

1. Proliferative phase: endometrial lining thickens in response to estrogen.

2. Secretory phase: endometrium becomes more glandular and vascular in preparation for embryo
implantation, stimulated by progesterone.
3. Menstrual phase: shedding of the endometrial lining in the absence of pregnancy, due to a
decrease in estrogen and progesterone levels.

• Explain the changes that occur in the uterus and ovaries if fertilization does not occur.

If fertilization does not occur…

1. Corpus luteum degenerates, leading to a decrease in progesterone and estrogen levels.

2. Endometrial lining is shed during menstruation.
3. Ovarian follicles begin to develop again in preparation for the next menstrual cycle.

• Identify the hormones involved in female reproductive function.

Estrogen: primarily produced by the ovaries (specifically by the follicle cells surrounding the developing
egg) and in smaller amounts by the adrenal glands and fat tissues. It is responsible for the development
of female secondary sexual characteristics such as breast development, widening of hips, and
distribution of body fat. Estrogen also plays a key role in regulating the menstrual cycle by stimulating
the growth of the endometrium (inner lining of the uterus) during the proliferative phase. Additionally,
estrogen helps maintain bone density and has effects on mood, cognition, and cardiovascular health.

Progesterone: Progesterone is primarily produced by the corpus luteum in the ovary after ovulation and
in smaller amounts by the adrenal glands and placenta during pregnancy. It plays a crucial role in
preparing the uterine lining for implantation of a fertilized egg during the secretory phase of the
menstrual cycle. Progesterone helps maintain the pregnancy by promoting the growth of blood vessels
in the uterine lining and inhibiting uterine contractions that could expel the embryo. If fertilization does
not occur, progesterone levels decrease, leading to the shedding of the uterine lining during
menstruation.

Gonadotropins:

Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH): FSH is produced by the anterior pituitary gland in the brain. In
females, FSH stimulates the growth and development of ovarian follicles (structures within the ovaries
that contain immature eggs) during the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle. It also promotes the
secretion of estrogen by the developing follicles.

Luteinizing Hormone (LH): LH is also produced by the anterior pituitary gland. In females, LH surge
triggers ovulation, the release of a mature egg from the ovary, typically around the middle of the
menstrual cycle. After ovulation, LH stimulates the formation of the corpus luteum from the remnants
of the ovarian follicle, which produces progesterone to prepare the uterus for possible pregnancy.

• Describe the structure of the breasts and the function of the mammary glands.

 The breasts consist of glandular tissue, adipose tissue, and connective tissue.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide
 Mammary glands within the breasts produce milk to nourish offspring during lactation,
stimulated by hormones such as prolactin and oxytocin.

LABELLING
Pages 148, 153, 155, 156, 157, 147, 150, 163, 165, 214, 215, 446, 208, 359, 375, 377

1. Bronchial artery: supplies oxygenated blood to the structures of the lungs, including the bronchi
(airways), bronchioles, and surrounding lung tissue.
Anatomy and Physiology Challenge Exam Study Guide

2. Common hepatic artery: responsible for supplying oxygenated blood to the liver.
3. Left gastric artery: supplies oxygenated blood to the lesser curvature of the stomach.
4. Splenic artery: supplies oxygenated blood to the spleen. It also sends branches to the pancreas and
stomach, contributing to the blood supply of these organs.

5. Suprarenal artery (superior and inferior): supply oxygenated blood to the adrenal glands (also known
as suprarenal glands) located above the kidneys.