Basic Writing Skills in English Language (EnLa 1012)

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Unit One: Writing Effective Sentences.......................................................................................2
1.1. What is a sentence?.......................................................................................................2
1.2. Sentence Parts...............................................................................................................2
1.3. Sentence Classification.................................................................................................3
1.3.1. Sentence Classification by Function.....................................................................3
1.3.2. Sentence Classification by Grammatical Structure...............................................4
1.4. Common Sentence Errors.................................................................................................6
1.5. Punctuation and Capitalization.......................................................................................12
1. 6. Joining Sentences..........................................................................................................14
Unit Two: Writing Effective Paragraphs..................................................................................17
2.1. What is a paragraph?......................................................................................................17
2.2. Structure of a Paragraph.................................................................................................17
2.3. Essentials/Characteristics of a Good Paragraph.............................................................19
2.4. Types of Paragraph.........................................................................................................26
2.5. Methods of Paragraph Development..............................................................................30
Unit Three: Essay Writing.........................................................................................................34
3.1 Definition of an Essay.....................................................................................................34
3.2. Structure of an Essay......................................................................................................36
3.3. Unity and Coherence within an Essay............................................................................38
3.4. Types of Essay...............................................................................................................39
3.4.1. Descriptive Essay....................................................................................................39
3.4.2. Narrative Essay.......................................................................................................39
3.4.3 Expository Essay......................................................................................................40
3.4.4. Argumentative Essay...............................................................................................41

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Unit One: Writing Effective Sentences
It is obvious that people usually communicate verbally through two media. These are
speaking and writing. When they communicate through writing formally, mostly the basic
unit of idea is a sentence. For constructing a meaningful and complete sentence,
understanding the nature of a sentence is compulsory.

1.1. What is a sentence?

A sentence is a group of words that are arranged appropriately to express an idea through a
logically related subject and predicate.

1.2. Sentence Parts

In English sentences, there are two basic elements. They are subject and predicate.
A, Subject: a subject is noun/pronoun the sentence is about. It is the basic element of a
sentence that normally appears at the beginning of a sentence. Subject can be simple or
compound.
Example: 1. The rain will stop.
2. The President of America will attend the meeting.
3. She was elected the president of the union.
4. An intelligent and industrious boy surely achieves even the most difficult goal.
Activity 1: Underline the subjects in each of the sentences below
1. A group of explorers in a remote region of France made a starting discovery in 1994.
2. The first simple microscopes were built in the middle of the fifteenth century.
3. The entire business district was destroyed.
4. Impurities in the glass greatly distorted microscope images.
B, Predicate: A predicate is a part of a sentence that says something about the subject. It
consists of at least one word- a verb. When it is extended, it may consist of other modifiers.
Example: The man died.
The man died yesterday.
The man died in the hospital yesterday
In the above sentences, you can easily identify that the words and word groups written in bold
are predicates. Like a subject, a predicate can be simple or complete predicate.
Simple predicate: Complete predicate:
Example: The old man is praying. Example: The old man prayed forpeace.
The rain stopped. The girl isdancing with her sister.
Activity 2: Underline the predicate in each of the following sentences and identify
whether it is a simple ora complete predicate.
1. Many fires erupted.
2. The entire business district and many homes were destroyed.
3. Impurities in the glass greatly distorted microscope images.
4. A group of explorers in remote region of France made a startling discovery in 1994.
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1.3. Sentence Classification

Generally, sentences could be put into two major categories. If sentences are seen in terms of
their purposes or functions, they are classified into four types as declarative, interrogative,
imperative, and exclamatory sentence. If they are considered in terms of their structure, they
are classified into simple, compound, complex and compound- complex sentences.

1.3.1. Sentence Classification by Function

Sentences are means by which we communicate with others and express our thought and
feeling to others. As ideas, thoughts or feelings are different in kind and type, the purpose of
communicating them also varies. If the purpose of communicating with people varies, the type
of sentence we use for communication will also vary. So, based up on purpose sentences are
classified into four types: declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamatory sentences.
a) Declarative Sentence
A declarative sentence is a statement which is used to give information. It is a kind of
sentence which usually demands a true or false response. It is also a sentence that is used
more frequently than any other sentence types. This sentence normally ends with a period or
a full stop. It can be manifested in different forms. It can be either affirmative of negative.
Examples:
1. Time is running short. (affirmative)
2. She does not respect her elder brother. (negative)
3. Stories entertain. (affirmative)
4. The instructors do not allow cheating in exam. (negative)
b) Interrogative Sentence
An interrogative sentence asks a question, or seeks information. It ends with question mark
(interrogation)
Example: 1.What is your favorite football team?
2. Can you get away today?
3. Have you ever seen any park in Ethiopia?
4. Is Abe being your friend?
c) Imperative Sentence
This is a type of sentence that expresses a command, a request, an order, an advice, etc. The
order of the subject and the predicate is like that of a declarative sentence, except that subject
is rarely expressed. The end mark for an imperative sentence is a period, but sometimes an
exclamation mark is used for emphasis.
Example:
1. Shut the door. (command )
2. Be good to your colleagues. (advice)
3. Have a cup of coffee, please. (invitation)
4. Please, have a seat.(invitation)
5. Show me your Id, please. (request)

d) Exclamatory Sentence
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This is a sentence that expresses strong emotion, excitement or sudden feeling. The feeling
could be of different types. It could be a feeling of happiness, sorrow, wonder, surprise etc. In
exclamatory sentence, there are words and phrases that are commonly used with the main
sentence. These include words like ‘what;’ ‘how ‘,’perhaps;’ ‘oh’, ‘oh god’, etc. The
punctuation mark in this type of sentence is an exclamatory mark. It is placed at the end of
either the exclamatory word or sentence.
Example: 1. Wow! We have won the match.
2. How late the doctor is!
3. What a brave boy he is!
4. How beautiful flowers they are!
Activity 3: Identify whether the following sentences are declarative, interrogative,
imperative, and exclamatory. Thenput appropriate end marks.
1. Who is your best friend
2. What a wonderful adventure it is
3. Don’t ever get out of your car to take the pictures of the elephants.
4. The human backbone has thirty bones
5. Which one is the best exercise?

1.3.2. Sentence Classification by Grammatical Structure

In terms of their structure, sentences could be classified into four types.Structure of a sentence
refers to the constituent parts from which the sentence is formed. Thus based on these
constituent parts, we can categorize sentences into simple, compound, complex and
compound–complex sentences.
a) Simple Sentence
A simple sentence is a sentence with one main clause or a sentence with one subject and one
predicate. Both the subject and the predicate could be simple or compound.
Examples:

1. The students played tennis.(simple subject and predicate)

2. The students and their teachers played tennis. (compound subject and simple
predicate)
3. The students played tennis and took shower. (simple subject and compound
predicate)
4. The student and their teachers played tennis and took shower. (compound
subject and compoundPredicate)

b) Compound Sentence
A compound sentence is made up of two independent/ main clauses. Each main clause of a
compound sentence has its own subject and predicate. The clauses are usually joined by:

1. a coordinating conjunction: and, or, but, for, so, yet, nor preceded by a comma, or
2. Semicolon (;), conjunctive adverbs or independent markers (however, moreover,
therefore, thus, consequently, also) followed by comma.

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 Examples:
1. My wallet had disappeared, and I had no way to pay my fee.
2. The park was crowded,for Monday was a holiday
3. The sky is cloudy; it is to rain.
4. I am an Ethiopian; however, he is a European.
c) Complex Sentence
This is a type of sentence made up of one independent clause and one or more than one
dependent/subordinate clauses. Common examples of dependent markers are: because, before,
since, as, while, although, if, until, when, after, as if etc.
Example:
1.Because I had lost my wallet, I had no way to pay my fee.
2. I had no way to pay my fee because I had lost my wallet.
In the first sentence, the clause because I had lost my wallet is a subordinate (dependent)
clause.It is dependent because it cannot give a complete meaning on its own. It needs to be
attached to the main clause to give a complete meaning. The other clause I had no way to
pay my fee is an independent (main) clause. In brief, when a dependent clause and an
independent clause are combined into one sentence to express an idea, the sentence is called a
complex sentence.The order of the main clause and the subordinate clause may be
exchanged. Either the main clause or the subordinate clause can come first. When the
subordinate clause comes first, the comma splits the two clauses as in the above example. If
the main clause precedes the subordinate clause, no need of using a comma in between.
d) Compound –Complex Sentence
A compound –complex sentence is a sentence with two main clauses and one or more
subordinate clauses. In other words, as the name indicates, compound –complex sentence has
a compound sentence and a complex sentence. The following example illustrates the idea.
Examples:

1. Because I had been careless, my wallet had disappeared, and I had no way to pay my
fee.
2. The class is inconvenient; however, we should cover the course since it is compulsory.

Activity 4: Identify whether the following sentences are simple, compound, complex or
compound-complex sentences.
1. Have you ever been to the exhibition, or are you going just now?
2. What is the main objective of this course?
3. When you go to Harar, you have to visit the historical place there.
4. Windows rattled and doors shook.
5. Because out fuel pump failed, we were stranded on the way, and we couldn’t attend
the meeting.
6. The United States is depleting its none-renewable energy source: coal, oil, and gas.
7. As the storm blew, windows rattled and doors shook
8. Sun, wind, and water are renewable energy sources, and they do not cause pollution.

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 9. Although the rain fell for three days, the city’s reservoirs were not filled.

1.4. Common Sentence Errors

The most common sentence errors are sentence fragments, run-on sentences, comma splices,
misplaced, dangling modifiers and agreement errors. Thus this section discusses those
sentence errors and ways of correcting them.
A. Sentence Fragments
A sentence fragment is a group of words that does not express a complete idea. It looks like a
sentence, but is not. It may begin with a capital letter and end with a period, but its
construction fails to satisfy the reader’s expectation of a meaningful statement. It may lack a
subject, or a verb, or the dependent clause unattached to the independent clause.
Examples: a) Genealogy, the study of family history. (Lacks verb)
b) Although several large rivers have been cleaned up. (Lacks independence)
c) When you come to school. (Lacks independence)
d) Shouted with delight.(Lacks subject)
e) I always stay at library up to 6: pm. attempting to score 4.0. (Dependent clause unattached
to theIndependent one)
Sentence fragments can be corrected in the following ways:

Adding a subject and /or a predicate to make the sentence complete.

Attaching the fragment to an adjacent sentence and making it an integral part of the
sentence.
Omitting some elements and making a separate sentence.

a) Fragment:In many families, both parents work. Need two incomes.(Lacks a complete
predicate)
Sentence:In many families, both parents work because the family needs two incomes.
In many families both parents work. The family needs two incomes.
b) Fragment: Sometimes two or three generations of one family living together.(lacks a
complete verb)
Sentence:Sometimes two or three generations of one live together.
c) Fragment: The simplest family group is the nuclear family. This consists of parents and
children. ( subordinate Clauseunattached to the main clause)
Sentence: The simplest family group is nuclear family, which consist of parents and
children.
d) Fragment:She wins an award every winter. For looking after many helpless street
children.(subordinate clause unattached to the main clause)
Sentence:She wins an award every winter for looking after many helpless street
children.
e) Fragments:Although she works hard .(has subordinate clause only)
Sentence: She works hard.

Activity5: Read the following text and then state whether each of the numbered word
group is a complete sentenceor a sentence fragment.

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(1)When he entered elementary school as a child in California knew only about fifty words of
English.(2) Because he was afraid he would be mocked, Richard was reluctant to speak in
class.(3) The priest who taught him asked his parents, who had been born in Mexico, to speak
to the child in English rather than in Spanish. (4) Richards developed a deep love of reading.
(5) Which became the basis of his later academic success?

B. Run- on Sentences (fused sentences): is a construction where two or more independent

sentences are written and punctuated as if they were one sentence. Usually it is the absence of
punctuation marks.

Example:1. He drove the car fast it was a beautiful day. (Run-on) This can be corrected as:
He drove the car fast; it was a beautiful day. Or
He drove the car fast, and it was a beautiful day.

Methods of correcting run-on sentences:

1. Place period between the two clauses, making two complete sentences
Example: It was raining heavily. I did not take an umbrella.
2. Place semi-colon between the two clauses.
Example: It was raining heavily; I did not take an umbrella.
3. Use comma and adverbial conjunctions with semi-colon.
Example: It was raining heavily; however, I did not take an umbrella.
4. Use comma and the coordinating conjunctions between the two clauses.
Example: It was raining heavily, but I did not take an umbrella.
5. Add the subordinate conjunctions and make one clause dependent and then join to the
independent clause.
Example: Although it was raining heavily, I did not take an umbrella.

The most common run-on sentence errors are of three kinds:

 When there is comma splice. It occurs when two main clauses are punctuated by a
comma rather than a semi colon or a period since comma cannot separate sentences.
Example: Human nature is not as simple as it appears, hasty judgments are oftenwrong.
(run-on)
 When no punctuation separates two independent clauses.
Example: My father is the chairman of the committee on foreign relations .He also heads
the warrant commission. (Run-on)
 When there is no comma before a coordinating conjunction joining two main clauses.
(run-on)
Example: I listened to the football game all afternoon but my wife went tothe movies.

C. Comma Splices

Comma splice or comma fault occurs when a comma is used between two independent
clauses without a coordinating conjunction.
Example1.The examination is approaching you should study day and night. (Incorrect)
The examination is approaching; you should study day and night. (Correct)
The examination is approaching; therefore, you should study day and night.(Correct)
The examination is approaching, and you should study day and night. (Correct)
2. It was raining heavily I would not take an umbrella. (Incorrect)
It was raining heavily; however, I would not take an umbrella. (Correct)

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D. Misplaced Modifiers
Misplaced modifier occurs when it is unclear what a modifying phrase or clause modifies. So,
it is important to make sure that the modifier clearly refers to the element you want it to
modify. Logically, modifiers should be placed with words, phrases or clauses they modify
because they make the sentence ambiguous.To correct a sentence with misplaced modifier,
put the modifier as close as possible to the word it modifies.
Example: The council advises physicians at regular intervals to administer the drug.
Is the meaning clear to you?
What does the modifying phrase “at regular intervals” modify?
The council’s advise or administering the drug?
To avoid this ambiguity, it can be revised as:
1) The council advises physicians to administer the drug at regular intervals.
(administering the drug at regular intervals)
2) At regular intervals, the council advises physicians to administer the drug.(the council
advising physicians at regular intervals)
Activity 6:Correct the following misplaced modifier and make unambiguous sentences.
1. The bread sat on the table that Seble had backed.
2. The man walked towards the car carrying the stick.
3. I saw a jacket in a shop that cost 1000 birr.
4. Leaves floated gently down on to the lawn with dazzling autumn colors.
5. Cleaned and polished, Azeb proudly viewed her car.
E. Dangling Modifiers
A dangling modifier modifies a word which has been left out of the sentence or that is not
clearly stated in the sentence. It does not modify any word in the sentence in which it appears.
Example: 1.Following the guidelines carefully, the soup was made.
What does the sentence mean? Who followed the guidelines carefully? The participial phrase
following the guidelines is not modifying any word in the sentence. The word or phrase that
needs to be modified is left out of the sentence. By supplying a word that can be modified by
the dangling modifier, you can correct the sentence.
 Following the guidelines carefully, the woman made the soup.
 Notice how the phrase the woman is used to correct the sentence.
2. After trying several times, the lock finally opened. (dangling)
After trying several times, the officer finally opened the lock. (correct)
Activity 8: Correct the following dangling modifier and write the correct version.

1. Walking on the beach, the water touched my feet.

2. Having finished the assignment, the TV was turned on.
3. Watching horror film, the bread burned.
Possible ways of correcting dangling modifiers:
 Name the doer of the action

E.g. Having arrived late for practice, excuse letter was written. (Dangled)
Having arrived late for practice, the team captain wrote excuse letter. (Corrected)

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  Change the phrase that dangles to a subordinate clause by naming the doer of the
action in the clause.
E.g. Playing tennis, the first class was lost. (Dangled)
While I was playing tennis, the first class was lost. (Corrected)
 Combine the phrase and the main clause.
E.g. To improve his results, the trial was done. (Dangled)
Tola improved his results by doing the trial again. (Corrected)
F. Agreement Errors
Activity 9: Before you go to the discussion, can you comment whether the following
sentences have errors or not. Where there is an error, rewrite the sentence, correcting
the error.
a. Recent discoveries about the weather reveal that several cycles are involved.
b. The media was biased in its reporting of the event.
c. A student is free to express their opinion
d. Once one has decided to take the course, you must keep certain policies in mind.
e. Eating huge meals, snacking between meals, and too little exercise can lead to obesity.
There are some agreement problems which most writers commonly face. Among these are:
subject and verb agreement, pronoun and antecedent agreement and tense compatibility
problems.
i. Subject-Verb Agreement
The subject of a sentence should always agree with the verb in such a way that when the
subject is singular, the verb must also be singular and when the subject is plural, the verb must
also be plural.
Examples: 1.The group of bizarrely dressed youths are taking over the cafeteria (the subject is
singular but theverb is plural)
2. Either the girls or the boy is capable of solving the problem.
3. My favorite thing to buyis compact discs.
4. A letter with many mistakes doesnot make a good impression.
5. Everyone wantto see that movie.
ii. Pronoun and Antecedent Agreement
A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number (singular or plural), in person (first,
second or third person) and in gender (masculine, feminine, or neutral). An antecedent is the
word or group of words to which a pronoun refers to or that a pronoun replaces.
Examples:
1. A student is an important member of a society, and you should express your opinion freely.
A student is an important member of a society, and he/sheshould expresshis/her opinion
freely.
2. The doctor is driving a car, but it is not their own car.
The doctor is driving a car, but it is not his own car.
iii. Vague Pronoun Reference
Examples: John and James are good friends, which began when they were in elementary
school.(What did begin whenJohn and James were in Elementary school?This is a vague
pronoun reference.It was their friendship).

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John and James have a lasting friendship, which began when they were elementary school.
(correct)
iv. Compatibility of Tenses
Tense compatibility refers to the harmony that should exist between/among tenses of two or
more events occurring at the same time. Do not shift or change tenses when two or more
events occur at the same time .Tenses can shift to show that one event precedes or follows
another.
Examples:
1.The rain has poured down endlessly, and the roads will have flooded. (incorrect)
The rain has poured down endlessly, and the roads have flooded. (correct)
2.The students cheered when the principal announces a holiday.
The students cheered when the principal announced a holiday. (two events took place at the
same time).
G. Faulty Parallelism
This occurs when there are non-parallel structures in a sentence.
Example1.Martha likes walking, mountaineering, swimming and she likes reading. (Non-
parallel)
Martha likes walking, mountaineering, swimming and reading. (Parallel)
2. The students attended classes did their homework and they were going back home.
(Non- parallel)
3. The students attended classes, did their homework and they went back home. (Parallel)
H.Wordiness
It refers to excessive use of words in a sentence. Look at the following example.
1. Writing allows us to further our knowledge of the world around us and become aware of
our social surroundings and physical surroundings. This can be rewritten as:
E.g. Writing furthers our knowledge and awareness of physical and social surroundings.
2. Students will often write required writings that fulfill a grade requirement towards
graduation. (Wordy)
E.g. For many students, writing is a graduation requirement.
I. Diction
It refers to choice and use of words both in speech and written texts. To avoid improper use of
words, use thefollowing guidelines.

 Choose understandable and clear words.

 Avoid ambiguity.
 Use specific/precise words.
 Choose and emphasize strong words.
 Avoid over use of words.

Practice Exercises
A) Identify the following sentence fragmentsand correctthem.

1. The best hope for peace lies in education. That teaches us how to live together.

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 2. The steam engine was a beautiful thing at night; sparks climbing high in to the sky and
the fire box glowing inthe darkness.
3. A British diver finally got down to the wreckage. Measuring the size of the rivets to
determine its identify.
4. For my eighteenth birthday my grandfather gave me his own watch. One that I shall
always treasure.
5. He was often teased by the other boys at school .Because he spoke with alight lip.
6. From the darkened room came a flickering light. The television set.
7. We expect to make the playoffs this year. The team winning most of its games.
B) Correct the following run-ons(fused sentences) using one of the ways you have
learned.
1. His encouragement produced good results. For many people took his advice and
became more useful citizens
2. They bought large amount of food but nothing was left.
3. Almaz and her friend went on a picnic yesterday they had a wonderful time until it
began to rain.
4. The Sayannah was launched in 1958, it was the first ship to be propelled by nuclear
power.
5. The magnitudes of earthquakes are measured by instrumentsSeismographs, they
record movements in the earth’s crust.
6. All over the city, new buildings springing up, the sky line is rapidly changing.
7. Lighthouses are fascinating, many people travel around the country to visit them.
C) Indicate whether the modifiers in the following sentences are misplaced, dangling or
correct.
Rewrite the sentences by correcting all misplaced and dangling modifiers.
1. Rebuilding the motor, the tool box fell on the mechanic’s legs
2. Driving into the gas station, the advertisements for lower gas prices influenced the
customers.
3. Pumping the gasoline, the dog in the car licked the attendants
4. Shining through the window, John could see the sun
5. In order to be understood, proper articulation and pronunciation are necessary.
6. By reading this letter, I hope that you will be convinced
7. Morning tea is always served here while still in bed
8. Changing the tires, the customer chatted with the mechanic.
9. Visiting Egypt, the pyramids are impressive
10. He admitted that he was the anonymous donor in the letter.
D)Correct the following agreement problems.
1. His temperament and his wide experience makes him more patient than most people.
2. George is one of those boys who never thinks of anything but sport.
3. Our greatest problem are mosquitoes, which swarm out of the woods in great numbers
as soon as evening comes.
4. More news of the disasters are coming in hourly.
5. Bread and milk were our usual Sunday night supper on the farm.
6. Bad luck can be very effective in making a person change their minds.
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 7. My room has a bed, a desk, a dresser, and a wardrobe in which you can hang your
clothes.
8. My family was poor but always ready to help their neighbors.
9. It is necessary to accept each tale as truth no matter how fantastic they may seem.
10. AtoBelayneh visited the man before he went to the party.
11. There was a rumor going around those worms constituted part of the hamburger meat,
and it was nasty.
12. The professor did not push his point further with the student because he was
embarrassed.
13. On the night of July 14, the patriots stormed the doors of the prison, and they were
smashed.
14. My mother and my sister went to the dentist to get her teeth fixed.

1.5. Punctuation and Capitalization

A) Punctuation

What do you think is punctuation? List down the punctuation marks you know in English
along with their functions.
Punctuation is the use of punctuation marks to indicate the pauses and gestures that we use in
speech to clarify and emphasize meaning. In English, the most frequently used punctuation
marks are: period (full stop), comma, question mark, exclamation point, semi colon, colon,
quotation marks, ellipsis and others.
1. Period (Full stop) (.): A period is a punctuation mark that is used to end a declarative or an
imperative sentence.
Example: Money is necessary, but you need not sell your soul for it. (Declarative)
Send me your address as soon as possible. (Imperative)
It is also used after abbreviations like Mr., Ms., Dr.,St. as inMr. Ones, Mrs. Smith, Ms.
Evans, Dr. Peter and St. Louis.
2. Comma (,):A comma is a punctuation mark that is used more frequently in a piece of
writing than any other punctuation marks. It has different functions. Its main role in a given
sentence or groups of words or phrases is to indicate to readers a slightest pause.
3. Question Mark (?): The question mark closes an interrogative sentence or other sentences
with interrogative meaning. It is used for different purposes.

 To indicate direct question.

 Example: Can you go with me to the movies tonight?
 Used at the end of a statement that has an interrogative meaning.
 Example: You think you will be able to get away?
 Used after a title that is interrogative phrase or sentence.
 Example: After Graduation – what?

4. The Semi-colon (;): A semi-colon is a punctuation mark which is used to join two closely
related independent (main) clauses that are not connected by coordinating conjunctions.
Though it is not always, a semi-colon can replace a full stop (a period) in separating two

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independent clauses. The distinct feature of a semi-colon is that it appears only between
equals (clauses of the same rank or items in a coordinate series).
Example:1. The project began slowly; additional staffs were assigned to it.
2. Right means straight; wrong means twisted.
A semicolon is also used to separate elements in a series when some of the elements already
contain commas.
Example:1. Chala wishes us to attend the first, third, and fifth sessions on Wednesday; the
second, fourth and sixth sessionsonThursday; and the first only on Friday.
Besides, semi-colon separates main clauses joined by transitional devices like furthermore,
therefore, nevertheless, however, for instance, for example etc.
Example: 1. Money is necessary; nevertheless, you shouldn’t sell your life for it.
2. Most Ethiopian farmers use compost; however, modern farmers use commercial fertilizers.
5. The Colon (:): This is a punctuation mark usually used to introduce and prepare the reader
for something to follow.
Example:To write an essay, follow these steps: think of the topic you write about,plan how
you write, write the first draft, and then read to edit.
It is also used to introduce formal quotations and long explanations.
Example.1. He began his speech with these words: “My fellow countrymen, I want you to
hear me.”
6. The Exclamation Point (!): used to show strong feeling. It also indicates a forceful
command. It is used after any statement, command or question to which a writer wants to add
emotional force.
Example: 1. Help me!
2. What do you know about that!
3. What a beautiful sunset it is!
4. What a pretty dress you bought!
5. Oh! The man I was talking about is coming.
7. The Quotation Marks (“”): used to enclose any word, phrase, sentence or text of other
body’s less than four lines, and to enclose unfamiliar slang and other unusual or original
expressions. The expressions can be technical words in general writing or slang in formal
writing
Examples: Gabriel Garica Marquez once said, “It is much more important to write than to be
written about.”
I am the “baby” in my family
8. Ellipsis (…): are three dots used to indicate omission of materials from a quotation. They
could be used anywhere in a given text (quotation) where the omission is made. They can
appear at the beginning, in the middle or at the end of a quotation. When they are used at the
end, the number of dots will be four. The last (fourth) dot is a full stop (period) that closes the
sentence.
Example: A split infinitive has a word or several words between the ‘to’ and the ‘verb’
following it. Splitting an infinitive is generally considered incorrect….
Exercise
Rewrite the following sentences, using appropriate punctuation marks.
1. She will attend the meeting later today
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 2. Gandhi the father of the Nation lived and died for the poor.
3. The manager said I wish you good luck
4. The Indian put a fish in each hill of corn however, modern farmers use commercial
fertilizers
5. His direction was as follows go out of the town north to the main road. When you
come to the T-junction, turn left and go five hundred meters. The hotel is in front of
you.
6. He asked will you study with me tonight
7. Oh What a beautiful morning it is
8. I wonder what he is doing right now
9. Closing the book with a sign, my friend exclaimed I love that poem
B) Capitalization: is the use of capital letters to make special emphasis on particular letters
to set them off from lower case letters. A letter is capitalized:
 when it is the first letter of the opening word of any sentence
 when it is the first letter of the opening word of a direct quotation that is a complete
sentence
 when it begins the first word of a sentence with in a parenthesis or a dash that can
stand on its own
 if it is the first letter of proper nouns
 provided that it is the initial letter of titles used along with proper nouns
Examples: He came home after his last examination.
Will you please send me your latest catalog?
Help me please!
The king said, “Show me a wise man and I’ll show you an old one.”
The singer I like most is Aster Awoke.(proper name)
My sister left for Japan last week
In England there are two dominant political parties–the Conservative Party and the Labor
Party.
I pray to God! He is Almighty.
Introduction to Ethiopian Literature (title initials of content words)

1. 6. Joining Sentences

One of the mechanisms to keep the interest of our readers is by varying the length of our
sentences. To do this, we should combine two or more short sentences using coordination and
subordination.

A. Coordination-is a method of joining two independent sentences by using coordinators. In

a coordination, when sentences are combined they still remain independent clauses. The
linking devices (coordinators) we use in coordination are coordinating, correlative and adverb
conjunctions.

Coordinating Conjunctions- are conjunctions that are used with comma to join two or more
complete sentences. The most commonly used coordinating conjunctions are:

14
For:it shows a result-cause relationship between two independent clauses. It shows logical
consequence; it has the same meaning as because, the reason why.
And:shows the addition of two positive ideas. It has the same meaning as in addition, along
with, moreover, further more.
Nor:shows equality of two negative ideas. It shows an addition a negative point. (Note: you
must reverse the normal subject-verb positions in the second clause when using nor).
But:shows opposition or contrast between two ideas. It has the same meaning as however,
except on the other hand
Or:shows alternatives or choices.
Yet:shows oppositions, also shows emphasis (a stronger but)
So:shows cause and effect relationship. It has the same meaning as therefore, as a result.
Example:Azeb studied hard, so she scored a good grade.
You must come early, or you will miss the bus.
She studied hard, but she failed the exam.
Exercise: Combine the following pairs of sentences by using coordinating conjunctions.
1. A. The dog ate the food very fast.
B. The dog was very hungry.
2. A. The boy sang very well at the Ethiopian Idol.
B. The judges didn’t allow him to pass to next stage.
3. A. The farmer worked all day and night.
B. The farmer harvested a lot of crops.
B.Correlative Conjunctions- are coordinating words that work in pairs to join words,
phrases and sentences.The most common correlatives are:
Correlative Conjunctions Meaning
Either….or one of the two
Neither…nor none of the two
Both….and both
Whether….or dilemma/hesitation/confusion
Not only….but also both
Example:Both my sister and my brother work with computers.
She wanted neither cake nor ice cream.
Teachers should be not only intelligent but also friendly.
Exercise6: Combine the following pairs of sentences by using correlative conjunctions.
1. A. To go to Gondar, you can use a bus.
B. To go to Gondar, you can use a plane.
2. A. Azeb is beautiful.
B. Azeb is honest.
3. A. I want to go to class.
B.I want to go to my appointment.(I am in confusion)
C. Adverb Conjunctions-are adverbs used to relate and connect main clauses in a
sentence. The common ones are:

also still consequently however indeed hence then otherwise

thus instead furthermore moreover likewise therefore nevertheless

Example: Our muscles were tired and sore; nevertheless, we kept on jogging.
I ordered the concert tickets by mail; therefore, I didn’t have to stand in line.

15
Exercise: Join the following pairs of sentences using the appropriate conjunctive
adverbs.
1. A. Tell him to carry out his duties properly.
B. We will fire him.
2. A. He worked hard.
B. He became rich.
3. A. Computer manufacturing plant is opening in Cairo.
B.There will be thousands of new jobs available next year.
D.Subordination-is the joining of an independent clause and a dependent clause in the same
sentence by using subordinators. In subordination, the status of one of the sentences to be
combined is reduced to a subordinate clause. The subordinators we use in subordination are:
Subordinating Conjunctions-are kinds of conjunctions that join subordinate clauses with
independent clauses. When subordinating conjunctions are added at the beginning of
independent clause, the independent clause becomes dependent.
Subordinating Conjunctions
Cause Because since, as
Time Since, as, after, as soon as, before, when, while, once, whenever, as
long as
Condition If, as if, as long as, provided that, unless, as though
Contrast Although, even though, though, even if, whereas, while
Result That, so that, in order that
Place Where, wherever
Comparison As, than, as……as
Example: I arrived late to workbecause the train was late.
After they finished studying, Juan and Maria went to the movies.

If I were a bird, I would fly.

E.Relative Pronouns-Like the othersubordinating conjunctions relative pronouns are used to

join subordinate clauses with independent clauses. They also introduce relative clauses. What
makes the subordinate clause in relative clause different from the other type of subordinate
clauses is that it is an adjective clause. In relative clauses, the adjective clauses which are
dependent clauses and modify a noun or pronoun in the main clause usually begin with
relative pronoun are who, whom, whose, which or that. The adjective clauses may be
restrictive (essential) or non- restrictive (non- defining) clauses. In the following sentence the
underlined parts are adjective clauses.

Example: The movie that I saw yesterday won a Grammy Award. (Restrictive adjective)
New York, which is America’s populous city, is one of the world’s leading commercial
centers. (Non- restrictive)
The boat that was owned by Mr. Mitchell sank in the harbor. (Restrictive)
Exercise: Join the following sentences using the most appropriate relative pronouns.
1. A. The woman has been arrested. B. Her child was accused of theft.

2. A. the thief has been caught. B. The police were looking for the thief.
3. A. Roberto is sure to win an art scholarship.B. Roberto is a talented portrait artist.
4. A. The medicine is very expensive. B. Helen needs the medicine.

16
Unit Two: Writing Effective Paragraphs
2.1. What is a paragraph?

We have tried to familiarize you with structure of English sentences. However, being able to
write correct sentences does not necessarily mean being able to write a correct paragraph. To
write at a paragraph level, you need to be able to write a coherent and unified series of
sentences that can convey a single idea.

Brainstorming activities: Try to answer the following questions before we are going to
deal with each of them.

a. What is a paragraph?
b. How many sentences can a paragraph have?
c. How many topics should a paragraph talk about?
d. What is a topic sentence?
e. Where do you usually find a topic sentence of a paragraph?
g. What are supporting details?
Now, check your ideas with the description of a good paragraph given below.

A paragraph is a group of related sentences that present and develop one main idea. A
paragraph can stand alone, or it can be part of a longer piece of writing. Just as words are the
building blocks of sentence, sentences are the building blocks of longer forms of writing.
Thus, a paragraph is a unit of writing beyond a sentence level containing one main idea or
topic and sentences that develop the main idea. It is termed as unified because it has one
central idea and all the sentences in the paragraph should only talk about this central idea. A
good paragraph is well organized, is fully developed, has properly linked points and contains
sentences developing one idea.

In a paragraph, every word, every point and every sentence has a useful role to play in
fulfilling the purpose of the paragraph. The sentences in a paragraph should follow each other.
It is not a paragraph if every sentence begins on a new line. The length of a paragraph varies
according to the complexity of the main idea or theme to be developed. However, a well-
supported paragraph has about five to ten sentences or about 100 to 150 words.

2.2. Structure of a Paragraph

Structure of a paragraph refers to the components of a paragraph. A paragraph contains three

major parts: a topic sentence (introduction), supporting sentences (body) and a concluding
sentence.

 Topic sentence: a sentence which expresses the main idea of a paragraph that tells the
readers what the paragraph is about. The topic sentence usually begins the paragraph. It
can also appear in the middle or at the end of a paragraph.
 Supporting sentences: are a group of sentences which develop/ expand the topic sentence
(general idea) with specific information. They can be developed by:
- Explaining or restating ideas
- Providing facts /evidences
17
- Giving specific examples and /or illustrations
- Adding specific details, etc.
Concluding sentence: the sentence that ends a paragraph by summarizing the main points or
restating the crucial point, or by giving a final thought or comment on the issue under
consideration.
Activity: Examine the following paragraphs and answer the questions that follow.
Paragraph 1: Barefoot Boy
I had a scary experience when I was a young boy. One evening, while my parents were eating
dinner, I was playing barefoot in the yard with my toys. While I was sitting on the grass and
playing with a truck, I looked up at the sky, and my attention was distracted by the beauty of
the stars. Then I felt something cold and smooth slide over my feet. I stayed perfectly still, but
I looked down at my feet. Then I saw a snake slowly slithering over my toes. I felt terrible and
afraid, so my heart beats very fast. After the snake moved away, I screamed to my parents for
help, and they captured the snake and took it away. The experience frightened me, and I never
went outside barefoot again.
1. What is the topic sentence? Where is it? Is itat the beginning, in the middle or at the end of
the paragraph?
2. How many supporting sentences are there?
3. In your opinion, do the supporting sentences explain the topic sentence?
4. Write the concluding sentence below.
Paragraph 2:
There are three reasons why Canada is one of the best countries in the world. First Canada
has an excellent health care system. All Canadians have access to medical services at a
reasonable price. Second Canada has a high standard of education. Students are taught by
well-trained teachers and are encouraged to continue studying at universities. Finally,
Canada’s cities are clean and efficiently managed. They have many parks and lots of spaces
for people to leave. As a result, Canada is a desirable place to live.
1. What could be the topic of the paragraph?
2. What is the topic sentence?
3. How many supporting sentences are there?
4. In your opinion, do the supporting sentences explain the topic sentence?
5. Write the concluding sentence below.
As stated so far, a paragraph contains only one main idea or topic. Topics should be neither
narrow nor wide but should be moderate enough to be fully developed. Look at the following
examples of broad topics which have been gradually narrowed down to specific ones.
Example 1
1. HIV/AIDS in Ethiopia
2. HIV/AIDS in Ethiopian Higher Institutions
3. HIV/AIDS in Ethiopian University
4. Anti HIV/AIDS campaign Program in Ethiopian Universities
5. Anti HIV/AIDS campaign Program in Madawalabu University
Here, the last topic (topic No 5) is the most specific and appropriate for adequate
development.
Example 2
1. The Problem of University Students
2. The Academic Problem of University Students
3. The Language Problem of University Students
4. The Language Problem of Madawalabu University Students
5. The Language Problem of First Year Madawalabu University Students
6. The Writing Problem First Year Madawalabu University Students
18
7. The Problem of Taking Notes of First Year English Department of Madawalabu
University Students
8. My Problems in Taking Notes
The title in number 8 is narrowed down to a specific one ‘My problems in taking notes’.
My Problems in Taking Notes
I have hard time while taking notes during my Nursing class. The instructor talks so fast that I
cannot keep up with him. He has a soft voice and I miss lots of things. He never writes on the
blackboard like other instructors. He also talks everything in the same tone and never
emphasizes the important points. Because of this, I have trouble in separating the important
points from the rest. Thus, I have decided to listen and write my notes from reference
materials.
Activity: Comment on the following topics of a paragraph
1. A surprise party is a kind of party
2. There were 14 guests at my surprise birthday party
3. My classmates gave me an unforgettable surprise party for my 18th birthday

2.3. Essentials/Characteristics of a Good Paragraph

A good paragraph has the following characteristics: unity, coherence andcompleteness.

1. Unity
Brainstorming activity:
1. What do you think is unity in a paragraph?
2. How can unity be achieved in a paragraph?
Unity refers to the idea that all points and the sentences in a paragraph are related to and
aimed at developing the topic sentence of the paragraph. Unity is achieved by advancing a
single point and sticking to that point with examples, details, steps or definitions.
Example 1:
Topic sentence: My friend Meaza is generous.
Supporting sentences: She often lets travelers stay in her home. She has hosted many
students temporarily. She sends money to her family in Jimma every month to help them with
their bills. She always brings food or items to her friends when they are sick or have a need.
Concluding sentence: Generally, Meaza is one of the most generous people I know.
Notice that all sentences are about Meaza’s generosity. A sentence about the way she looks or
about her job will not support the unity of the paragraph unless it somehow relates to her
generosity.
Activity
A. Read the following topic sentences and circle the sentence that is deviating from the
controlling idea. Write your reasons in the blank spaces.
1. There are several reasons why online courses are increasing in popularity.
a. Online courses are flexible in terms of time.
b. Online courses have been available since 1990s.
c. Online courses are more convenient for students who live faraway from the
campus.
2. Train stations are interesting places to visit
a. The architecture of each train station is often connected to the history of a city.
b. The passengers are frequently more interested to watch than other types of
travelers.
c. Using trains is a good alternative for people who are afraid of flying.
Examine the organization of the following paragraphs and answer the questions below.

19
1. Native Americans cultivated and developed many plants. Among them were white potatoes,
sweet potatoes, corn, beans tobacco, chocolate, peanuts, cotton, rubber and gum. Native
Americans were also expert builders and tanners. Some of the plants were used for dyes,
medicines, soap, clothes, shelter and baskets.
2. My composition class is in the old building. The classroom walls are white and the desks
and chairs are brown. There are large windows in one wall. The chalkboard is in the front of
the room near the door. My composition class is difficult and I do not like to write
compositions. The classroom is cool in warm weather and warm in winter. I like my
classroom.
1. Underline the topic sentence.
2. One sentence in the paragraph is irrelevant. Identify.
3. Why is the sentence irrelevant?
2. Coherence
Brainstorming Activities: Try to answer the following questions before you read the notes.
a) What is coherence, and how can we achieve coherence in a paragraph?
b) What are the functions of cohesive devices?
c) List the linking devices you know with their functions.
Coherence refers to the logical flow/ proper linkage of ideas in a paragraph, and this can be
maintained by appropriate use of linking devices.
Note: Cohesion can be achieved by the using linking devices such as transitional expressions,
pronouns, synonyms and repeated words. Cohesive devices have different functions. But
generally they help to make writing clear, natural and easy to read. They are used to link parts
of a sentence or separate sentences and in showing the relationship between the ideas or facts
the writer is expressing.
A paragraph must have coherence. This means that the supporting details are organized so
that information that goes together appears together. A true paragraph is not just a set of
sentences put together, but sentences which are interlinked with each other. These interlinked
sentences provide coherence to the paragraph. .
Example 1:
(1)When I was a freshman in high school, I enjoyed most of my courses. (2) Physical
education, to be sure, I didn’t like, probably because I was small for my age then, and rather
frail. (3) But English was easy for me, as I had always been a great reader. (4) I found
algebra mostly fun, even, as I am naturally good at figures and logically relationships. (5) It
was biology, however, that I enjoyed most of all; this study of animals and plants opened a
whole new world to me. Generally speaking, I performed well in most of the subject.
As you can notice in the example paragraph, the phrase to be sure in sentence 2 indicates that
the writer’s attitude towards physical education is the exception to the general claim of
enjoyment in the topic sentence. The word but at the beginning of sentence 3 shows that the
attitude towards English is in contrast to that expressed about physical education in sentence
2. The word even in the middle of sentence 4 stresses the fact that algebra is pleasurable too,
despite what many students feel about it. In sentence 5, however indicates that the feeling
toward biology is again in contrast to that expressed in the preceding sentence, and most of all
tells us that this subject is held in the highest regard.
Note: These devices are not needed in every sentence, but they should be used frequently.
There are four significant ways of achieving paragraph coherence.
I. Using connectives
Connectives are words and phrases that writers use to make smooth transition from one idea
to another within a paragraph. They are also called transitional devices or cohesive devices.
Some of them are mentioned below with their functions.

20
 1) Addition : and, furthermore, moreover, besides, again, likewise, similarly, also, in
addition, what is more, what is worse, next, the other reason
2) Contrast : but, however, nevertheless, on the other hand, on the contrary, though,
even though, although
3) Result/conclusion: therefore, hence, thus, consequently, as a result, in summary,
4) Enumeration: firstly, second,(ly)
5) Sequence : first, second, third, last, then finally, next
6) Time : in the meantime, then, later, soon, next, after, before, as, while, now, during,
finally
7) Space : above, below, beside, behind, in front of, next, across, the opposite side, to the
left, nearby
8) Illustration : Namely, that is, for instance, for example, specifically, such as
Transitional words signal the direction of a writers thought. They are like the road signs that
guide travelers. Writers often use time, space or order of importance to present the
supporting information in a paragraph coherently. The following example is organized by
space.
When you drive into the airport, you will see many signs for the different terminals. After you
pass the signs, you drive over a hill. On your right you will see the international terminal.
This terminal is two stories tall. The front is all glass. On the left, you will see the domestic
terminals.
Activities
A. Read the paragraph below. Then circle the word that best describes the way the
paragraph is organized.
My favorite restaurant is in an old house. My husband and I enjoy eating there on summer
evenings. We usually walk from our house so we can enjoy our neighbor’s gardens and get a
little bit of exercise. The afternoon sun shines through the trees, but it is not too bright. We
arrive at dusk, and if we are lucky, we can sit outside. The waiter brings a basket of warm
bread and a cold drink. We have an appetizer or a salad while the sun goes down. Then the
waiter lights the candles while we enjoy the main course. By the time we finish desert it is
right time. We walk home slowly, feeling full but happy in the moonlight.
Time:_____________________________Space:______________________________
Order: _________________________________
B. Underline the cohesive devices in the following paragraphs and then state the
direction they give to readers.
Paragraph 1
After you’ve snagged the job of TV sports reporter, you have to begin working on the details
of your image. First invest in two or three truly loud sports jackets. Look for gigantic plaid
patterns in odd color combinations like purple and green or orange and blue. These should
become familiar enough to viewers so that they will associate that crazy jacket with that
dynamic sportscaster. Next, try to cultivate a distinctive voice that will be just annoying
enough to be memorable. Be sure to speak only in tough, punchy sentences that seem to be
punctuated with imaginary exclamation points. Finally, you must share lots of pompous,
obnoxious opinions with your viewers. You tone of voice must covey the hidden message “I
dare anyone to disagree with me.”
Paragraph 2
Supermarkets also use psychology to encourage you to buy. For example, in most
supermarkets, the milk and the bread are either at opposite ends of the store or located far
away from the first aisle. Even if you have stopped at the market only for staples like these,
you must pass hundreds of items in order to reach them. The odds are that instead of leaving
with just a quart of milk, you will leave with additional purchases as well. Special displays
21
such as a pyramid of canned green beans in an aisle and a large end display of cartons of
paper towels, also increase sales. Because you assume that these items are a good buy, you
may pick them up. However they may not even be on sale! Store managers know that the
customer is automatically attracted to a display like this and they will use it to move an
overstocked product.
II. Repeating words
You might have been taught not to repeat words in writing. However, repeating key words
helps you tie together the flow of thought in your writing.
Example:
Capital can build irrigation canals in India, supply pumps and tube-wells to tap the fresh
water under the saline marshes of the Indus river basin in West Pakistan. Capital can supply
tools, machinery, pesticides, and fertilizers and provide training in modern methods. Most
important of all, foreign capital can create an atmosphere that is conducive to self-help. In the
countless analysis of the subject, one fact stands out: the lack of incentive in the poverty
stricken, potentially rich, farm lands of the third world. Capital generates incentive by
producing goods and creating demand and it widest the distribution of the fruits of labour.
As you can see the key word “capital” is repeated to achieve coherence of the paragraph.
III. Using pronouns
Pronouns (he, she, it, they and others) are another ways to connect ideas in a paragraph.
Pronouns have transitional values by referring to their antecedents. Also using pronouns in
place of other words can help you avoid needless repetition. .
Pasteur proved that he was right by a very simple and clever experiment. He put some soup in
to some bottles and then he boiled it in order to destroy any germs that might already be in
the soup. After that, he heated and pulled out the neck of each bottle until it formed a long
narrow neck with a big bend in the middle.
IV. Using Synonyms
Synonyms are words alike in meaning. Using synonyms can also help you move easily from
one thought to the next. In addition, the use of synonyms increases variety and interest by
avoiding needless repetition. Note how the writer used synonyms to achieve paragraph
coherence in the following example.
There are several methods of fund-raising that work well with small organizations. One
technique is to hold an auction, with everyone either contributing an item from home or
obtaining a donation from a sympathetic local merchant. Because all the merchandise and the
service of the auctioneer have been donated, the entire proceeds can be placed in the
organizations treasury. A second fund-raising procedure is a car wash. Club members and
their children get together on a Saturday and wash all the cars in the neighborhood for a few
dollars apiece. A third time-tested way to raise money is to hold a bake sale, with each family
contributing homemade cookies, brownies, layer cakes, or cupcakes. Sold by the piece or by
the box, these baked goods will satisfyingly fill both the stomach and the pocketbook.
Generally, coherence in a paragraph means that the ideas have a logical flow: the relationship
between the sentences is clear and one idea connects to the next. All the ideas fit together in a
logical flow.
Exercises
A. Underline the sentence(s) that violates unity in the following paragraphs.
Paragraph 1
(1) I live in a flat with my family. (2) We have two bedrooms and a living room. (3) We have a
garden and we have some flowers there. (4) In weekdays I arrive home at five o’clock and I
have lunch. (5) Then I do my homework and go to bed. (6) I had a computer, but now it
doesn’t work. (7) I have a brother and a sister and I think I am very lucky to leave with them
in the flat. (8) Sometimes our relatives visit us and (9) our flat sometimes becomes very
22
crowded. However, I like it.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________
Paragraph 2
(1) I am a Thai girl living in the USA, and there many adjustments that I must make. (2) First
of all, I must get used to a new kind of food. (3) I am learning to eat a lot of hamburgers
because they are not expensive and they are easy to buy. (4) The people are different and I am
learning to meet new foreign friends. (5) For example two of my new friends are from
Pakistan. (6) Pakistan is also an interesting country to visit. (7) The weather requires another
kind of adjustment. (8) Some days it is hot just as in my country, but on other days it is cold
and this is very strange for me. (9) I came to us to study and I enjoy my classes and my
teachers. I am adjusting to the USA in many ways, but it is not a problem for me because I
like to know about different places and people.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________
B. Read the following paragraphs. Then list the transitional devices used to achieve the
coherence. Explain their specific function in the paragraphs.

Paragraph 1

The Hazards of Movie Going

(1)Although I love movies, going to see them derives me slightly crazy. (2) For one thing,
getting to the theatre means that I have a thirty- minute drive down a congested highway.
(3)Then with a popular movie, I usually have to wait in a long line at the ticket booth.
(4)Another problem is that the theatre itself is seldom a pleasant place to be. (5)A nasty smell
suggests that there has been no fresh air in the theatre since it was built. (6)Half of the seats
seem to be falling apart. (7)And the floor often has a sticky coating that gets on your shoes.
(8)The problem of all is some of the other moviegoers.(9)Kids run up down the aisle.
(10)Teenagers laugh and shout at the screen. (11)People of all ages loudly drop soda cans
and popcorn tubs, cough and burp, and elbow you out of the armrest on either side of your
seat. (12)All in all I would rather stay at home and wait for the latest movie hits to appear on
TV in the safety and comfort of my own living room.

A. Transitional devices:________________________________________________________
B.Sentence:__________________________________________________________________

C. Specific Functions: ______________________________________________

Paragraph 2

(1)For people who would like to act in the theater, there are several important rules to
remember. (2) One rule, often forgotten, is to make sure you face your audience when you are
on stage. (3) If you turn away from the audience, they cannot see your facial expressions. (4)
Next, make sure that you speak loudly enough. (5) If your audience has difficulty hearing you,
they will quickly lose interest. (6) Another important point is to memorize your lines. (7)
Rehearse them often in the taxi, in the mirror while you walk to the class so that you
remember them. (8) Finally, perhaps the most important rule of all is to remain calm on stage
if you forget your lines. (9) Don’t panic and stop speaking because the audience will notice.
23
(10) Instead make up something to say until you remember your next line. As long as you
continue speaking and appear relaxed, the audience will probably not realize that you have
made a mistake. (12) In conclusion, following these rules will help you ensure a successful
stage performance.

A. Cohesive devices: ______________________________________________________

B.Sentence:______________________________________________________________
C.Specific Functions: _____________________________________________________

C. One sentence is missing from each short paragraph below. Choose the sentence that
best completes the paragraph.

1. In many ways the invention of e-mail and computers has motivated many young people to
take up letter writing. E-mail makes it fun and easy to get in touch with far away friends.
_______________________________________________. For this reason fewer people are
sending letters through the mail.

a. I bought a new computer last week.

b. Furthermore, e-mail is convenient and essentially free.

2. Books on tape have become very popular in our fast-paced society. One of the reasons is
that people do not have the time to sit still and read. ____________________.Some listens
while jogging out doors or exercising in the gym. Therefore, a book on tape makes for a great
gift idea for the active book lover.

a. Stephen king’s latest book is available in this format.

b. In fact, many people listen to these tapes while driving to and from work.
D. The following sentences are from a paragraph. Some of them are out of orders.
Number them from 1-10 so that they can show logical time order.
a. My family hugged me and cried because I had been gone so long.
b. I will never forget one day when I have to travel alone on the subway.
c. I was pregnant, and I had to go to an appointment at the hospital
d. When my appointment ended, I got on the subway to go home.
e. That is why my surrounding looked unfamiliar.
f. My appointment was at 1:00 p.m.
g. Suddenly I looked up and did not know where I was.
h. I was exhausted and fell asleep on my way home.
i. Then I realized that I had fallen asleep.
j. It took me five more hours to get back to my home.
k. The logical order is b, c ,f, d, h, g, a ,i, e, j

E. Put the following jumbled sentences in a logical order so that they can make unified
and coherent paragraph.
a. The first year can be a tiring time for parents.
b. Consequently, the child bonds equally with both the mother and the father.
c. Some children suffer from colic, which makes them cry for long hours and refuse togo
to sleep.
d. When the child is older, co parents both participate in the daily routines of care
giving: cooking, feeding, bathing, entertaining, and discipline.
e. Many American couples today have chosen not to follow the traditional way of
being parents, in which the mother serves as the primary care giver.
24
f. Both father and mother take family leave when the body is born, and both feed and
change the newborn.
g. During its first year, a baby is very demanding.
The logical order is e,a,c,g,f,d, b

3. Completeness

Completeness is related to how explanation an idea requires and it depends on how much the
reader needs. When there is incompleteness, there is an error by giving either too much
explanation or not enough. Giving a reader unnecessary explanation may be boring, but giving
too little may block communication.

Organization of a Paragraph

An effective paragraph is the result of carefully selected and properly ordered details.
Different techniques of organizing details create different effects. In writing a paragraph, you
may order details by using one of these orders: spatial order, order of importance, or order of
impression.

a) Spatial Order

 What kind of order is spatial order?

This is a way of organizing a paragraph with respect to spatial relations between

ideas.

Example:

My bedroom is very cozy. It is a small room with thick carpeting and light blue walls. Below
the north window is my double bed covered with an imitation leopard skin bed spread. To the
left of the bed against the wall is a walnut night stand with a reading lamp, a clock a radio. At
the foot of the bed is a wooden stand holiday my portable black-and-white TV and stereo. In
all four corners of the room, my speakers are mounted just below the ceiling. Behind the
wooden stand and in front of the closet are three red bean bag chairs that are sagging from
years of use. On the east and west walls are posters of rock groups, and a family of stuffed
monkeys sits on the north and south window ledges. My room is small and cluttered and has
that “lived in” feeling I like.

As the paragraph shows, the details of the paragraph are organized in spatial order. The
paragraph also gives detail information about the position of one object in relation to the other
in the scene.

b) Time (Chronological) Order

 What does chronological order in a paragraph organization mean?

It is a way of organizing a paragraph in relating with time. This means that it is presenting
ideas based on their happenings one after the other.

Example:

25
Sunday was a long day. I had to get up at 5:00 a. m. to attend an Easter sunrise service. Then
I had duties at the church the rest of the morning. In the afternoon I visited the Manor Rest
Home and talked to shut-ins who seldom have visitors. Then I went to my aunt’s for dinner
and played cards with Uncle Herman until about 9:00 p.m. Then I drove up into the hills with
my family for a special Easter midnight chapel service in the pines. We stayed in a mountain
cabin with ten other people that night and didn’t get to sleep until after 2:00 a. m. I was
exhausted after twenty one hours of activity.

c) Emphatic Order (Order of Importance)

 What is emphatic order?

It is a method of organizing details which writers use when they want to show readers that
some details are more significant than others. Details can be written (sequenced) by placing
the most important ones before the least important.

Example:

Our apartment needs a lot of fixing up. First, we’ve got to fix the leaky roof before the
September rains come. Next, need to patch the big holes in the bedroom walls and then strip
the peeling paint off the walls. Then we can repaint the apartment. After the walls are painted,
we can work on replacing the linoleum squares in the kitchen that are loose or cracked. Later
the living room carpet needs shampooing, and we should replace that old sway backed sofa.
Then we won’t be embarrassed to have company over once in a while.

d) Size Order

This is a way of organizing ideas based on the size of objects or things to be developed in a
paragraph.

2.4. Types of Paragraph

There are four basic types of paragraph in English. They are descriptive, narrative, expository
and argumentative (persuasive) paragraph.

1. Descriptive Paragraph

Descriptive paragraph is a paragraph which clearly and vividly portrays the image of an
object, a place, a scene, a person or spiritual aspects of a person (feeling, emotion, attitude
etc). It uses details that concentrated on the five senses such as hearing, smell, taste and touch.

When writing a descriptive paragraph, writers use appropriate words which clearly describe
the image and nature of the thing described. The most appropriate and commonly used words
and expressions are describers such as adjectives, adverbs, adverbial phrases etc.

Example:

Mekuria is a well-known local man. He is both wealthy and generous – he is also a very
handsome man and popular with the women of the area. Mekuria lives in a huge, rectangular
house on the green banks of Lake Tana. Mekuriaworks in a nearby Bahir Dar and every
morning he drives into town in his expensive, excellent – new Toyota Amazon. He lives alone.

26
He does not have a wife. He doesn’t have children. He lives alone with Toto, a beautiful
vibrant yellow bird with pink-red eyes black-coloured feet and very red beak.

As the above paragraph shows, almost all the describing words and phrases are adjectives.
The adjectives used to describe the man are well-known, wealthy, generous, handsome and
popular. The adjectives employed to modify the house are huge and rectangular. The
describing words used to express the car are expensive, excellentandnew. Words and phrases
used to describe the bird are beautiful, vibrant, yellow, pink-red, black-colored and very
red.

In descriptive writing, a person, a place or object can be described.

A) Describing a person

When describing a person, it is possible to describe him or her in terms of his or her physical
appearance, behavior, particular characteristics (such as intelligence, wisdom, creativity and
social interaction) etc. It is also possible to describe a person based on the role and
responsibilities he has in the family, society, organization etc.

Example 1:

Christ Morley is one of the original seven British Airways Concorde Pilots. He is central
Casting’s idea of a Senior airline Captain, 47, glamorously grey, firm of jaw, calm of voice,
with a lean athletic build and mien of command and reassurance. He earns more than £
16,000 a year which still puts him low in the league in comparison with foreign captains. He
has four children, a pretty wife, a spacious house, and an 11-year-old Renault 16, which he
now gets in to drive to Heathrow.

B. Describing an Object

In describing objects, you can deal with either the physical appearance or the function, or
both. When you describe an object in terms of the physical appearance, you describe it
mentioning its attributes as size, shape, colour, texture, material, type etc. when you describe
it in terms of its function you mention its uses in detail. Look at the examples given below,
and notice how the paragraphs are developed.

Example 2:

Here are the hammock’s vital statistics. It is free standing, easily and quickly assembled and
dismantled. The ‘weather-sealed’ frame may be left out in the open, and the fabric token
indoors after use. The fabric is of non-fading, red, green, blue and white striped, rot-proof
thread. The overall length of the tubular frame is 7ft 10 in. The hammock itself is 6 ft long and
20 in wide at the head, 22 in wide at the foot. The ropes are of strong rot-proof poly
propylene. The hammock is 2 ft above the ground and it has been tasted to carry up to 25016
weights. It is easily transportable in a car as the overall length of the dismantled frame is only
3 ft and the whole pack weighs about 15 ℓb.

Example 3:

A piston pump consists of a cylinder, a piston connected to a handle, an inlet value and an on
let check value. The piston is pushed down wards to force air out through the out let value.
Then the piston is pushed upwards to suck air in through the inlet value. On the return down
27
ward stroke, the inlet check value is forced against the piston wall, thus preventing any air
from escaping; while the out let check value opens to allow the air to flow through the
connecting tube. Pumping is continued by moving the position up and down in the cylinder.

B) Describing a Place

In describing places, the main issues you raise in the description are the location of the place
described, things that are found in the place, the position of the things and the appearance of
the place.

Example 4:

From north to south across the region, there are five major zones. First there is a narrow
coastal plain, immediately behind which there are coastal ranges up to a thousand feet high.
Behind these ranges, there is a wide zone of Intermundane low land, which is intersected by
extensive alluvial plains. Finally, there are the inland ranges, running parallel to the coast,
and rising to 12,000 feet at the highest point.

2) Narrative Paragraph

Narrative paragraph is a type of discourse writing that reports an account of events in the past.
It is a reporting of a series of happenings, incidents, actions and events. Since it is concerned
with time and action, it is presented following chronological order. The most commonly used
verb forms in narrative writing are simple past and past perfect though it is possible to use
other verb forms too.

Example 1:

My first step onto the bus was filled with fear. I had never taken the bus alone before, but I
was reassured by an old guy who smiled at me, so I sat next to him. I couldn’t help noticing
the many wrinkles on his face and obviously out-of-style clothes he wore. I took out my
cookies and thought that mom would have wanted me to offer him one. He said no,
mentioning not being able to chew well. I couldn’t imagine not being able to chew sweets. I
was feeling a little uncomfortable, but he got off soon. He walked away slowly as if it hurt to
move. It was really sad, and I realized, I was lucky to be young and healthy.

Example 2:

Max boarded the bus and paid the fare. He took a seat next to an elderly man, took off his
mittens, and let his feet swing in the air. Staring down at him, the man could sense Max’s
nervousness. Max took out a bag of cookies his mom had baked for him and offered one to the
stranger. The gray-haired fellow pleasantly said, “No, Thank you, but my teeth can’t chew
them.” Max was a little upset by the man’s condition and he watched the senior citizen slowly
and painfully departs the bus at the next stop. The aged man knew that he had left an
impression on the future.

Activity

Read the following sentences. Then number them in the order you think they occurred.
Use the sequence words and phrases as clues.

a. A few years ago, my two older brothers and I went trekking in the mountains.
28
 b. Finally, I found the muddy trail, and we made it back to our base camp.
c. Soon we were hiking through thick pine forests.
d. After that experience, I realized it is very important to be careful when hiking in the
mountains.
e. We set out from base camp on a bright winter morning.
f. A little while later, we stopped to eat, and my oldest brother said we should turn around
because we were losing the trail in show.
g. Eventually, it began to snow, and visibility became poor.
h. Going back down the mountain was harder because it was icy
The correct order is _____________________________________________________

3. Expository Paragraph

This is the other type of paragraph in which facts are presented, information is explained and
concepts or ideas are expressed in detail. As its name implies, expository paragraph exposes
and explains topics, ideas, thoughts or issues. It is the most frequently used type of written
discourse. When students answer essay questions, when they give written instructions, define
terms, express the cause and effect of something, when explaining process; comparing and
contrasting things, and when classifying topics, they often use expository writing. Since it is
usually factual, expository paragraph is free from the emotion of the writer.

Example:

Behavioral scientists have found that a child’s emotional health is strongly affected by the
number of brothers and sisters he or she has. Emotional health means the ability of a person
to cope intellectually and emotionally with everyday stress. Several studies of elementary and
high school children have shown that youngsters in small family get along more happily with
their brothers and sisters, as well as their parents, than youngsters in a large family. They are
less liable to suffer emotional upsets and much less likely to end up in a mental hospital. A
survey of state hospitals in Maryland revealed that mental illness among children in two-
parent families increases with the number of children in the family.

Activity
Now Read the Following Paragraph and Analyze Its Features Based on the Questions
Given Below It.
What children eat can affect their health. Children who do not eat enough foods containing
vitamin A can develop serious nutritional disorders. Of the effects caused by vitamin A
deficiency, those involving eye diseases are the most pronounced and widespread. Several
thousand children became blind each year because of this dietary deficiency, which is most
prevalent in poor, non industrialized countries. Another result of vitamin A deficiency is skin
dryness.
1. What is the topic of the paragraph? ___________________________________________
2. Which sentence contains the most important idea in the paragraph? _________________
3. How is the paragraph developed? ____________________________________
4. Argumentative (Persuasive) Paragraph
Argumentative paragraph is a paragraph in which you try to show that your idea or belief is
more acceptable than another idea. In this kind of paragraph, writers attempt to influence
readers to accept their idea and think or act in certain way. In developing an argumentative
paragraph, you need to employ logical reasoning and concrete evidences by stating facts,
giving sound reasons, using examples or/and quoting experts.

29
When we state evidences, hearsays, personal opinion, speculations are not effective. Thus, in
argumentative paragraph, using reliable evidences which are relevant, unbiased, up-to-date,
complete and verifiable is very important.
Now look at the following two paragraphs about the solution of the growing problem of
trash disposal. Which paragraph is more convincing and why?
Example 1:
Americans have developed a throwaway mindset. We are too accustomed to throwing away
everything. You name it; we throw it away. Many people think recycling is the answer, but it
is not enough. We need to reduce the amount of waste we produce as well. We need to change
our disposable lifestyle. And one way to do that is to discourage the throwaway habit by
charging households and businesses for the amount of trash they create.
Example 2:
We live in a throwaway society. Each day, all day long, we dispose of things – napkins, paper
bags, diapers, juice boxes, and razors - more than three pounds of trash per person per day.
Of the approximately 160 million tons of garbage American produce each year, only about 10
percent is recycled. The rest goes into about 6,000 landfills, one – third of which are nearly
full. What’s more, people do not want pollution – causing landfills started in their
communities. More recycling can help, but it won’tbe enough. We also need to produce less
trash, and one way to encourage people to reduce the amount of trash they produce is to
charge them for it.
As you can see the above examples, the first paragraph is developed without the use of
supporting evidences. The second paragraph is more specific and uses concrete examples and
statistics as evidences; that is, it is developed by the use of supporting evidences. Thus, it is
more convincing than the paragraph in example one.

2.5. Methods of Paragraph Development

A writer can employ various paragraph developing techniques according to the nature of the
topic. Thus, in this section, we will introduce you with the most common methods of
paragraph development.
1. The Method of Definition This method is used when a term in a topic sentence is
explained at some length. Mostly the terms defined at length are abstract, unfamiliar or
unknown words. When defining such kinds of words, a writer describes or explains the
unknown term by relating it to something known or concrete.
Example:
Empathy is the ability to completely understand another person’s point of view. It is a great
asset in a police work. By practicing empathy, police officers can avoid being closed-minded.
It will help them to see all sides of a traffic accident or a criminal incident. Empathy
eliminates bias; instead, introduces tolerance, understanding and sympathetic human
relations.
2. The Method of Illustration
This is a paragraph developing technique which writers employ to help readers understand a
more general idea with something specific. It is a method of developing paragraph by giving
examples to readers to help them understand an idea easily.
Example:
Science has helped us get rid of many sicknesses of the mind and the body. For example,
advancement in the field of psychology have enabled effective cures for many mental elements
like claustrophobia, schizophrenia etc. Similarly, many other discoveries in science have
made it possible to cure terrible diseases such as malaria, small pox, pneumonia and
tuberculosis.

30
As you can see in the paragraph, the writer illustrated the general ideas stated in the topic
sentence by presenting instances that helped to get rid of many sicknesses of the mind and the
body. All the sentences beginning from sentence two are examples used to illustrate the idea
in the topic sentence.
3. The Method of Comparison
This is a paragraph developing technique which is used to show the similarity between two
things. It compares the similar aspects or qualities of two subjects. Notice how a paragraph
and an essay are compared below.
Example:
Despite their obvious differences in length, the paragraph and the essay are quite similar
structurally. For example, the paragraph is introduced by either a topic introducer followed
by topic sentence. In an essay, the first paragraph provides introductory material and
establishes the topic focus. Next, the sentences in the body of an essay consist of a number of
paragraphs that expand and support the idea presented in the introductory paragraph.
Finally, a terminator, whether it is a restatement, conclusion or observation ends the
paragraph. The essay too, has a device which brings its ideas to a logically and
psychologically satisfying completion: the concluding paragraph. Although exceptions to
these generalizations may be observed in modern creative writing, most well written
expository paragraphs and essays are comparable in structure.
4. The Method of Contrast.
The method of contrast is a way of developing a paragraph by showing the differences exist
between two subjects.
Example:
Antarctica differs from the Arctic regions, which are better known to us and easier to reach.
The North Pole is crossed daily by commercials airlines, whereas not a single commercial
airliner operates over Antarctica. The Arctic is an ocean with drifting ice and hemmed in by
the continents of North America, Asia, and Europe, The Antarctic, on the other hand, is a
continent as large as Europe and the United States put together, and surrounded entirely by
oceans- the Atlantic, the Indian, and the Pacific. More than a million persons live with 2,000
miles of the North Pole, and the area is rich in forest and industry. There are animals and
birds of many varieties. Within the same distance of the South Pole, there are no settlement a
part from scientific stations, which are entirely dependent on outside supplies for every need.
There is not a single tree and not a single animal. It takes 70 to 80 years to grow an inch of
moss.
The writer discussed the differences between the two regions, Antarctica and Arctic, in terms
of their location and what they possess.
5. The Method of Cause and Effect
This is a method of developing idea that looks for the relationship between two actions or two
events of which one is the reason and the other the result.
During the past five years, the number of persons killed annually in car accidents has risen to
more than 55,000. This needless slaughter on streets and highways can be attributed to
general causes. Mechanical failures, especially, those related to faulty brakes and bald tires,
account for a significant number of fatal accidents. Environmental conditions such as blind
corners, narrow streets and heavy roads also contribute to the grisly accident statistics. But
without doubt, the most frequently reported factors in car accidents are errors of human
judgment, all the way from follies such as excessive speed and drunken driving to such
momentary lapses as failure to signal a turn, or a change from one lane to another.
The above paragraph reveals the general and specific causes for car accidents. The writer
developed the paragraph by presenting evidences for the causes of the accidents.
6. The Method of Classification
31
This is a method of developing a paragraph by classifying subjects into separate category. It
presents ideas, objects, or issues to be discussed in their respective category. The following
sample paragraph illustrates how the paragraph is developed by classifying illustrations used
in science and technology writing.
Example:

Illustrations used in science and technology writings can be broadly classified into two
categories namely ‘tables’ and ‘figures’. A table is used for displaying the original numerical
data and the derived statistics in a logical, orderly and compact fashion. There are two sub-
categories of table, namely, dependent table and independent table. The former is a part of
the text, where as the letter is self contained and separated noticeably from the text. A figure
is generally used as a visual to summarize the text and to present the details left out in the
discussion. The sub-categories of the figure are graph, chart, drawing, photograph and map.
The choice of the type to be used depends up on the purpose and the kind of information to be
presented.

Activity: Complete the Chart Below Transferring the Information in the

Paragraph Right Above

Illustrations used in science and technology

writing

Tables 2

3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Write your answers here.

2. _____ 6. ________
3. ______7. __________________________
4. ______8. ________
5. ______ 9. __________________________

7. The Method of Enumeration

This is a method of paragraph development which lists or enumerates details.

Example:

Whatever be our purpose of writing, it is likely to correspond to one of the four types of
writing conventionally classified as discourse. The first type is exposition or explanation,
where our main intention is to convey information. The second is argument or persuasion, in
which we persuade our readers to accept or do what we want. The third is description, in
which our aim is to share with our readers those impressions that have made an impact on
our senses. Finally, it is narration where our intention is to enable the reader to perceive real
or imagined events that took place within a particular framework of time.

32
When using a method of enumeration, writers normally use words or phrases which enable
them to list their points. As used in the example above, words like first, second, third, finally
are words which maintain the coherence and smooth flow of a paragraph.
8. The Method of Process Description
This is a method which explains how to do something step by step. It is a convenient method
to enable readers to be able to follow the step to get a desired result.
Example:
Imagine that you are on vacation at beach, and open your suitcase to discover that you have
forgotten your swimsuit! This and other disasters and inconveniences can be avoided if you
follow certain steps when packing your suitcase. The first step is to review your travel plans
and activities. Make a list and save it so that you can check your items before you leave. Next,
gather the items you will need for your activities. Remove any item that is not necessary. Try
to mix and match fewer pieces of clothing and shoes by choosing a colour or colours that
match. Third, you are ready to pack. Start with large items such as books or shoes. Stuff your
shoes with extra socks to save space. Then place shoes in plastic bags and fit them into the
corners of your suitcase. There should be plenty of room for the clothes. To avoid wrinkles,
layer your clothes and roll them up. Put the rolls of clothing into the suitcase. Then put in the
smaller items. Finally, before you close your suitcase, check your list. Make sure you have not
forgotten your swimsuit!
In developing a paragraph by describing a process, writers employ words or phrases which
show sequence or time order. These words tell readers the sequence of steps in a process. The
most commonly used words are first, second, next, then, later, after that, finally etc.
The other feature of a process description paragraph is the use of imperative sentences. An
imperative is used to give instructions or direction or to tell the reader the steps in the process
directly. Apart from this, modals of advice, necessity and prohibition such as should, must,
should not or must not are common when developing a process description paragraph. Passive
sentences can also be used.

33
Unit Three: Essay Writing
3.1 Definition of an Essay

What do you think an essay is?

An essay is a series of paragraphs organized in a well thought-out manner which attempts to

provide information on a certain topic. It is not just a statement of facts but an effort to reveal
the thought process, ideas and personal feelings of a writer.

Essay may be descriptive, use narration, propose solutions to problems, and elucidate the
inner workings of complicated creations of nature.

Essay has definable beginning, middle and ending. It was built around central ideas, normally
referred to as theses.

Activity 1: Answer the following questions based on your background knowledge

1. Have you ever written an essay?
2. What is your experience on essay writing?

Writing an essay involves little more than applying the principles that we have already
discussed in the process of paragraph writing. What you need to do is expanding the basic
pattern of introduction, body and conclusion.

Essays can have three to five paragraphs or more. A typical essay usually has five paragraphs.
It is known as a five-paragraph essay. Essays with three to four paragraphs are known as short
essays.

Like a paragraph, a short essay has three basic patterns: an introduction, a body and a
conclusion.

What do you think is the function of each component?

Introduction:
Body:
Conclusion:

In a paragraph, the statement that states the controlling idea is called a topic sentence. In a
short essay, it is known as a thesis statement.
34
The supporting sentences of a paragraph support the idea in the topic sentence. Similarly in
the short essay, the body paragraph(s) support(s) the idea in the thesis statement. Each body
paragraph has a topic sentence. In a paragraph, a concluding sentence summarizes the idea in
the topic sentence. Likewise, the concluding paragraph of an essay summarizes the idea in the
thesis statement.

Activity 2.Read the paragraph and the short Essay given below and answer the questions that
follow them

Paragraph Short Essay

My uncle Patricio is one of the My family is full of happy, crazy,

most interesting people in my and talented people. My aunt Introduction
family. He is old and has a Margarita has a yard full of
wrinkled brown face. On his arm, orphaned pets. My brother Jose is
there is a tattoo. Patricio has an an expert tailor, and my mother
intriguing history. He and my loves to experiment in the kitchen.
mother were born in a small However, I think the most
village in the mountains. When he interesting is my mysterious uncle
was seventeen, he left home to Patricio.
explore the world. Now he fixes
air conditioners in Los Angeles, Patricio is an elderly man now,
and during the winter months, he with white hair sticking up all over
sometimes comes to visit us and his head. Beneath his messy hair, Body
play the accordion. I love he has a wrinkled brown face and paragraph 1
spending time with my uncle powerful dark eyes that show many
Patricio because he has an emotions. Patricio is tall and
interesting look and a mysterious skinny, and he wears baggy pants
past. Someday, I hope that he will and a plaid shirt. He has a tattoo of
tell me more about his life. a heart on his arm. The heart has
the word Rosa written across it in
red and black letters, but he has
never told me who she is.

Patricio has an intriguing history.

He and my mother were born in a
small village in the mountains.
When he was seventeen, he left Body
home to explore the world. On one paragraph 2
trip, he went to Siberia to look for
gold. On another trip, he went to
Alaska to work on a fishing boat.
Now he fixes air conditioners in Los
Angeles, and during the winter
months, he sometimes comes to visit
us and play the accordion.

35
 I love spending time with my uncle
Patricio. He has an interesting look Conclusion
and a sad and mysterious past. He
is also a talented musician.
Someday, I hope that he will tell me
about Rosa and how he got the
tattoo with her name.

1. Indicate the introduction, the body and the conclusion of the paragraph.
i) introduction
ii) body ______
iii) conclusion
2. What information is included in the short essay introduction that is not in the topic sentence
of the paragraph?
3. Write the topic and the controlling idea of body paragraph 1 in your own words.
4. What new details have been added to body paragraph 1 in the essay?
5. Write the topic and the controlling idea of body paragraph 2 in your own words.
6. What additional details have been added to body paragraph 2 in the essay?
7. What information is included in the essay conclusion that is not in the concluding sentence
of the paragraph?

3.2. Structure of an Essay

A five-paragraph essay follows a defined format. It consists of one-paragraph introduction, a

three-paragraph body and a one-paragraph conclusion. The roles of these paragraphs are
described and illustrated below.
1) The introduction/introductory paragraph
 The introduction to a five-paragraph essay must have a hook, background information, and the
thesis statement.
A hook is a statement that begins the introduction. It includes one or two interesting sentences
that engage the reader’s attention and stimulates their curiosity. Look at the following
example.
We all dream about our wedding celebration, but when it happens, we do not know what to
expect.
The example sentence provides the hook for an essay about a wedding celebration.
The background information in most cases follows the hook. It contains a general statement or
statement that gives a broader picture of the subject matter to be discussed. The sentence
below provides the context (situation) for the essay on a wedding celebration.
I met my husband on a student trip to Langano. After three years of letter writing and visit, we
finally announced our engagement and planned for the event.
A thesis statement usually comes at the end of the introduction. It summarizes what the entire
essay is about. It contains the topic and controlling idea for the whole essay. The topic is the
theme or the subject matter of the essay. The controlling idea defines the purpose of the essay
and sets its direction.
Activity 3.Read the introduction of an essay given below and examine its elements.
36
 One of the Best Moments of My Life
It was a sunny day in the summer of 1998 when my family moved out of the city to the
suburbs. I did not like leaving because I would lose my friends and the places where I had so
much fun. It was very sad for me to see my friends standing in front of the old house as we
said our last goodbyes. Little did I know that this move would turn out to be one of the best
moments of my life.

1. Circle and label the hook.

2. Underline the background information.
3. Write the thesis statement.
4. Write the topic of the thesis statement
5. Write the controlling idea of the thesis statement.
2)Body Paragraphs
The three body paragraphs of a five-paragraph essay contain the supporting details of the
essay. Each paragraph has a topic sentence that states the content of its paragraph. Each
paragraph supports and expands on an aspect of the topic and controlling idea of the thesis
statement. The topic sentences are often the first sentences of the body paragraphs.
Each body paragraph must develop a point presented in the topic statement. All the supporting
details in a body paragraph must clearly relate to each other. They can be descriptions,
definitions, examples, anecdotes, statistics, and so on.
The concluding sentences may either bring the ideas of the paragraphs to a close or suggest
the content of the next paragraph.
3)The concluding paragraph
The conclusion brings the essay to an end. It is usually two to four sentences in length. It
restates the thesis of the introduction in different words. This restatement connects the
conclusion to the introduction. The conclusion may give advice or warning. It may make a
prediction or ask a question. It can provide new insights and discoveries that the writer has
gained through writing the essay.
Activity 4.Read the following essay and answer questions that follow it:
Becoming an Academic Writer
Learning how to write an academic essay is essential for students who are planning to attend
college. Most professors require critiques of books and films, research papers, and formal
reports related to the content of their courses. When I first started college, I was excited about
facing these challenges and pursuing my major, media and communications. I was determined Introd
to improve my writing. To achieve this goal, I focused on three points: the content of an essay, uction
correct grammar, and advanced level vocabulary.
As soon as I started to write for college, I realized that college writing was different from the
writing I was used to doing. In high school, most of my writing dealt with my personal
experiences. I wrote mainly about my family, childhood, and friends. In contrast, college
writing focused on a variety of issues that I was unfamiliar with, such as reacting to a piece of Body
literature or writing about the community. Therefore, the most important thing for me was to paragra
understand the assigned topic before attempting my first draft. In some cases, I would have to ph 1
read and do research to build a foundation. I wanted to include examples, statistics, and
direct quotations whenever possible to support my opinions. By giving specific examples, I
realized that my essays became more detailed, easier to read, and much more interesting.
However, grammatical problems in my writing were still an issue.

I realized that I had to improve my understanding of grammar in order to write for college.
Before I came to college, grammar was not my strong point, For example, I often created run-
on sentences or sentence fragments. I was more concerned with what I wanted to say than
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Body
paragrap
h2
with how it was said. In fact, my professors would not accept this type of writing and made me
revise many times. Consequently, I made grammar my second priority. I reviewed the basic
grammatical structures such as subjects and verbs and checked all my work for verb tense
consistency and punctuation. As a result, my sentences became more complex because I
included transitional words, gerunds, and embedded clauses. The more I wrote, the more my
writing improved.
Furthermore, because I was accustomed to writing letters and informal essays, I usually
wrote the way I spoke with my family and friends. It was quite common for me to include
slang and abbreviated terms, which were appropriate in social contexts but were
unacceptable in formal essays. I soon realized that academic writing required a much more
sophisticated vocabulary. Not surprisingly, improving my vocabulary became my third and Body
final goal. Thus, I bought a new dictionary and thesaurus to help expand my knowledge. I paragr
became more aware of how often I repeated the same words and phrases throughout my aph 3
essay. I often searched for synonyms to replace words that I thought were too simple for a
college essay. I also focused more on the rules of spelling and corrected any errors I found
before submitting my assignment to the instructor.
Academic writing requires critical thinking skills, an understanding of the topic, high level
vocabulary, and correct grammar. Having these skills is empowering since it has made me a Conclusi
better communicator and student. I have come a long way since I started college, and I am on
now proud of the writing that I produce.
1. What is the thesis statement?
Body Para.1
2. Underline the topic sentence. Then, write the topic sentence in your own words.
3. What supporting details are provided? How do they support the topic sentence?
Body paragraph 2
4. Underline the topic sentence. Then, write the topic sentence in your own words
5. What supporting details are provided? How do they support the topic sentence?
Body paragraph 3
6. Underline the topic sentence. Then write the topic sentence in your own words
7. What supporting details are provided? How do they support the topic sentence?
6. Answer the following questions based on the concluding paragraph of the essay.
a. How many sentences appear in the conclusion?
b. Underline the sentence in the conclusion that restates the thesis in the introduction.
c. The conclusion ends with: 1. some advice 2. a prediction 3. a warning 4. an insight

3.3. Unity and Coherence within an Essay

What is unity in the context of essay writing?

Unity
Effective writing must have unity. Unity occurs when all the ideas in an essay support each
other. An essay has unity when all the body paragraphs contain a topic sentence and
supporting sentences that reinforce the thesis of the essay. Without unity, the essay loses its
focus and stray from the topic.
In the example below, both topic sentences 1 and topic sentence 2 support the thesis
statement. However, notice how topic sentence 3 deviates from the thesis statement.
Topic sentence 1
Having my friends and family together
at my weeding was an amazing
experience

Thesis statement 38
My wedding day was Topic sentence 2
the most thrilling day of The band we hired played music that
my life the guests loved, and we danced for
Coherence
Q1. What do you think is coherence in the context of essay writing?
Like unity, coherence is a base of an effective essay. All the supporting ideas and sentences in
writing must be organized so that they cohere or stick together. Key techniques for tying
together the material in writing include connectors, repeating wordsandusing pronouns

3.4. Types of Essay

3.4.1. Descriptive Essay

A description is a verbal picture of a person, place, or thing. When you describe a person, a
place or an object, you have to provide your readers detailed information by employing
relevant words which portray the facts and your impression towards what you describe. In
addition, you need to use words which build image for readers. These images may come from
sights, sounds, smells, tastes or even feelings. This is to mean that what you write should
emphasize specific sensory details. As the main purpose of a descriptive essay is to make
readers-see, hear, taste, smell, or feel what you are writing about, vivid details are the key to
this type of essay.
In descriptive essay, writers usually incorporate both objective and subjective description. An
objective description is a description which involves observable details and sensation, and
subjective description is a kind of description which portrays the impression the writer holds
in mind.
The other distinct feature of a descriptive essay or a descriptive writing in general is the use of
figurative language. Figurative languages are languages that are used imaginatively rather
than literally. They help writers to communicate ideas beyond the literal meaning of words.
The most commonly used figures of speech in descriptive writing (essay) are simile, metaphor
and personification.
Example:
At last the rain came. It was sudden and tremendous. For two or three moons the sun had
been gathering strength till it seemed to breathe a breath of fire on the earth. All the grass
had long been scorched brown, and the sands felt like live coals to the feet.
Evergreen trees wore a dusty coat of brown. The birds were silenced in the forests, and the
world lay panting under the live, vibrating heat. And then came the clap of thunder. It was an
angry, metallic and thirsty clap, unlike the deep and liquid rumbling of the rainy season. A
mighty wind arose and filled the air with dust. Palm trees swayed as the wind combed their
leaves into flying crests like a strange and fantastic coiffure.
As the above description shows, the writer vividly revealed what the situation of waiting for
rain in the described place looks like. The writer tried to make readers to feel, hear and see
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what he or she has experienced by reflecting his or her impression. By using phrases like
dusty coat of brown, live coals and the world lay panting, the writer reflected his
impression that the situation was disastrous and he or she was worried.

3.4.2. Narrative Essay

What kind of Essay do you think is a narrative essay?

Narration is telling story. A narrative essay thus is a type of writing that is concerned with
telling a story. A good narrative always tells to make the point. It makes the readers laugh,
sympathize, understand, or change their attitudes.
Like narrative paragraphs, narrative essays are usually arranged in chronological order. The
writer tells what happened first, then what happened next and next until finally he or she gets
to the end of the story.
When writing a narrative essay, the use of colorful details, the nature of the events, and the
way of arranging the details make the essay effective.
In addition to this, a narrative essay is presented either from the first person point of view or
from the third person point of view. Besides, as mentioned in paragraph writing, the types of
tenses most commonly used are past forms (simple past, past continues and past perfect)
though it is possible to present a narrative through simple present as well. Look at the sample
essay below and notice the nature of the essay.
Example: slip
It was about nine o’clock when Paul’s mother and father drove up to their house. All was still.
Paul’s mother went to her room and slipped off her white fur cloak. She had told her old maid
not to wait for her…
And then, because of the strange anxiety at her heart, she stole upstairs to her son’s room.
Noiselessly she went along the upper corridor. Was there a faint noise? What was it?
She stood with arrested muscles, outside his door, listening. There was a strange, heavy, and
yet not loud noise. Her heart stood still. It was a soundless noise, yet rushing and powerful,
something huge, in violent, hushed motion. What was it? What in God’s name was it? She
ought to know. She felt that she knew the noise. She knew what it was.
Yet she could not place it. She couldn’t say what it was. And on and on it went, like a
madness. Softly, frozen with anxiety and fear, she turned the door-handle.
In this essay, you can see that the story is told from third person point of view. The writer
presented the event in the story in chronological order that (Paul’s mother first came home,
then went to her room, after that slipped of her white fur clock, next stole up stairs and next
along the upper corridor, then stood outside her son’s door, then listened strange noise, next
felt afraid, finally turned the door handle.)
He or she also narrated the essay by employing sensory description of the mother’s thought,
feeling and impression to create suspense. He or she also creates image of the setting by using
relevant descriptive words and phrases.

3.4.3 Expository Essay

An expository essay is a kind of discourse which provides information about and explains a
particular subject. It is a type of writing which informs readers by presenting and explaining
concepts and ideas. It is usually organized by using one of these patterns. The patterns are
giving examples, detailing a process of doing or making something, analyzing causes and
effects, comparing and contrasting etc. An expository essay is the most commonly used essay.
When people write a term paper or answer essay questions on exam, they often use
exposition; when they write about the process of something, define terms, write about
differences between things, they employ expository writing. Now look at the sample
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expository essay below. And then notice how it is written and the pattern employed to
develop it.
Example
Why Students are Poor
It is easy to recognize a college student because he or she is carrying books and usually
wearing old pants or jeans and a T-shirt. You will not see a college student driving a new car.
Instead, you will see him at a bus stop or a bicycle. And at mealtimes, a college student is
more likely to be eating a slice of pizza than dining in a fine restaurant. Very few college
students have extra money to spend on clothes, cars, or good food. There are two main
reasons why being poor is an unavoidable part of the collage experience.
The first reason college students are poor is that they cannot work full-time. An eighteen year-
old is an adult with the needs and wants of an adult; however, if that young person is taking
courses at a university or a community college, he or she must spend as much time as possible
studying. Therefore, the student has to sacrifice the extra money that a job would provide in
order to have the freedom to concentrate on classes.
A second reason college students have little money is that they have other expenses that
working adults do not have. A college student must pay tuition fees every semester. A full time
student usually takes three or four clashes each semester and the fees for these classes can
cost thousands of dollars per year. Also, students need to buy several expensive textbooks
each semester. A single textbook can cost as much as a hundred dollars. Other necessary
expenses include computers, papers, pens, note books, and other items needed for school
projects.
Many students cannot afford to attend college full-time, so they have a job and go to school
part-time, but they are still poor because of the cost of attending college. Fortunately, the
causes of student poverty are temporary. Most students do not mind because they have the
hope that a college degree will get them a good job and they will have good prospects in the
future.
Dear learner, as you can see from the above sample essay, the writer explained why college
students are poor. He presented his explanation by mentioning two main reasons. The pattern
he or she employed to write the essay is a method of cause and effect though he/she focused
only on the cause.

3.4.4. Argumentative Essay

An argumentative essay is a type of essay in which a writer attempts to support a controversial

point or to defend a position on which there is a difference of opinion. An argumentative
essay takes a firm stand on an issue and then attempts to convince readers to agree with that
stand. For instance, an essay suggesting that drinking alcohol should be banned by law can
be an argument because its purpose could be to convince readers to accept the writer’s point
of view.

When you write an argumentation, your main purpose could be either to convince readers that
your opinion is correct or to persuade your audience to take some sort of action. Whatever the
purpose be, in writing an argumentation essay, it is important to provide your reader or
audience with a clear main point and plenty of logical evidences to back it up. Look at the
following example and notice the nature of argumentative essay.

Example

Is it better to go to a single sex school or a co-educational school?

41
Whether to educate boys and girls together or to separate the two sexes is a controversial
issue. There are advantages to both sides; however, on balance, I believe that the co-
educational system is better than single sex schools.

On the one hand, there are many advantages of educating boys and girls in the same
classroom. The first advantage is that children learn to understand the opposite sex and to
treat each other as equals. Another point is that this system reflects society because children
are educated in realistic situation. Moreover, it is cheaper to teach boys and girls in one
school, an important consideration in developing countries. Finally, it can be more fun for
everyone as boys and girls can learn to enjoy each others company. If children enjoy their
education, they will probably be more motivated to work hard.

On the other hand, segregating the sexes has some distinct advantages. Firstly the academic
results at single sex schools are often very good as the students are not distracted from their
work and can concentrate on their studies. Secondly, both sexes have the opportunity to
express themselves without worrying about what the other sex may think of their opinions. In
male dominated societies this is particularly important. Finally, this system suits some
students, for example shy and nervous children might feel more secure in a single sex
environment.
In conclusion, both systems of education have benefits. In my opinion the children studying in
a mixed school have a better experience.
Exercise 2: Read the essay below and answer the questions that follow it.
A Scary Secret
My sister and I made a dangerous mistake one summer. I was thirteen and my sister was
fourteen, and our parents had taken us to the city where they grew up. We felt very grown up
as we rode to the hotel in a taxi. The hotel was very big, and it had a blue tile floor. After we
unpacked our suitcases, our parents wanted to go to the market. My mother told us not to go
outside. “We won’t,” my sister promised, but I knew that she was lying. We had already
decided to go out and explore this strange and beautiful city by ourselves.
As soon as my parents were out of sight, we got our things and went downstairs. We walked
out of the hotel doors and down a narrow street. The sun was setting, and the light was very
beautiful. We could hear the noises of traffic nearby, but the little street was quiet. Suddenly,
a man with a gun stepped out from a doorway. He said, “Don’t move!” He was short, and he
was wearing a dark green jacket and sunglasses. He came very close and we could smell
cigarettes and something terrible in his breath. We were terrified and couldn’t say anything.
He said, “Give me your shoes.” So I did. Then he took my sister’s purse and her gold ring
and ran away. I remember that I fell against my sister. I heard her take a deep breath; she
was shaking. Afterward, we ran back to the hotel, across the blue tile floor and up to our
room.
The man scared us, but he also taught us something important. Before this experience, we did
not always listen to our parents. We now learned that we should obey them. My sister and I
became obedient daughters, and we enjoyed the rest of our vacation. However, we decided
not to tell our parents about our adventure. We knew they would punish us even though we
had learned our lesson. This dangerous adventure is still a secret that I share with my sister.
1. Which sentence is the hook in the introductory paragraph?
2. What is the function of the hook in this essay?
3. Underline the thesis statement.
4. What is the role of the sentence between the hook and the thesis statement in the essay?
5. What is the relation between the body paragraph and the thesis statement?
6. How is the conclusion presented?

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 Exercise: Write a three paragraph essay on one of the topics below.
 A mistake I learned from
 My memorable day
 A travel I enjoyed
 Attendance should not be mandatory in university classrooms.
 There should be a law prohibiting smoking.
 Public transport, should be owned by government

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