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Wooden Objects from Roman Sites in the Land of Israel, A Typological and
Technological Study

Thesis · March 2006

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Yigal Sitry
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Vol. I

Yigal Sitry

The Martin (Szusz) Department of the land of Israel Studies and

PhD. Thesis

Submitted to the Senate of Bar-Ilan University

Ramat-Gan, Israel March 2006

I
Abstract
Introduction

Significant amounts of wood materials have been uncovered in archaeological sites from

the Roman Period in the Land of Israel. This work deals with wooden items that could be

determined to be manufactured objects, or had traces of working on them. The catalogue

of this study contains 532 objects, most of which were discovered in the Judaean Desert,

the Negev or the Arava regions, where preservation conditions are better than in other

areas of the Land of Israel. It is most likely that the same repertoire of items was used in

other areas of the country, but did not survive.

The assemblage was divided into 24 categories according to the function and form

of the objects; and some categories were divided into sub-groups. A brief description of

the categories follows:

A. Furniture – Wood remains identified as joints or as parts of furniture led us to

recognize most of the common furniture of Roman times: chairs or stools, beds or

couches, tables, stands, chests and doors. Unfortunately there were not enough finds to

define a typology of furniture, but we could definitely learn about the quality of the

carpentry. In this regard, there are obvious differences in the quality of the wood, the

design and the carpentry. The quality of furniture we identified matches the social strata

and the political situation of the Judean society, at least some of whom were refugees.

B. Wooden coffins – This category comprises more than 70 items, most of which

have been published. This work discusses the stylistic and technological aspects of the

coffins, and in particular the cedar coffin from Yotvata. There were two main types of

coffin in the Roman Era: 1 – a basic form which was rectangular, with thin walls and a

flat bottom and lid, and 2 – a gabled form with four legs. Type A was common in the Ein

Gedi cemetery, while type B was more common at Jericho. This is also a reflection of the

geo-economics of both sites: while En Gedi was a Jewish agricultural village, Jericho was
II
an agriculture centre and a commercial town. The gabled coffins were influenced by the

Hellenistic and Roman styles, which were imitations of the house or chest forms, as Carl

Watzinger suggested in 1905.

An interesting phenomenon is the reuse of wooden boards for coffins at En Gedi

and the secondary use of an impressive chest as a coffin in Jericho. Some basic coffins

found in Bet-She'arim were made from thin boards nailed into a box-like form and

strengthened with battens. This construction, which was also found in Dura Europus and

other places where only the nails survived, was most likely the common form in Judaea,

and it symbolizes the common use of wooden coffins in Jewish burial customs.

C. Locks and locking mechanisms – Four items in this category belong to a very

basic type of locking system which was made entirely of wood. Other items combined

wood with metal. Based on archaeological finds from Israel and Roman Egypt, we have

identified eight types of locking mechanism. Most common was the simple wooden lock

attached to the outside of the door. Others were the elbow key system, popular in the 2nd

century CE, and the small metal chest locks which used a leaf spring mechanism, and

were popular from the late 3rd century onwards. A model we built and the Rabbinical

Halacha on keys and locking on Shabbat (‫ח‬,‫)כלים יד‬, helped in our study of the structure

and operation of the elbow-locking system.

Most of the finds were household items, and included tableware as well as storage

boxes. These articles were also divided according to their use and form.

D. Tableware – Our catalogue contains more than 130 items in this category. Of

these about 50 were almost complete or technologically complete (meaning that all the

parts survived – base, body and rim). Others had only some of the parts, but most showed

traces of tool marks that gave clues to the manufacturing process. The forms and sizes

varied from huge bowls to small delicate ones. We divided them into nine types: A –

III
Shallow Plates, B – Deep Bowls, C – Large Bowls, D – Goblets, E – Medium Open

Bowls, F – Hemispherical Bowls, H – Cups, I – Small Bowls (Patella) and J – Cosmetic

Bowls. These were divided into 23 sub-types. This assemblage represents most of the

sites and periods over the three hundred years from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to

the middle of the 2nd century CE. All items dealt with here, without exception, were

made on the lathe. In the Roman Period wood-turning became an important wood

processing technique, and influenced the design of the basic forms. In this category, we

noticed a similarity in forms between items made of different materials. It is believed that

mutual relations between craftsmen, and the uses of the objects, influenced the

imagination of the designers. This phenomenon involves hand-made wooden articles,

pottery, stone vessels, metal and glassmaking. In this regard it establishes the place of

wood-turning among the other crafts. Above all it is important to mention the influence

of the so-called Terra Sigillata pottery style on wooden bowls up to the first half of the

2nd century CE. These wooden bowls had an elegant appearance: the walls were thin and

angled, the base had a small and accurate ring, and the rims were beautifully designed

with circumferential projections and depressions. The number of items in this category

allowed us to create a chronology. We found that the chronology of wooden tableware

integrates with the development of objects made of other materials. A chronological

development has been identified in the Shallow Plates (A), Open Bowls (E6),

Hemispherical Bowls (F) and others. This development follows the trends of the pottery

shape changes, and especially the appearance of the Terra Sigillata ware. The

implementation of wood-turning techniques in stone vessel production led to the adoption

of forms and decoration, as happened with Hemispherical Bowls.

E, F. Cylindrical Storage Boxes - The design of this group stems from the

technology used in manufacture. The large variety of forms and the wide distribution of

IV
the objects indicate that turning technology was widespread in all regions under Roman

occupation or influence. In this category we included about 60 objects, most of them

being small items, such as stoppers for glass bottles or pottery. The typological study of

the cylindrical boxes is based on the closure system. We have detected a link between the

closure system and the form of the box, and maybe also with its contents. A cylindrical

box from Karanis, containing a small glass box (Harden 1936:183, pl VI no 512), is

similar to boxes of Type C in our catalogue. Therefore it is believed that Type C,

especially boxes of this type, the inside of which was not finished, were used to hold

glass containers for liquids.

G. Angled Boxes – Angled boxes are small rectangular boxes that were often used

to store small items such as jewellery, medical instruments, and other important or

valuable articles. Most of them have a sliding lid similar to the pencil box of today. All

boxes of this type used advanced joinery. The popular joint in the Roman Period was the

dovetail. In some of the boxes we found a mitre cut at the head of the upper part of the

joint which gave the box an elegant appearance.

H. Irregular Boxes – In this category we collected boxes and containers which

were tailor-made to meet the needs of the owners, or had been specially shaped to the

form of the objects they contained. Three objects found together in the Cave of the

Letters were special. These objects, a vaulted box and two mirror cases, were made of

lime wood (tilia sp.) and covered with a parchment-like material. The wood and covering

are unique among wooden finds in Israel; and we therefore suggest they were made

abroad and imported as finished objects. The study of the box has not yet been

completed: as we went deeper in studying the box, more questions were raised, and it

seems that more laboratory tests are needed to complete the investigation. An oval box

was uncovered in the Cave of Horrors. Its manufacturing process is the simple

V
implementation of a creative design. Two cylindrical needle cases were found in Qumran

and Masada. The case from Qumran is unique in its size, and its manufacture exhibits

great technological knowledge and skill. This box and other items from Qumran are of

high quality in their form, raw material and manufacturing techniques, and this may

contribute to the debate about the identity of Qumran's inhabitants. Finally, it is

worthwhile mentioning the spice boxes. These are cylindrical flat items with three or four

drilled openings for holding spices. Similar items were found as stoneware in and around

the Jewish Quarter of Jerusalem, and were known as "‫' "בית תבלין‬Spice Boxes' in

Rabbinical texts (.‫ב‬,‫)כלים ב‬.

I. Spoons and Spatulas – Thirteen wooden spoons and spatulas were found in

various sites. The study of their forms and their comparison to other items made of metal

and bone, led us to the conclusion that these objects were used for a variety of uses,

among them hygiene, cosmetics, food preparation and eating. The specific identification

of each of the objects would be determined by the context in which it was found.

J. Handles – This group includes 26 items used as handles for tools and knives. A

linkage was identified between the attachment method of the handle to the blade and the

way the tool was used. The shapes of the handles were ergonomically designed to match

the direction of usage of the tool. For example all handles of chopping tools had

circumferential projections at the lower part of the handle, to prevent the handle slipping

out of the hand.

K. Combs – A large group of 53 combs that served for grooming as well as for

hygiene of the head have been studied. They allow us to determine a chronological

development from the Hellenistic Period into the Roman Period, and to define a

typological classification within the Roman Period. The definition of each type was based

on the form, the density of the teeth, and the ratio between the length of the teeth and the

VI
length of the comb itself. Combs of Type B, which were well decorated, served also as a

status item for their owners. Combs of Type D, on the other hand, were broad, had denser

teeth than the other types, with the teeth covering most of the face area of the comb.

These characteristics show that that Type D was designed specially for delousing. The

fact that ancient head lice and their eggs were detected in combs of the Roman period by

Prof. Mumchoglu, supported our suggestion. The simple form and the lack of decoration,

as well as the wide distribution of Type D, indicates the increase of awareness of head

hygiene in the Judaean society in the Roman Period. The production of such fine dense

teeth became possible thanks to the geopolitical situation at this period, which

contributed to the availability of boxwood (the raw material), and spread the technology

to distant regions of the Empire.

Wooden objects were used also in various crafts. Most of those from the Roman

Period belong to the textile crafts, and were discovered inside or nearby dwellings. This

proves that spinning and weaving were household crafts.

L. Spindles and Spindle Whorls – This category comprises objects related to

spinning. Eight items could be defined as spindles, and 63 as spindle whorls. The study of

these objects proved that spinning in ancient Judaea was related to the Egyptian style,

where the whorl was positioned at the upper part of the spindle. We also found disc

whorls that were attached to the spindle at its middle. In our opinion the sentence " ‫ידיה‬

)'‫ "שלחה בכישור וכפיה תמכו פלך (משלי לא' יט‬is related to this type of spinning, which is called

supported spinning, as the spindle is supported by the palm of the spinner. In this case the

‫ כישור‬is the distaff – the rod where the bulb of wool fibers was collected.

The large number of whorls allowed us classify them according to form and

weight. Statistically, most of the whorls weighed less than 10 grams. These data match

VII
the study by Prof. Reich on stone whorls found at Masada. Both studies describe fine and

delicate spinning.

M. Reel – Eleven items of this shape were discovered. This item was first defined

as a reel by Petrie. We could not arrive at any other identification that makes more sense;

therefore, and due to the similarity to present-day objects, we concur with the traditional

suggestion of Petrie.

N. Weaving Combs – Three items have been discovered, and their identification

is based on similarity to weaving combs used nowadays among traditional societies.

O. Needle – Only one wooden needle, from Ein Rachel, has been discovered. It is

very similar in size and shape to metal needles, which were much more common. Dr.

Ayalon suggested that similar needles made of bone found in Caesarea were used as

hairpins.

P. Buttons – Only four buttons made of wood had been discovered in sites of the

Roman Period. Similar items made of bone were widespread in Mediterranean sites. The

attachment of the button to the cloth and the way it was used were learnt from the form of

the items, as well as from pictures and plastic art of the Greek culture. Buttons were very

common in the Greek and Hellenistic Periods, but they were replaced by the brochettes

(fibula) of the Roman Period.

Q. Fire Sticks – A wooden fire stick was discovered in Ein Rachel. The technique

is based on generating heat from friction between two wooden sticks. This was the

common system used by the societies of the ancient East, and traditional societies still

use this method. Many parallels have been found in Roman Egypt and earlier. In ancient

Israel we have identified two more items: an Iron Age item from the excavations of Dr.

Z. Meshel at Kuntilat 'Agrud, and a Chalcolithic item from a cave in Wadi Muraba'at in

VIII
the Judaean Desert. Our experimental work helped to us find the optimal circumstances

for ignition.

R. Wooden writing boards and wax tablets – Two main methods of writing on

wood were known in Israel. A – Writing in ink on thin smooth wooden boards, and B –

Incising in a layer of wax in a recess cut into a wooden tablet (wax tablets). A small

folded board from the Bar-Kokhba period was discovered in the Cave of the Letters. The

board is very thin (about 1 mm thick), smoothed on the front, with very clear writing.

This board is very similar to wooden boards used by the Roman army, many of which

have been found in Roman army sites in Britain. Four wax tablets which were found at

Wadi Muraba'at and Byzantine Nessana provide us with important information about the

use of this medium. Unfortunately we were not able to check the components of the wax,

but we discovered the technique used to attach the wax to the board.

S. Scale – Two similar objects discovered in Qumran and in Wadi Muraba'at were

identified as parts of a scale. Both have three holes used for the strings.

T. A bridge of a string instrument (kithara) – A long object with a flat bottom and

a perforated projection along its length was discovered in Moa. It was identified as a

bridge of a kithara, based on instruments depicted on Greek vessels. This is the first and

only evidence of a musical instrument in the stations along the commercial routes of the

Negev, and it hints at the richness of the sites and of their leisure activities.

U. Scroll rod – A thin rod of a scroll was attached to a scroll designated 11QNJar.

Only two of the scrolls found in Qumran had rods: one of leather and the other of wood.

The Roman invention of adding rods to the scrolls facilitated keeping the place in

reading, as we do today when reading the weekly Portion of the Torah.

IX
Technological Aspects

This section deals with technological aspects, with the discussion divided into three main

parts: A – Wood as raw material – its characters, availability and uses, B – Woodworking

techniques and the manufacturing process, and C – Woodworking tools and machines

used in the Roman Period.

The methods of research we used are given in detail at the beginning of the work.

It should be emphasized that tool mark traces on the work pieces helped us in identifying

the tools involved in their manufacture, and the way they were used. Combs were

measured to study the thickness of the saw blades used to saw the teeth. Accurate

measurements of bowls allowed us to determine the moisture content of the wood while it

was being turned. We also made some laboratory tests to identify adhesives and finishing

materials, and objects were X-rayed to expose hidden parts.

Statistical study of wood usage showed that in general the craftsmen used suitable

wood for specific work. In all sites the craftsmen took their basic supply from local

wood, except for specific objects such as combs or small turned objects. The same

phenomenon has been observed at sites abroad. It seems that the cost of transportation

played a crucial role in the total cost of the raw material; therefore if local wood was

suitable for the work then it was used. Wooden coffins from Ein Gedi were manufactured

of poor wood, while coffins at Jericho were built from wood imported from the Judaean

Mountains, especially cypress and Aleppo pine. Masada had the largest quantity of

archaeological wood, a good portion of it being juniper, imported from the Mountains of

Edom, and cedar of Lebanon. In many other sites local wood from the immediate vicinity

was most common. For comb production boxwood was the popular material. For the

complete list see Appendix 11.

X
 The discussion of the technological aspects of the production is divided into four

units according to the techniques used in the manufacture:

A. Assembled objects and constructions: this includes furniture and objects

assembled from many parts. Most objects in this group are furniture and angled boxes.

The craftsmen used a variety of constructions and were familiar with the joints suitable

for each one. The common construction was with bars as used for chairs, stools, tables

and stands. Frame construction was used for cabinets and doors. Most coffins were built

as a box construction, and some of them were constructed with combined walls joined to

four-cornered legs with a wide tenon.

Of the joints the most common was the mortise-and-tenon, many of which were

secured with through pins. Wedged-through tenons were used to ensure good fastening,

and also for furniture which could be dismantled. In Ein Gedi wooden nails were used for

joining the coffin walls to each other, while craftsmen in Beth She'arim could offer metal

nails for the same purpose. Joints were glued with adhesive based on collagen from skin,

cartilage and bones of animals. Metal parts were used for locking, and wooden hinges

were used for the lid of the chest from Jericho.

Wooden angled boxes were built using dovetail joints. Mitre cuts were sawn in

some boxes in the upper parts of the joints in order to give the top a better appearance.

Toothed objects: boxwood was the favorite wood for comb-making, due to the

short fibers and the density of the wood, which enabled production of thin fine teeth. In

some combs we measured teeth of 0.4 mm width, with a 0.25 mm gap between teeth. The

tooth cut was the crucial stage of a very complicated process, including: preparing the

raw material, cutting to proper size, cutting the comb slant, smoothing the face, carving

the margins, cutting teeth and decorating. In some combs we observed some faults in

manufacture that did not affect the function of the combs, which were fortunately left for

XI
us to learn about the making process. Ethnographical observations in Egypt and Iran

showed (except for minor differences), similar production processes among traditional

comb makers.

Objects made on a lathe: this is the largest group, including more than 200 objects

(about half of the objects in the catalogue, apart from coffins and furniture). This fact

itself is an indication of the integration of wood-turning into the woodworking process in

the Roman era. Many tool marks left on the objects allow us to suggest the complete

turning process for any single object, and also the sequential manufacture of cylindrical

objects. An interesting question was the technique used for turning bowls and cylindrical

boxes. The tests we made on a model of a lathe left marks similar to the original ones.

With observations of traditional turners at work, we can confidently suggest a

reconstruction of the methods and equipment for holding the workpiece on the lathe, and

the internal turning. An unidentified wooden object with metal remains at its ends, found

in the Byzantine Yassi Ada shipwreck, was identified by us as a drive centre, and served

as the basic form for our experimental work.

Objects worked by chipping tools: this group contained objects that were worked

mainly by chipping tools, such as handles, spoons, spatulas, wooden nails, etc. The work

was simple and the skills were easily acquired.

The technological part closes with a discussion of the tools and machines used by

craftsmen in the Roman period. The information about the tools was obtained from both

direct and indirect sources. Direct sources included tools discovered in many Roman sites

in Egypt and across the Roman Empire, especially in Roman army camps. Some ships'

carpenters' tool kits had been uncovered in wrecks; an almost complete kit being

discovered in the Ma'agan Mikhael shipwreck. As for indirect information, some comes

from drawings on vessels of the Greek and Hellenistic periods and some from

XII
gravestones of craftsmen. Ancient technological texts also shed some light on these

issues. In this regard Pliny the Elder is a good source, but Rabbinical texts had also, by

the way, technical references that contributed to the study.

The archaeological data allowed us reconstruct a Roman workshop with all its

tools and machines needed to process wood from cutting the tree to finishing the objects.

As part of the technological study we reconstructed typical wooden objects, such as low

wooden anvils, workbenches, a work-table and its accessories, clamps, adzes, chisels,

mallets and other items. Dramatic changes in form and function of some tools occurred in

the Roman Period following the appearance of the workbench. As the carpenter rose from

his seat and worked standing he could use his upper body in a pushing movement.

Therefore some tools changed their direction, as happened to the saw – pushing instead

of pulling. New tools were invented, like the plane that replaced the traditional adze in

smoothing faces of boards. Other changes were the new form of the saw, now based on a

tensioned blade, a fact that allow the blade to be thin and long in contrast to the former

types of saw. Logs were also sawn by huge saws using the same tension principle, the

only difference being the position of the blade in the middle of the frame. This blade was

over 150 cm long, and Rabbinical texts referred to it as ).‫“ המסור הגדול (כלים יג' ג‬the large

saw”. More innovations in the Roman Period were new forms of drill bits. Bits with

cutting edges were added to the grinding bits. Also, the need to remove the waste led to

the appearance of two new bits: the spoon bit which collected the waste in the spoon, and

the spiral bit that evacuated the waste by itself.

A significant contribution to woodworking was the improvement of machinery.

The drive system of the lathe and methods of holding the work piece were improved. The

direct outcome was the increasing use of the lathe for objects and parts of furniture. In

some small items we recognized the use of a sophisticated drive system having a

XIII
 continuous movement, rather than the former reciprocating one. Lathes became a

dominant machine that simplified the wood process and reduced the cost of manufacture.

It can be argued that the mechanics of wood-turning dictated the design of the products.

“Serratoriae machinae” – sawing machines – is a phrase used in the 4th century

by Marcellinus, to describe the mechanical system of the "scorpio" the scorpion, Either

civilian technology influenced the army, or the opposite. ‘Sawing machines’ should be

considered as another proof for the development of woodworking technology in the

Roman Period.

Woodworking technology developed during the Roman Period, and the craft

changed its face. The new inventions improved the practice of carpentry in all its aspects.

Tools and methods of the Roman Period were used up to the Industrial Revolution, and

afterwards among traditional craftsmen.

We will now briefly summarize this work by emphasizing two of its aspects: a) where it

breaks new ground, and b) an introduction to some issues raised in the work. These issues

are outside the goals and the extent of this work, as they touch on sociological and

anthropological questions, and we hope they will be studied exhaustively in the future.

I – The novelty of the study and its contribution to the study of the material culture of

the Roman Period in the Land of Israel.

This comprises the following aspects:

A. The variety of items, forms and qualities of wooden objects – This work sheds light on

the widespread use of wood as raw material in all areas of life in the Roman Period. The

variety of objects, forms and types was wide. More than 70 types of items were counted,

some of which are rare items which were identified and whose functions were suggested

XIV
here for the first time. These include fire sticks, needle boxes, a bridge of a stringed

instrument, a balance, and buttons.

B. Typology and chronology of wooden objects:

1. We present a typology for tableware and discuss its chronology, coordinating it

with the chronology of objects made of other materials.

2. We suggest a typology for the cylindrical storage objects, based on the

mechanism of the closure and the contents of the object.

3. Typical items of furniture are identified and compared to their sources in the

Roman World.

4. Locking parts are identified, and some locking systems and their operation are

discussed. We also suggest a chronological development of the locking systems

during the Roman Period.

5. General typology and chronology are suggested for combs in general, and for a

specific typology in the Roman Period. This typology can be used to date even

remains of combs.

6. We have located wooden writing boards and wax tablets and discussed them in

comparison to those common in the Roman World, and specifically those in use

by the army.

7. Some rare items are identified and their functions suggested. These include fire

sticks, needle boxes, the bridge of a stringed instrument, a balance, and buttons.

8. Traces of working on wooden whorls helped to prove the tradition of the position

of the whorl at the upper part of the spindle in ancient Palestine.

C. Mutual relations between materials – We identify and discuss the mutual relations and

influences between objects made of different materials. This issue is treated in depth

XV
concerning tableware, especially the influence of the Terra Sigillata style on wooden

bowls.

D. Ergonomics – We point out the awareness of designers and woodworkers to

ergonomic characters of the product. Examples are Type D comb forms, size and

construction of tables, and the structure and length of frame saws.

E. Ancient texts – Many terms and woodworking tools and techniques mentioned in

Rabbinical texts and other ancient sources are clarified in the study; for example, the

table which could be dismantled, the spindle whorl and its usage, polishing wood with

shark skin, etc.

F. Workshop – We suggest the set-up of a complete carpenter's workshop, including all

functional tools and machines. All details of this workshop are based on archaeological

finds.

G. Wood as raw material – The mechanical characteristics of wood, and its suitability for

various products, are discussed. We suggest an economic and technological model for

planting sycamore trees for beams.

H. Technological innovations – Several technological innovations of the Roman Period

are presented:

1. The appearance of the workbench, and consequently the carpenter standing up to

work, and the effect of this change on tools and methods of carpentry.

2. Changes in the forms of some tools and their operation.

3. Inventions of tools, such as the frame saw and the plane

4. Improvements in woodturning due to improved holding and drive devices.

I. Wood processing - Woodworking techniques and working processes of furniture and

other wooden objects are reconstructed. In this part we identify and discuss the structure

of furniture and the special joints employed in its manufacture in the Roman Period.

XVI
J. Wood-turning techniques - We reconstructed wood-turning tools, devices and

techniques for cylindrical objects, as well as for bowls and other hollow objects. Some

wooden and metal devices involved in wood-turning are identified for the first time.

These objects came from Roman Egypt and the 7th century Yassi Ada shipwreck.

K. Technology and design - We discuss the influence of improvements in technology on

the design of products. We point out the benefits of this influence, especially in

simplification of production processes in wood-turning, which reduced the total cost of

the product.

II – Social and economic issues discussed briefly in this work are:

A. Socio-economic strata of society – It is believed that the variety of raw materials,

design, and woodworking processes found in the assemblage can contribute to the

discussion on the socio-economical strata in Judean society, and also on the origin of the

refugees. It can also add to the understanding of the differences between villages and

towns, at least regarding the material culture.

B. Refugees – A significant number of objects were found in caves used by refugees in

the Judean desert. The character of these objects will definitely help to answer questions

about the aims of the refugees – whether they intended a temporary escape, or had long-

range plans

C. Geopolitics in the Roman World, and its influence on commerce, and distribution of

technology – Good quality timber was available in all parts of the Roman Empire, and

woodworking technology spread to the furthest regions. This should be considered when

discussing trade in general, and especially the timber trade. This also hints at the role of

the Roman Army as a disseminator of technology.

XVII
 D. Trade in the Roman Empire – Woodworkers in general preferred to use local wood

instead of imported wood, even it was of poorer quality, as long as it suited its function.

We suggest that high transportation costs led to such decisions. We suggest that any

discussion on raw material and transportation costs should take these facts into

consideration.

E. Exposure to foreign design – Wooden objects show a wide exposure to foreign design

and technology (see wooden coffins, furniture, and tableware). This phenomenon is not

new, and also held for other materials. Foreign influence in the design of a wooden

object can focus the discussion on its origin.

F. Self-awareness – The form and distribution of some of the wooden artifacts dealt with

in this work tell of an increase in self-awareness. Combs of Type D are a sign of better

hygiene, the form and size of cups and bowls shed light on eating habits, the development

of locks proves awareness of private property, etc. These phenomena supplement similar

evidence discussed in other studies. We propose a discussion on self-awareness in Judean

society under the circumstances of widespread exposure to Western culture.

G. Woodworking tradition - In many places we point out the changes in tools and

techniques in the Roman Period. We have linked these changes to the appearance of the

workbench and the carpenter's standing while working. We suggest this is a result of

sociological changes occurring in Rome, followed by the development of professional

knowledge and its management by the establishment of guilds. This phenomenon is

unique to woodworking in the Roman World. It would be very interesting to find out why

similar changes did not happen outside the area of Roman influence.

XVIII

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