1.

8 Matter

Matter Classification

Matter is defined as anything that occupies space and has mass. Therefore matter
is all around us. Your book, shirt, shoes, pizza, computer, and all other tangible things
that are in our universe is made up or composed of matter.

Matter can be found in one (or more) of four physical states: solid, liquid, gas, and
plasma (quite rare on earth).

Furthermore, matter can be classified into one of four groups:

Two types of Pure Substances: Compounds and Elements

Two types of Mixtures: Homogenous Mixtures and Heterogeneous Mixtures

Definition

Pure substances (Homogeneous matter) are uniformly blended or "the same"

throughout ("homo"-from the Greek word "homos" meaning the same) and can be
elements or a compounds.
Elements are substances that cannot be decomposed into simpler materials by
chemical reactions and belong to the class of pure substances which exhibit constant
composition or fixed proportions. For a list of the elements see the inside cover of your
text. Some examples are gold, silver, nickel, sodium, iron, and lead.

Compounds also belong to the class of pure substances. They are formed from two or
more elements in which the elements are always combined in the same fixed
proportions. Water, H2O, is always a chemical combination of two hydrogen atoms with
one oxygen atom.

Mixtures (homogeneous or heterogeneous matter) have variable compositions and

can be solutions or mechanical mixtures.

Solutions (homogeneous mixtures) have the same properties throughout the

sample. For example: salt water, apple juice and paint. Solutions are not always liquids.
Brass is a solid solution of two metals, copper and zinc.

Mechanical Mixtures (heterogeneous mixtures) consist of two or more regions

called phases that differ in properties. For example: sulphur and lead mixed together
with a stirring rod, and different coloured marbles in a bag

Note: Air, for instance, has a variable composition of 79% nitrogen, 20% oxygen and 1%
all other gases including carbon dioxide and water vapour.

Pure Substance vs. Mixture

The dominant feature of a mixture is that it has a variable composition. Soup, even soup
out of the same pot, has variable composition. Your dish may contain more noodles than
someone else's, today's soup may be saltier than yesterday's. Hence, soup is a mixture.
On the other hand, pure water is not a mixture because its composition never varies; 18
g of H2O always contains 2 g of hydrogen atoms and 16 g of oxygen atoms. The fixed
proportions of the pure substances and the variable proportions of mixtures produce
numerous secondary differences. Some of these differences are summarized in the
following table.

Pure Substance Mixture

Has constant physical

properties. (Color, odor, density,
Has variable physical properties.
melting point, boiling point,
etc.)

Has constant chemical

properties. (reactivity, toxicity, Has variable chemical properties.
kindling temperature, etc.)
 Can be described only by a recipe.
Can be described by a formula.
(salad dressing = 3 parts oil, 1 part
(H2O, C12H22O11, etc.)
vinegar, etc.)

Are chemically combined so Are physically combined so that

that individual component individual components retain their
properties are "lost" in properties. (Oil and vinegar in the
compounds. (CuS is neither dressing can be detected by eye,
copper in color nor yellow.) nose, and tongue.)

Are chemically combined so Are physically combined so that

that components separate only components separate by low energy
on application of considerable processes. (mechanical sorting,
energy. (chemical reaction) filtering, boiling, freezing)

May be homogeneous (solutions) or

Are homogeneous and so heterogeneous (mechanical
exhibit one phase. (distinct zone mixture). If heterogeneous, it may
with uniform properties) have several phases, like salad
dressing.

Pure Substance vs Mixture

One can usually differentiate between pure substances and mixtures by asking the
question, "Does this substance come in more than one form (apart from solid, liquid, and
gas)?" If the answer is "yes," then the substance is generally a mixture. Ink, for instance,
can be purchased in various colours, viscosities (thick for ball-point pens, thin for
fountain pens), and peculiarities (washable).

Pause for a moment and consider the various forms of matter which you eat, drink,
breathe, wear, or otherwise use during a typical day. Are the majority of them pure
substances or mixtures? Do they come in more than one form? Is Vernon air as humid as
Vancouver's? Does tap water in Terrace taste like tap water in Trail?
Separating Pure Substances

Each pure substance within a mixture retains its own set of chemical and physical
properties. Knowledge of those properties can be used to separate and retrieve the pure
substances from a mixture.

An aqueous solution of silver nitrate is a mixture containing silver nitrate (AgNO 3) and
water.

Silver nitrate is an expensive chemical reagent because of the silver content. Describe
how to recover the silver nitrate from the solution.

FACT: Water boils at 100°C while silver nitrate doesn't even melt, but rather decomposes
at 140°C.

The information allows us to come up with following method of separation. Heat the
mixture up in a glass container until all the water boils away. The silver nitrate will be left
in the bottom of the container. Be careful not to let the temperature reach 140°C after all
the water has evaporated.

Solutions

Solutions differ from mechanical mixtures in that they are homogeneous rather than
heterogeneous. That is, each small part is exactly the same as any other. A spoonful of
whipped cream tastes the same no matter where you dip into the bowl.

Solutions consist of two parts, the solvent and the solute. The solvent is a chemical, such
as water or alcohol, which causes the dissolving. The solute is a chemical, such as salt or
iodine, which dissolves in the solvent. Normally, there is much more solvent than solute.
In ocean water, for instance, water is the solvent, and the various salts are the solutes.

This video gives a brief explanation of solution, solute and solvent.

Most solutions are made from a solid solute dissolved in a liquid solvent (salt in water).
However, there are many other types, such as a gas in a liquid, a liquid in a liquid, or
even a solid in a solid. The following table gives various possibilities and examples of
each.

Solvent Solute Example (solvent/solutes)

Gas Gas Air N2 (g) /O2 (g) , CO2 (g) , H2O (g)

Liquid Gas Carbonated beverages H2O (l) /CO2 (g)

Liquid Liquid Wine H2O (l) /C2H5OH (l)

 Liquid Solid Ocean water H2O (l) /NaCI (s) , MgF2 (s)

Solid Liquid Gold amalgam Au (s) /Hg (l)

Solid Solid Brass alloy Cu (s) /Zn (s)

As you can see, the solution category encompasses many possible combinations of
which solid solute in a liquid solvent is only one. Matter "as thin as air" and "as strong as
steel" qualify.

Note that alloys are simply solutions of metals and amalgams are solutions of mercury. In
some cases it is difficult to decide which is the solvent and which is the solute; for
instance, a 50-50 solution of alcohol and water.

Aqueous Solutions

Solutions in which the solvent is water are referred to as aqueous solutions. Aqueous
solutions can contain many different solutes and are by far the most common type of
solutions both in the regular world and chemistry.

NaCl(aq) - salt water is an example.

The aqueous or "aq" designation automatically indicates that the solute is dissolved in
water meaning water is the solvent.

Separation Techniques

Mixtures are combinations of two or more substances referred to as components. The

components of mixtures can be separated in a variety of different ways. Each method is
based upon a difference in a physical property that will allow a separation to occur.
These are:

 Mechanical Separation

 Settling

 Flotation

 Filtration

 Extraction

 Fractional Distillation

 Crystallization

 Chromatography

 Centrifugation
Mechanical Separation - One or more components ore picked out of the mixture either
manually or by use of a magnet for magnetic substances (iron, cobalt,nickel).

Settling - Some heterogeneous mixtures can be separated by letting one of the

components settle to the bottom. Spinning the mixture at high speed (centrifuging) may
be used to accelerate this process.

Centrifugation - In Centrifuges the centrifugal force is mechanically generated by

turning the equipment containing the fluid in a circular path causing the fluids to
separate.
Flotation - Oil, detergents, or other chemicals are added to the heterogeneous mixture
and air is blown through. The froth containing the desired component floats and is
skimmed off the surface. This technique is used to concentrate ores of zinc, copper,
nickel, and lead, and to separate bitumen (tar) from sand.

Filtration - A heterogeneous mixture, usually a solid in a liquid or gas, is passed through

a screen or filter. The solid is trapped and separated from the liquid or gas.

Extraction - The mixture is mixed with a solvent that dissolves one or more, but not all,
components. For example, table salt and sand can be separated by using water to
dissolve (extract) the salt.

Fractional Distillation - A liquid mixture is boiled and one or more components are
separated as they vaporize from the mixture at different temperatures.

Crystallization - A dissolved solid is separated from a solution by cooling or

concentrating the solution to crystallize the solid.

Chromatography - A mixture is carried by a solvent through a stationary, porous

medium such as a column of solids or a filter paper. Separation occurs because
components of the mixture move at different rates in the porous medium.

Solids, Liquids and Gases

There are four states of matter observable in every day life. Plasma you are unlikely to
come across other than if you look at the sun!

The other three are much more common and are discussed below.
Solids have the lowest potential energy of the three states. The particles in a solid are
strongly attracted to one another because the particles are held in a fairly rigid
arrangement; the solid keeps its shape. The fact that solids are practically
incompressible suggests that their particles are very closely packed. They are not free to
move from one point to another in the solid. However, they do vibrate in their positions
and this vibration is a form of kinetic energy.

If a solid is heated, its particles begin to vibrate more strongly. Eventually most solids
reach a point at which their particles overcome the strong attractive forces, and break
free from their fixed positions to become a liquid.

The particles of a liquid are held together by weak attractive forces. The fact that liquids
are slightly compressible indicates that there are small spaces between the particles.
The particles tend to remain together but are free to slide around each other and move
considerable distances. Liquids take the shape of the container they are held in. Such
movement from one point to another is called translation. At the same time, the liquid
particles are also vibrating as are the solid particles. When heated the particles translate
and vibrate more rapidly, until they overcome the weak attractive forces holding them
together and become a gas.

A gas expands to fill the container it is in. This suggests that the attractive forces acting
between its particles are very small or nonexistent. A gas is also easily compressed,
indicating that particles are widely separated. The particles vibrate and translate freely.
Since energy has been provided to break the attractive forces of both the solid and the
liquid phases, gases have the highest potential energy of the three states of matter.

The video below has a summary of the common states of matter and the names for the
transitions between them:

Heat and Temperature

There is often confusion over the terms heat and temperature. Although related, they are
not the same. Be sure to know the difference.

Heat is a measure of total kinetic energy

Temperature is the average kinetic energy of the molecules

This video uses simulations to explain the difference between temperature and heat
While temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules of a
substance, heat is a measure of their total kinetic energy. Consider two beakers of water
at the same temperature, one holding 250 mL and the other 500 mL. Since they are at
the same temperature, the average kinetic energy of the molecules is the same. But
because there are twice as many molecules in the larger beaker, there is twice as much
energy, that is, twice as much heat.

Heat is a measure of total kinetic energy

Heat is measured in joules (J) (rhymes with ¨fools¨). It takes about 4.2 J to raise the
temperature of one gram of water one degree Celsius. When a match burns, about 3400
J are released. Because a joule is a rather small amount of heat we often use the
kilojoule (kJ).

1 kJ = 1000 J

When a teaspoon of sugar burns it releases about 63 kJ (63 000 J).

The Change in heat (ΔH) of a substance undergoing a change is given by the

equation

ΔH = (mass)(ΔT)(specific heat capacity)

ΔT on its own describes the change in temperature.

The molecules of water, in a beaker of water at room temperature (about 20°C), are
moving around in a random way. Since they are moving, they have kinetic energy.
However, they do not all have the same kinetic energy. Some water molecules are
moving faster than others and so have more energy. Dividing the sum of the kinetic
energy of each molecule by the number of molecules, determines the average kinetic
energy of the molecules.

Temperature is the average kinetic energy of the molecules

Of course, the energy of each molecule is impossible to find. A thermometer indirectly

measures kinetic energy by measuring temperature. When a molecule of water strikes
the thermometer it transfers part of its kinetic energy to the atoms of mercury. This
causes the mercury atoms to move more rapidly and to occupy more space, and the
mercury in the thermometer rises. Some water molecules transfer more energy than
others, but the average amount of energy transferred registers as the temperature.
Kinetic Energy Distribution

Watch this video for a discussion of kinetic energy distribution:

The following figure shows the distribution of kinetic energy of the water molecules in a
beaker of water at 20°C.

At A, A very few molecules have very low kinetic energies.

At B the greatest number of molecules have the ¨average¨ kinetic energy. This is the
peak of the curve.

At C very few molecules have very high kinetic energies.

In order to escape the attractive forces of the liquid and become a gas, a molecule has to
have at least the kinetic energy at D.

Any molecules below this energy (to the left of D) remain as liquid.

The second diagram below shows the same beaker with the temperature raised to 50°C.

Notice that most molecules have higher kinetic energy's and that many more now have
sufficient energy to escape.

Note that not all molecules with the energy to escape and become gas actually do. For
one thing, they must be near the surface.
Changes of State

Observing a pot of water being heated on a stove shows that the temperature slowly
rises until the water starts to boil (at 100°C at sea level). The water will continue to boil
as long as energy from the stove continues to be available and until all the water has
evaporated. However, the temperature does not increase - it remains constant at the
temperature when the water first started boiling. Try this simple experiment if you can.

The fact that the temperature increased while the water was approaching the boiling
point shows that the water was absorbing energy and that this energy was being
transformed into kinetic energy of the water molecules, making them translate and
vibrate faster. Obviously, the water continued to absorb energy after it started to boil,
but the temperature does not keep rising. Since the kinetic energy is not increasing, the
potential energy must be increasing (by the Law of Conservation of Energy). In other
words, the potential energy of water in the gaseous state is greater than in the liquid
state.

The following figures show the changes in form and energy that occur as a substance, as
it changes from solid to liquid to gas. Note that during melting (or freezing) and boiling
(or condensing) there is no change in kinetic energy (temperature), but only a change in
potential energy.
 Remember

Kinetic Energy is the energy of movement

Potential Energy is the energy an object

has that can be changed to kinetic energy.

The General Heating Curve of a Substance

Study the following explanations of what happens during each section of the heating
curve.

Between points "A" and "B" -- As heat is added to the solid, its particles gain in kinetic
energy (vibration increases). There is also a small increase in potential energy due to the
expansion of the solid.

Between points "B" and "C" -- Melting Point (energy increasing) or Freezing
Point(energy decreasing) - Since there is no temperature change while the solid is
melting there is no change in the average kinetic energy. However, there is a
considerable increase in potential energy as the strong attractive forces in the solid are
overcome and the molecules move apart (from an increase in energy).

Between points "C" and "D" -- The molecules are increasing their average kinetic
energy (Translational motion is increasing.) There is a small increase in potential energy
as the liquid expands.

Between points "D" and "E" -- Boiling Point - There is no temperature change,
therefore no change in average kinetic energy However, there is a large increase in
potential energy as the forces of attraction are overcome and the particles separate with
large spaces between them.
Between points "E" and "F" -- The molecules' kinetic energy is increasing as the gas
warms. There is no increase in potential energy if the gas is confined, so the molecules
can't move any further apart.

As a liquid is heated, its temperature rises until it reaches the boiling point. The liquid
then gradually turns into a gas. Notice that the change is not sudden. As energy
continues to be added, one molecule after another acquires sufficient energy to change
from liquid to gas.

But, liquids do not have to be at the boiling point to change to gas. A dish of water on a
hot day will slowly evaporate without boiling. Its temperature probably never gets higher
than 20°C or 30°C. How is this possible? The answer lies in the fact that individual liquid
molecules have different kinetic energies.

If the temperature of a beaker of water is 20°C, the room temperature, not every
molecule of water is striking the thermometer with sufficient kinetic energy to register
20°C. Some molecules, through collisions with each other and the walls of the beaker,
have more kinetic energy and some are left with less. A few of the molecules gain
sufficient energy to overcome the attractive forces of the liquid phase and become
gaseous. In this way, the liquid evaporates even though it does not boil. (In fact, boiling
occurs only when the evaporation is so rapid that the liquid changes to a gas within the
liquid as well as at the surface, and forms bubbles of gas. The temperature at which a
liquid boils is completely dependent on the surrounding air pressure.

Chemical or Physical Change

All of the phase changes we have discussed in this unit are examples of Physical
Changes. It is important you are able to distinguish between a Physical Change and a
Chemical Change.

In deciding whether a change is physical or chemical the following guides are helpful.

Physical change:

1. observed without changing the chemical make up of the substance.

2. A change of state (solid, liquid, gas) is a physical change.

Chemical changes:

1. are changes that produce a new kind of matter with different properties

You can also ask yourself if the change is easily reversible or not.

For example it is easy to thaw an ice cube so freezing/thawing are physical changes

However it is very difficult to un-ripen a piece of fruit so ripening is a chemical change

Abbreviations used in chemical reactions:

 (s) - solid state

 (l) - liquid state

 (g) - gas state

 (aq) - aqueous, meaning "in water"

H2O(l) H2O(g) describes a physical change from one state to another (liquid to gas)

2 H2O(l) 2 H2(g) + O2(g) is a chemical change as new connections between atoms are
made when new chemicals form

Properties and Observations

It is important not to confuse intensive properties with extensive properties.

An intensive property is a property of matter that does not change as the amount of
matter changes, sometimes called a bulk property.

In contrast, an extensive property is a property of matter that changes as the amount of

matter changes.

It is also important not to confuse the term observation the term interpretation.

Observation of matter is the taking down of noticeable facts about the matter.
Interpretation of matter is making a conclusion about matter based on the observations.

Observations can either be qualitative (descriptive) or quantitative (measured).

Qualitative:

Observations of this nature do not involve using numerical measurements. For example:
chlorine gas is green, lead conducts electricity, the metal is easily scratched, and the
flame of a candle is yellow with a bluish center.
Quantitative:

Observations of this nature always involve a measurable amount using SI units. For
example: the starting mass of the salt was 2.56 grams, the candle burned for 5 minutes,
and the temperature ended up at 29.4°C.

Classification of Matter

A sample of matter can be categorized according to its properties. A sample of a

substance has a unique and identifiable set of properties.

Generally, there are two categories of matter: pure substances and mixtures. In
Chemistry 11, we mostly focus on the study of pure substances. The following chart
illustrates the “breakdown of matter”

Answer the following questions:

You may need to use some Internet sites to help you with your answers. Google.ca

1. Define lustre: Lustre describes the way light interacts with the surface of a crystal,
rock or mineral.

2. Define melting point: The melting point of a solid is the temperature at which it
changes state from solid to liquid.
 3. Define boiling point: The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which it
can change from a liquid to a gas.

4. Define freezing point: The freezing point of a liquid is the temperature at which it
can change from a liquid to a solid.

5. Define condensation: Condensation is the change of the physical state of matter

from gaseous phase into liquid phase

6. Define sublimation: Sublimation refers to the process of transition of a substance

from the solid phase to the gas phase without passing through an intermediate
liquid phase

7. Define deposition: Solidification is a phase change in which a liquid turns into a

solid when its temperature is lowered below its freezing point.

8. Define evaporation: Evaporation is the process by which water is converted from

its liquid form to its vapor form

9. What colour is iodine? Iodine is a non-metallic, dark gray/purple black solid

element.

10. What state of matter is bromine at 2° C? Bromine is a liquid at 2 o C.

11. What state of matter is sodium at 1000° C? Sodium is a gas at 1000 o C.

12. What is the density of silver? The density of silver is 10.5 g/cm 3

13. Which element has a melting point around 1083° C? Copper

14. Which element has a boiling point around -196° C? Nitrogen

15. Which element has a density of 1.55 g/cm3 ? Calcium

Matter Review

What name do we give to each of the following processes:

a) Ice cubes turn to water: Melting

b) Steam forms water droplets on a mirror: Condensation

c) Milk is made into ice milk: Freezing

d) Ice cubes shrink in a freezer: Sublimation (Note: This is actually sublimation if ice is
shrinking directly from solid to gas without turning into liquid first. Otherwise, it could be
due to sublimation if it's in a very dry environment.)

e) Perspiration "dries": Evaporation

f) Bromine is liquefied from solid bromine: Melting

Change in physical state during formation:

a) Rain: Condensing

b) Snow: Solidification (Snow forms through deposition, where water vapor directly
turns into solid ice crystals.)

c) Frost: Sublimation

d) Steam: Evaporation

Review the following terms. You should be able to define each and know the differences
between them where appropriate.

1. pure substance

2. mixture

3. element

4. compound

5. solution

6. suspension

7. homogeneous

8. heterogeneous

9. mechanical mixture

10. atom

11. molecule

4. Review the lessons and be able to describe the following methods of separation in
your own words. The first one is done for you.

 distillation - involves evaporation of a substance (usually a liquid) followed by the

condensation of its vapours. This method separates components of mixtures by
differences in their boiling points.

 fractional distillation

 mechanical

 settling

 floatation

 filtration

 extraction
  crystallization

 chromatography

https://www.sciencequiz.net/newjcscience/jcchemistry/septechniques/
septechniques1a_mcq.htm