Module 2: Fundamentals of Erosion and Runoff

Learning Objectives .................................................................................................... 2

2a. Erosion Defined ..................................................................................................... 3
Five stages of soil erosion ................................................................................................................... 6
Four factors influencing erosion ..................................................................................................... 11
2b. Stormwater Runoff ............................................................................................. 17
Runoff .................................................................................................................................................... 17
Water quality ....................................................................................................................................... 19
Quantifying erosion and sediment control .................................................................................. 20
2c. Principles of Erosion and Sediment Control .................................................... 22
Summary .................................................................................................................... 23
Knowledge Check Questions ................................................................................... 24

Module 2: Fundamentals of Erosion and Runoff

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Learning Objectives

At the end of this module, you will be able to:

• Define soil erosion

• Distinguish between accelerated erosion and geologic erosion

• Identify the five stages of erosion

• Discuss the four factors that influence erosion

• Describe how stormwater runoff can lead to erosion on construction sites

• Summarize the negative impacts of sediment in our waterways

• Discuss the principles of erosion and sediment control

Module 2: Learning Objectives

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2a. Erosion Defined

Soil erosion is the removal and transportation of soil particles by erosive forces, such as water,
wind, ice, and gravity. Erosion is an important contributor to landscape formation by wearing
away mountains; filling valleys; and creating sandbars, islands, and coastal plains. We refer to
this as geologic erosion (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Example of geologic erosion Figure 2: Example of accelerated erosion

Bryce Canyon (UT) With sediment deposition from a

construction site

NOTE

Geologic erosion accounts for 30% of total sediment production.

Accelerated erosion accounts for 70%.

Erosion is a natural process, but in many places, it is accelerated by human activities that
disturb the soil (Figure 2). For example, stream channels have been irreversibly changed
because of agricultural practices dating back to the 1800s and early 1900s. At that time,
forestland was cleared, leaving less vegetation to hold the soil in place. As a result, agricultural
sediment yields increased (Wolman and Shick, 1967). Sediment yields increased again in the
1960s when rural areas near cities became urbanized (Figure 3).

Module 2a: Erosion Defined

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Figure 3: Land-use history and sediment yield from the Potomac River Basin from the late
1700s to the 1960s, projected to approximately 2000 (from Wolman and Shick, 1967).

Module 2a: Erosion Defined

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Figure 4 shows the evolution of a stream channel through the agricultural period’s increase in
sediment and the widening that occurred because of increased urban runoff as present-day
major cities were established.

Figure 4: Floodplain stratigraphy observed by Jacobsen and Coleman, partitioned into three
defining periods of sedimentation (Modified from Jacobsen and Coleman, 1986).

Module 2a: Erosion Defined

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As discussed in Module 1, the amount of sediment that leaves a construction site is much higher
than other types of land-disturbing activities, largely due to the nature of the construction
process and methods used on a typical construction site. When a site is stripped of vegetative
groundcover and topsoil (Figure 5), the remaining sub-soil is more susceptible to erosion.

Figure 5: Typical construction site

Photo credit: DEQ

FIVE STAGES OF SOIL EROSION

There are five stages at which soil can erode, based on the amount of water carried across
denuded soil:

1. Raindrop impact

2. Sheet erosion

3. Rill erosion

4. Gully erosion

5. Channel erosion

Module 2a: Erosion Defined

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(1) Raindrop impact is the first effect of rain on the soil – dislodging soil particles and
splashing them into the air (Figure 6). The detached particles can be easily picked up by water
flowing over a site. Of the five types of erosion, raindrop erosion is the most significant in the
erosion process. Raindrop impact produces two damaging effects:

• The detachment of soil particles and

• Sealing of the soil’s surface.

NOTE

The action of falling rain

on disturbed or denuded
soil is responsible for
90% or more of total soil
erosion.

Figure 6: Raindrops impact the soil as little bombs.

The erosive capacity of rainfall comes from the energy of its motion, or kinetic energy.

The magnitude of this energy is dependent on the amount and intensity of rainfall,
raindrop diameter, and raindrop velocity.

All rain events contain drops of various sizes. In Virginia, the most erosive rains are
concentrated during the months of May through September because of their higher intensities,
larger raindrops, and shorter durations (Table 1 and Table 2). This is also when land
disturbance (construction) is typically most active. Precipitation in the winter generally falls
as a finer mist with much less energy, causing less erosion.

Module 2a: Erosion Defined

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 Table 1: Precipitation Amounts by Month (Richmond, VA)

Table 2: Rainfall Erosivity by Month

Module 2a: Erosion Defined

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Another damaging effect of raindrops is
the compacting, puddling, and sealing of
the soil surface. Repeated strikes churn
the surface into a slurry, which seals the
pore spaces in the soil, preventing water
infiltration. As they continue to pound the
land, raindrops will also compact the bare
soil, forming an almost complete seal.
Even on coarse sandy soil, this action
reduces the infiltration of water into the
soil and leads to increased erosion and Figure 7: Sediment-laden water and raindrop
impact are slowly sealing the soil across this
runoff.
construction site.

(2) Sheet erosion is the second stage of

erosion. The soil’s ability to infiltrate
water is exceeded, and water starts to run
across the surface of the soil (sheet flow).
Although sheet erosion seldom detaches
soil particles, the dislodged soil particles
are transported by sheet flow.

Figure 8: Example of sheet erosion

Sediment-laden water flowing across a roadbed

Module 2a: Erosion Defined

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(3) Rill erosion begins when shallow
sheet flow begins to concentrate in low
spots. As the flow changes from sheet flow
to deeper flow in these low areas, the
velocity and turbulence increase. The
energy of this concentrated flow detaches
and transports soil material, cutting tiny
channels, or rills, that are only a few
inches deep. At this stage, hand tools or
other surface treatments will easily repair
erosion damage.

Figure 9: Rill erosion can be easily repaired.

(4) Gully erosion occurs when rills

converge to form larger channels or
gullies. The major difference between
gully and rill erosion is size. Gullies are too
large to be restored with conventional
tillage equipment and usually require
heavy equipment to repair.

Figure 10: Gully erosion has larger, more difficult

to repair cuts than rill erosion.

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(5) Channel erosion can occur in two ways:

1. When gullies are not repaired in

time and large volumes of water
increase the size of the gully and

2. In existing streams or drainage ways

when the volume and velocity of
flow destroys the structural
integrity of streambeds and banks.

Typically, you can observe vertical sides and

downcutting of the receiving channel.
Figure 11: Channel erosion can have vertical
sides.

FOUR FACTORS INFLUENCING EROSION

The stages of erosion discussed above can all be correlated back to the four factors that
influence erosion:

1. Climate

2. Groundcover

3. Soil properties

4. Topography

(1) Climatic factors influencing erosion include precipitation type (rain, snow, etc.); rainfall
intensity and raindrop size; location; snowmelt; and temperature extremes (freezing, excessive
heat, etc.).

On page 7, we discussed how raindrops are responsible for 90% of the erosion that occurs on a
site and that summer storms are generally more intense and more erosive because of their
higher intensities and shorter durations (Table 2, Page 8).

A one-inch precipitation event will also vary in intensity depending upon location across the
state.

Module 2a: Erosion Defined

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(2) Groundcover is perhaps the most important factor in
reducing erosion. As discussed earlier in this chapter, the
size of raindrops and the speed by which they hit the soil are The most cost-effective and
protective measure in
among the most important factors influencing erosion. controlling erosion from a
Research has shown that erosion potential is directly site is to preserve existing
vegetation.
proportional to the amount of bare soil exposed to raindrop
impact. Groundcover, such as vegetation or mulches, slows
down the velocity of the raindrops by intercepting them on
leaves, branches, and stalks and by breaking them up into
smaller drops.

While vegetative cover is ideal, the use of any surface cover material, including mulch, blankets,
or matting, can reduce soil erosion by 90-99% (Table 3).

Table 3: Effectiveness of Various Groundcovers in Preventing Soil Erosion

This table compares fully established stands of groundcover with bare soil

Type of Groundcover Percent Reduction

Permanent grass 99

Perennial ryegrass 95

Annual ryegrass 90

Small grains 95

Millet or Sudan grass 95

Field bromegrass 97

Grass sod 99

Hay or straw (@2 tons/acre) 98

(3) Soil properties are also important factors when looking at the erodibility of a site. Key soil
properties include:

• Soil structure (soil particles adhere to each other)

• Soil texture (the size of the particles in the soil)

• Bulk density (how tightly those particles are packed together)

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 • Percentage of organic matter

• Infiltration rate (the speed by which water enters the soil)

• Permeability rate (the speed by which water moves through the soil)

Under similar climatic, topographic, and vegetative conditions, different soils may erode at
different rates. These differences in erosion rates can be tenfold and are caused by differences
in soil characteristics. The susceptibility of a particular soil to erosion is called its erodibility
factor, or K factor. In addition to susceptibility of the soil to erosion, the soil erodibility factor
(K) is used to represent the rate of runoff.

Soil properties used to develop a K factor include:

The higher the K factor value, the more susceptible the soil is to erosion.

Module 2a: Erosion Defined

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K factors can be grouped into three general ranges:

0.23 or lower: Low erodibility

0.24 – 0.36: Moderate erodibility

0.37 or higher: High erodibility

The K factor of a soil can be found in various sources, including a county soil survey and online
at the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) web soil survey
(https://websoilsurvey.sc.egov.usda.gov/App/HomePage.htm).

The NRCS has also developed a soil classification system that consists of four hydrologic soil
groups (HSG), identified as A, B, C, and D. Soils are classified into one of these categories based
upon their minimum infiltration rate. Soil characteristics associated with each HSG are
generally described as follows:

Group B:
Group A:
Moderately
Low runoff
low runoff
potential
potential

Group C:
Group D:
Moderately
High runoff
high runoff
potential
potential

Group A: Soils with low runoff potential due to high infiltration rates, even when thoroughly
wetted. These soils consist primarily of deep, well to excessively drained sands and gravels with
high water transmission rates (0.30 inches per hour or in/hr.). Group A soils include sand,
loamy sand, or sandy loam.

Group B: Soils with moderately low runoff potential due to moderate infiltration rates when
thoroughly wetted. These soils consist primarily of moderately deep to deep, and moderately
well to well-drained soils. Group B soils have moderate water transmission rates (0.15-0.30
in/hr.) and include silt loam or loam.

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Group C: Soils with moderately high runoff potential due to slow infiltration rates when
thoroughly wetted. These soils typically have a layer near the surface that impedes the
downward movement of water or soils. Group C soils have low water transmission rates (0.05-
0.15 in/hr.) and include sandy clay loam.

Group D: Soils with high runoff potential due to very slow infiltration rates. These soils consist
primarily of clays with high swelling potential, soils with permanently high water tables, soils
with a claypan or clay layer at or near the surface, and shallow soils over nearly impervious
parent material. Group D soils have very low water transmission rates (0-0.05 in/hr.) and
include clay loam, silty clay loam, sandy clay, silty clay, or clay.

Any disturbance of a soil profile can significantly alter the soil’s infiltration characteristics. With
urbanization, the hydrologic soil group for a given area can change due to soil mixing,
introduction of fill material from other areas, removal of material during mass grading
operations, or compaction from construction equipment. A layer of topsoil is typically saved
and replaced after the earthwork is completed, but the native underlying soils are dramatically
altered. Therefore, any disturbed soil should be classified by its physical characteristics as given
above for each soil group.

(4) Topographic features that influence site erodibility include slope grade, length, shape, and
orientation.

Slope steepness, or grade, influences erosion in two ways. First, water will flow faster as the
length and angle of a slope increase. Second, there is more “splash effect” on steeper slopes.

Table 4: Relationship between Slope Gradient and Erosion Hazard

Slope gradient Erosion hazard

0-7% Low
7-15% Moderate
15% & over High

Increasing slope length will increase the velocity of runoff, further increasing the potential for
erosion on disturbed soils. The primary topographic considerations for erosion potential
of a slope are its length and steepness. Table 5 provides the critical slope length for different
slope gradient ranges.

Module 2a: Erosion Defined

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Table 5: Slope Gradient and Length Thresholds When Erosion Hazard Becomes Critical

Slope gradient Slope length

0-7% 300 feet (100 meters)
7-15% 150 feet (50 meters)
15-25% 75 feet (25 meters)
25% & over 0 feet (0 meters)

The combination of slope length and steepness will create a point on the slope where water
volume and velocity will begin to form rills and gullies if adequate ESC practices are not used.

Slope shape also affects erosion potential.

Convex
Convex slopes are steeper at the lower end and tend Slow Slope
to be constructed.

Concave slopes flatten at the lower end and tend to Fast

be naturally occurring.

Erosion will be more likely on convex and less likely

Fast
on concave slopes than what would be expected if the Concave
effect were calculated based on an average grade. Slope
Slow

Slope orientation, or aspect, also affects erosion. South and southwest facing slopes are usually
warmer and drier because of sun exposure and exposure to warmer winds. Therefore, the
vegetation on these slopes may be sparse, and establishment of new vegetation on south and
southwest facing slopes is generally more difficult than northern slopes. Conversely, northern
slopes are cooler, less exposed to the sun, and usually hold more moisture; therefore, they have
different challenges in establishing vegetation.

Module 2a: Erosion Defined

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2b. Stormwater Runoff

Runoff occurs when the rate of rainfall exceeds the infiltration capacity of the soil. Runoff can
begin quickly after it starts raining. The quantity of runoff and erosive capacity of that runoff
depends on the amount of disturbance, groundcover, and capacity of soil to infiltrate water.
Runoff on the soil surface gains energy as it begins to run down slopes and moves faster across
impervious surfaces like compacted soils, roofs, driveways, sidewalks, and roads.

In the early stages of construction, the major potential for damage caused by stormwater runoff
is the ability of runoff to transport loose soil particles.

Sediment-laden stormwater runoff can lead to:

• Sediment deposition on land and in waterways,

• In-stream erosion, and

• Flooding, resulting in property damage.

Figures 12 and 13: Construction site erosion and runoff

Source: Chesapeake Bay Stormwater Training Partnership

Module 2b: Stormwater Runoff

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Runoff initially presents itself as sheet flow, a shallow layer of water flowing more or less
uniformly over the land. Sheet flow can effectively transport sediment particles kept in
suspension from the action of falling raindrops on a disturbed area.

Concentrated flow is a result of the depth of sheet flow and irregularities in the soil surface,
such as low spots, depressions, rocks, plant stems, and roots. Runoff concentrated in tiny rills
may then expand into larger gullies, acquiring more energy to detach and transport soil
particles. As the volume of water increases, the velocity and turbulence also increase, dislodging
additional soil particles. These suspended soil particles strike and abrade the soil’s surface and
channel beds like sandpaper, causing more soil particles to detach and mobilize, even further
increasing the abrasive force.

Concentrated
flow

Sheet flow Rill erosion

Sheet Gully erosion

erosion

Channel
erosion

Additionally, as slope length and steepness increase, the depth of runoff increases; hence, the
velocity also increases.

The energy of runoff is a function of The greater the energy of the runoff
slope gradient, slope length, and and/or the greater the water's
volume. turbulence, the more erosive it is.

Module 2b: Stormwater Runoff

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WATER QUALITY
Stormwater runoff that flows across polluted land surfaces, such as construction sites or
residential and/or commercial developments, is considered non-point source (NPS) pollution.
NPS pollution is the primary cause of pollution and water quality impairments in our
waterways.

Erosion from construction sites and other disturbed areas can potentially contribute large
amounts of sediment to streams. In addition to sediment, as stormwater runoff moves across
the land surface, it picks up many natural and human-made pollutants, before depositing them
into Virginia’s waters.

Excess sediment is also harmful for the following reasons:

• Sediment shades the lower layer of the waterway and weakens or kills the aquatic
vegetation, which oxygenate the water and serve as cover for young fish and other
aquatic organisms

• Sediment and contaminants in the water plug gills of fish and other aquatic organisms,
thus weakening and/or killing them or exert other toxic effects

• Sediment settles in waterways and smothers spawning beds, oyster reefs, crab habitats,
etc.

• Stocks of fish, oysters, and crabs decline and reduce the income of commercial
watermen and sports fishermen, thereby hurting the economy of the region

Virginia ranks stormwater runoff

as the second most prevalent
source of water quality
impairment in the state’s
estuaries. Agriculture is currently
ranked number one, which
follows the national trend.

Figure 14: A Sediment Plume Entering a River

Source: ARC (2001)

Module 2b: Stormwater Runoff

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QUANTIFYING EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency estimates that 20 to 150 tons of soil per acre are lost
every year to stormwater runoff from construction sites. Some of this sediment will settle onto
neighboring properties, but most of it will enter stream channels. A portion of the sediment will
settle into drinking water reservoirs while the remainder will be carried as far away from
Virginia as the Gulf of Mexico, via the Mississippi River. When this sediment fills up drinking
water reservoirs, the water is displaced, causing the reservoir to lose capacity (Figure 15),
becoming a concern in times of drought. The cost to treat the water before it reaches the faucet
is also increased. In addition, significant costs can be incurred to dredge the reservoir to return
it to full capacity.

Figure 15: Cross-sections on the left show that when sediment fills reservoirs, the capacity
remaining for water is greatly reduced, if not completely lost. (Columbia)

Sediment will also block shipping channels. As of May 2012, vessels carry 53% of U.S. imports
and 38% of exports (U.S. Department of Commerce, Merchandise Trade). Norfolk was the fifth
busiest port in the nation in 2013. In late 2017, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers awarded the
contract to deepen the final portion of the Delaware River by five feet, at a cost of $50.2 million.
The Delaware River Main Channel Deepening project has taken seven years to provide a deeper

Module 2b: Stormwater Runoff

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channel for more efficient transportation of cargo ships to and from the Delaware River ports.
Assuming the cost of each of the 10 portions dredged was $50 million, that’s $500 million to
deepen the river from Philadelphia to the Delaware Bay – about 43 river miles! Dredging costs
can also increase exponentially when it involves excavating contaminated or otherwise toxic
sediment because special handling and disposal procedures must be followed.

Figure 16: Cutter suction dredger Charleston prepared for maintenance dredging on the
upper Delaware River

Source: Norfolk Dredging Company, owner of the Charleston

Sediment accumulation is costly to remove, as well as creates safety hazards to vessels and the
public. The cost of these dredging operations will be passed on to the consumer at some point,
either directly by utility companies or indirectly through purchasing costs of the goods brought
through shipping channels. It pays to keep sediment on-site and out of our waterways.

Module 2b: Stormwater Runoff

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2c. Principles of Erosion and Sediment Control

The Virginia erosion programs target The two principles of erosion and
accelerated erosion. More specifically, as the sediment control work together to
accomplish the main goal of keeping
title of this section indicates, the programs
sediment on the site.
address:
If we can control erosion, we can
1. Erosion control effectively control sediment.

2. Sediment control

The order – erosion and sediment control – was chosen for a reason. Erosion control is often
considered a first line of defense. If we can control erosion, there is less sediment to be
managed by structural controls.

Sediment control is considered a second line of defense. It catches the sediment from areas
where erosion controls could not be installed or where they failed to work properly. Sediment
control is always necessary on land disturbance projects since, by definition, a site can never be
completely stabilized when land disturbance takes place.

Erosion control is generally less costly than installing sediment control measures and,
therefore, reduces the overall cost of the project. Even when structural controls are required,
minimizing erosion will greatly reduce the number of structures and associated maintenance,
which also reduces project costs.

Vegetative Erosion Control Structural Sediment Control

1st Line of Defense 2nd Line of Defense
Inexpensive Expensive
Easy to install Require maintenance

Module 2c: Principles of Erosion and Sediment Control

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Summary

As a plan reviewer, it is important to be able to:

• Identify why soil erosion occurs on construction sites and how to help mitigate it.

• Confirm an approved plan does not allow for unnecessary erosion and sedimentation
opportunities during construction by ensuring the plan embraces sound slope
construction.

• Explain to the regulated community how and why good erosion and sediment control
practices should be used to promote compliance with the erosion program and often
offer overall cost savings.

Module 2: Summary
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Knowledge Check Questions

1. Which stage of erosion accounts for the highest erosion percentage?

a. Rill

b. Raindrops

c. Sheet flow

d. Gully

2. In which month would precipitation intensity have the greatest impact on soil?

a. Oct.

b. July

c. Feb.

d. About the same

3. Vegetative controls are ________ costly than structural controls.

a. More

b. Less

Module 2: Knowledge Check Questions

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