Footings Geotechnical Engineering II (Module IV)

MODULE IV
Syllabus
Combined footings – Rectangular and Trapezoidal combined footings – Numerical problems
Raft foundations (Design concept only) – Allowable bearing capacity of Rafts on sand and clays –
Floating foundations.
Deep foundations – Elements of a well foundation – Problems encountered in well sinking – Methods
to rectify tilts and shifts
General consideration
The function of the foundation is to receive the load from the superstructure and transmit it to the soil
or rock below. The foundation system consists of the structural foundation and natural foundation. The
structural foundation may be a footing or a pile which forms part of the structure involving in
transmission of loads. Natural foundation is the soil which finally receives and bears the load. So there
are two phases for the foundation design. The structural foundation requires structural design and the
natural foundation requires geotechnical design. The aim of the geotechnical design is essentially to
arrive the plan dimensions of the foundation satisfying two independent requirements from the soil
side, viz., bearing capacity and settlement. The geotechnical design of the foundation means its
proportioning which means finalizing the plan dimensions on the basis of the design parameters
bearing capacity and settlement. So the design is limited to the determinations of depth of footing, area
of footing, soil pressure, shear force and bending moments.
1. COMBINED FOOTING
A combined footing supports two or more columns in a row. When the two columns are so close
that individual footing may overlap a combined footing is the choice. A combined footing is also
necessitated when one column is near to the property line so that a spread footing is not possible
without eccentric loading which is not desired. The shape may be rectangular or trapezoidal.
 In the conventional design, the combined footing is assumed to be infinitely rigid and the soil
pressure distribution to be planar. The elastic line method is more rational but quite involved.
In the elastic line method, the flexibility of the footing is considered.
 In the conventional design the footing is proportioned such that the center of gravity of the
footing lies on the line of action of the resultant of the column loads. The pressure distribution
then becomes uniform. So the design consists of selecting length and width of the footing such
that the centroid of the footing and the resultant of the column load coincide.

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Footings Geotechnical Engineering II (Module IV)

 A combined footing generally rectangular in plan if sufficient space is available beyond each
column. If one of the columns is near the property line, the rectangular footing can still be
provided if the interior column is relatively heavier. However, if the interior column is lighter, a
trapezoidal footing is required to keep the resultant of the column loads through the centroid of
the footing. Thus the resultant of the soil reaction is made to coincide with the resultant of the
column loads.
1.1 Rectangular Combined footings
The design of a combined footing consists of selecting length and width of the footing
such that the centroid of the footing and the resultant of the column loads coincide. With the
dimensions of the footing established, the shear force and bending moment diagrams are drawn. The
thickness of the footing is selected from the bending moment and shear stress considerations. The
footing is designed as a continuous beam by two colums in the longitudinal direction. The
reinforcement is provided as in a continuous beam.
Procedure:
The procedure for design of a rectangular combined footing
1. Determine the total column load
Q = Q1 + Q2
Where Q1 and Q2 are loads on exterior column and interior columns res.
2. Find base area of footing
A= Q/qna
Where qna is the allowable soil pressure
3. Locate the line of action of the resultant of the loads measured from one of the column, say the
exterior column center.
Q 2 x2
x=
Q
Where x2 is the distance between columns
4. Determine the total length of footing

L  2 ( x  b1/2) where b1 is width of the exterior column.

Where b1 is the width of the exterior column
5. Find the width of the footing.
B= A/L
6. Find qo based on actual L and B provided.
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Footings Geotechnical Engineering II (Module IV)

7. Draw the shear force and bending moment diagram along the length of the footing considering the
pressure qo. for convenience, the column loads are taken as concentric loads acting at the centres.

8. Determine the bending moments at the face of the columns and the maximum bending moment at
the point of zero shear.
9. Find the thickness of footing for the maximum bending moment.
Check for diagonal shear and punching shear, as in the case of isolated footing.
Check for bond at the point of contra flexure.
10. Determine the longitudinal reinforcement for the maximum bending moment.
For transverse reinforcement, assume a width of (b+d) to take all the bending moment in the short
direction
where b is the column side and d is the effective depth.
Problem 1
Design a rectangular combined footing for 2 columns (size 30 cm x 30 cm and 40cm x 40 cm) at a
distance of 5.0 m and carrying a load of 600 kN and 900 kN. The lighter column is near the property
line. Allowable soil pressure is 100 kN/m2.
Solution:
Q = 600+900 = 1500 kN.

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Footings Geotechnical Engineering II (Module IV)

Q2 x2 900 x5
x   3m
Q 1500
Q 1500
Area of footing A    15m 2
qna 100
b1 0.3
Length L  2 ( x  )  2(3.0  )  6.30m
2 2
A 15
Width B    2.38 say, 2.40m
L 6.3
Q 1500
design bearing pressure qo    99.2kN/m 2
Ao 6.3 x 2.4
Total load per meter run  99.2 x 2.4  238.08 kN/m
From the shear force diagram
Shear force and bending moments are as shown in the sketches.
564.29
From the S.F diagram Point of zero shear  x5.0  2.37
564.29  626.21
238 .08 x(2.37  0.15) 2
Maximum B.M  600 x 2.37   666 .02 kNm
2

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Footings Geotechnical Engineering II (Module IV)

1.2 Trapezoidal Combined footing

Trapezoidal combined footings are provided to avoid eccentricity of loading with
respect to the base, as already mentioned. Trapezoidal footings are required when the space outside the
exterior column is limited and the exterior column carries heavier load.
Procedure:
The design procedure consists of the following steps:
1. Determine the total column load
Q = Q1 + Q2
where Q1 and Q2 are loads on exterior column and interior columns res.
2. Find base area of footing
A= Q/qna
3. Locate the line of action of the resultant of the column loads (measured from say the exterior
column center.)
Q 2 x2
x =
Q

4. Determine the distance x’ of the resultant from the outer face of the exterior column.
x’ = x + b1/2
A trapezoidal footing is required if L/3 <X’< L/2
where L is the length of the trapezoidal footing.
If X’ = L/2, a rectangular footing is provided.

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Footings Geotechnical Engineering II (Module IV)

If X’ is < L/3 , acombined footing cannot be provided. In such a case, a strap footing is preferred.
5. Determine the widths B1 and B 2 from the following relations.
B1  B2
x L  A ............1
2
B2 L2 (B1  B2 )L2 BL B L
 B2 L  1  2
x  2 2x3  3 3 
(B1  B2 ) B1  B2
L
2
L  B1  2 B2 
x    .........2
3  B1  B2 
solving the above equations 1 & 2
2A  3x'  2A
B2   - 1  and B1   B2
L  L  L
6. Find qo based on actual L and B provided.
7. Draw the shear force and bending moment diagram along the length of the footing considering the
pressure qo.
8. Determine the bending moments at the face of the columns and the maximum bending moment at
the point of zero shear.
9. Find the thickness of footing for the maximum bending moment.

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Footings Geotechnical Engineering II (Module IV)

Problem 2
Design a trapezoidal combined footing for two columns of size 50cmx 50 cm carrying loads 2000kN
and 1500kN. Take the allowable bearing pressure as 200 kN/m2. The c/c of columns is 6.0 m and
Length of footing is 6.5 m

Q  2000  1500  3500 kN

3500
Area o footing   17.5 m 2 , L  6.5 m
200
Q x 1500 x2
x 2 2   2.57 m
Q 3500
b 50
x  x   2.57   2.82 m
2 2
L 6 .5 L 6 .5
  3.25 and   2.17
2 2 3 3
2.17  x  3.25
Trapizoida l footing is required
2A  3 x  2 x 17.5  3 x 2.82 
B2    1    1  1.62 m
L  L  6.5  6.5 
2A 2 x 17.5
B1   B2   1.62  3.76 m
L 6.5
Provide B1  3.80 m and B2  1.65 m
3500
qo   197 .6 kN/m 2
 3.8  1.65 
  x 6 .5
 2 
Pressure intensity at left edge  3.8 x 197.6  750 kN/m
Pressure intensity at right edge  1.65 x 197.6  326 kN/m
The loading diagram, S.f diagram and B.M digram are as shown in fig.

(750 - 326) x
Intensity of pressure at distance x from right edge  326   326  65.2 x
6.5
65.2 x 2
Shear force at x  1500  326 x  0
2
x  3.43 m
Intensity of pressure at x  326  65.2x 3.43  223.64 kN/m
3.432 223 .64 x3.43 2
B.M at x ffrom right edge  Max.B.M  326 x   1500 (3.43  0.25)  2413 .8 kNm
2 2 x3

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Footings Geotechnical Engineering II (Module IV)

Problem 4
Design a trapezoidal combined footing for 2 columns (size 20 cm x 20 cm) carrying loads of 0.8 MN
and 0.6 MN. If the spacing between columns is 4.0 m and allowable bearing pressure is 250kN/m2 and
length of footing is 5.0 m.

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Q  800  600  1400 kN

1400
Area o footing   5.6 m 2 , L  5.0 m
250
Providing no offset for left footing
Q 2 x2 800 x 4
x   2.29 m
Q 1400
b 20
x  x   2.29   2.39 m
2 2
2A  3 x  2 x5.6  3 x 2.39 
B2    1    1  0.97 m
L  L  5.0  5.0 
2A 2 x 5.6
B1   B2   0.97  1.27 m
L 5.0
Provide B1  1.30 m and B2  1.00 m
1400
qo   243.47kN/m 2
 1.3  1.00 
  x 5 .0
 2 
Pressure intensity at left edge  1.3 x 243.47  316.51 kN/m
Pressure intensity at right edge  1.00 x 243.47  243 .47 kN/m
The loading diagram, S.f diagram and B.M digram are as shown in fig.
(316.51 - 243.47) x
Intensity of pressure at distance x from right edge  243.47   243 .47  14.61x
5.0
14.61x 2
Shear force at x  800  243 .47 x  0
2
x
Intensity of pressure at x  kN/m
x 2 xx 2
B.M at x ffrom right edge  Max.B.M  243 .47 x   1500 (3.43  0.25)  2413 .8 kNm
2 2 x3

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Footings Geotechnical Engineering II (Module IV)

2. RAFT OR MAT FOUNDATION

It is a large slab supporting several columns or walls under the entire structure or a large part
of the structure. A raft is required when the allowable bearing pressure is low or when the columns or
walls are close so that individual footing is not feasible. Raft foundations are useful in reducing
differential settlements in non homogeneous soil or when the load on columns varies considerably
A mat or raft is a thick reinforced concrete slab which supports all the load bearing walls and
column loads of a structure or a large portion of the structure. A mat foundation is provided when the
loads are heavy and the soil is very weak and highly compressible. A mat is more economical than
individual footings when the area of footings exceeds about one half of the total area of the structure.

A mat is preferred to individual footings when the soil mass has very erratic properties and
contains lenses of compressible soils. . In such a case it will be difficult to control differential
settlements if individual footings are provided. The mat spans over weak patches of the soil and thus
the differential settlements are considerably reduced.

Like all other shallow foundations, a mat must be safe against shear failure and the settlements
should be within the allowable limits. As the width of the raft is very large, the pressure bulb is quite
deep. Thus the loose soil packets under the raft may be more evenly distributed. This results in a
smaller differential settlement than individual footings.

As rafts are generally at some depth below the ground surface, a large volume of soil is
excavated and therefore, the net pressure on the soil is considerably reduced. An advantage of this
reduction in the pressure can be taken while designing a raft.
2.1 Different types of raft foundation.
1. Flat plate type. It consists of a mat of uniform thickness. This type is most suitable when the
column loads are relatively small and uniform.
2. Flat plate thickened under columns. When the column loads are heavy, this type is more
suitable than the flat plate type. A portion of slab under column is thickened to provide enough
thickness for negative bending moments and diagonal shear.
3. Flat plate with pedestal under each column. Sometimes instead of thickening the slab a
pedestal is provided under each column above the slab to increase the thickness.
4. Beam and slab construction. In this type of construction the beams run in two mutually
perpendicular directions and a slab is provided between the beams. The columns are located at
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the intersection of beams. This type is suitable when the bending stresses are high because of
large column spacing and unequal column loads.
5. Box structures. In this type a box structure is provided in which the basement walls act as
stiffeners for the mat. This type of raft foundation can resist very high bending stresses.
6. Mats placed on piles. The mat is supported on piles and this type is used where the soil is
highly compressible and the water table is high. This type of construction controls buoyancy
and reduces settlement.
2.2 Design methods for raft foundations
1. Rigid Beam Method
In this method of design, the slab is considered to be infinitely rigid as compared with the
subsoil. The flexural deflections deflections of the mat in this case do not influence the contact
pressure distribution acting on the mat. The pressure distribution is assumed to be planar. The
centroid of the pressure coincides with the line of action of the resultant of all the loads acting on
the mat. This method is also known as conventional method of design.
2. Simplified Elastic Method
This method is based on the assumption that the soil behaves like an infinite number of
individual independent elastic springs. The springs are assumed to take tension as well as
compression. The assumption was first introduced by Winkler and the model is known as
Winkler’s model. The method takes into account the elasticity of the footing. But the soil does not
behave exactly according to the assumptions made, the method is approximate one and is a
simplification of the actual soil behavior.
3. Elastic Method
In this method of design, the soil is considered as a homogeneous, linearly elastic half space.
The method uses the solutions provided by the theory of elasticity. As actual soil do not behave as
linearly elastic solids, this method also gives approximate solutions. The method is complicated
and rarely used in a design office.
4. Non-linear Elastic Method
The soil is considered to be a non-linearly elastic solid. The method represents the behavior of
actual soil more closely than the elastic method and is more accurate. Numerical techniques, such
as finite element method, are required for the design. The method has not developed to a stage that
this can be used in a design office.

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2.3 Conventional design of Raft Foundations

In the conventional design method, raft is assumed to be infinitely rigid and the pressure
distribution is taken as planar(linearly varying). The assumption is valid when the raft rests on a soft
clay which is highly compressible, and the eccentricity of the load is small. In case when the soil is
stiff or when the eccentricity is large, the method does not give accurate results.
Procedure:
The procedure for the conventional design consists of the following steps:
1. Determine the line of action of all the loads acting on the raft. The self weight of the raft is not
considered as it is taken directly by the soil.
2. Determine the contact pressure distribution as under.
(a) If the resultant pressure passes through the center of the raft the contact pressure is
q = Q/A
(b) If the resultant has an eccentricity of ex and ey in x-and y-directions
Q Q.ex Q.ey
q  x y.
A Iyy Ixx
The maximum contact pressure should be less than the allowable soil pressure.

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Footings Geotechnical Engineering II (Module IV)

3. Divide the slab into strips (bands) in x-and y-directions. Each strip is assumed to act as
independent beam subjected to the contact pressure and the column loads.
4. Draw the shear force and bending moment diagram for each strip.
5. Determine the modified column loads as explained below.
Consider the strip carrying column loads Q1, Q2 and Q3 . Let B1 be the width of the strip. Let the
average soil pressure on the strip be qav. Let B is the length of the strip.
Average load on the strip Q av = 1/2 (downward load + upward force)
Q av =( ½) (Q1+Q2+Q3 +qav B1 B)
The modified average soil pressure is given by
Q av
q  qav ( )
qavB1B
Qav
The column load modification factor (F)is given by F 
Q1  Q2  Q3
All the column loads are multiplied by F for the strip. For this strip, the column loads are FQ1, FQ2 and
FQ3.
6. The bending moment and shear force diagrams are drawn for the modified column loads modified

average soil pressure ( qav )

7. Design the individual strips for the bending moment and shear force found in step 6. The raft is
designed as an inverted floor supported at columns.
As the analysis is approximate the actual reinforcement provided is twice the computed value.
Problem
The plan of a mat foundation with 9 columns are as shown. Assuming that the mat is rigid determine
the soil pressure distribution. All the columns are of size 0.6m x 0.6 m. Draw the shear force and
bending moment diagram for the strip ABFE.
Solution:
Total load Q = 400+500+300+1500+2000+1200+500+600+400=7400 kN
Taking moments about the face AD,

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Footings Geotechnical Engineering II (Module IV)

(400  1500  500 ) x0.3  500  2000  6600 )6.3  300  122  400 ) x12.3
x  5.89 m
7400
12.6
ex   5.89  0.41()
2
Taking moments about the face AB,
500  600  400 ) x0.3  1500  2000  1200 ) x8.3  (400  500  300 ) x16.3
y  7.98 m
7400
16.6
e y  xx  7.98  0.32()
2
Q Q.ex Q.ey 7400 7400xo.41x x 7400xo.32x y
q  x y    35.4 - 11x - 0.5y
A I yy I xx 12.6 x16.6 1 1
x16.6x12.6 3 x16.6 3 x12.6
12 12
Pressure at point A ( x  6.3, y  8.3) q A  35.4  11.1(-6.3) - (0.5)(-8.3 )  46.4 kN/m 2

Pressure at point B ( x  6.3, y  8.3) q B  35.4  11.1(6.3) - (0.5)(-8.3 )  32.6kN/m 2

Pressure at point A ( x  6.3, y  8.3) q C  35.4  11.1(6.3) - (0.5)(8.3)  24.4 kN/m 2
Pressure at point A ( x  6.3, y  8.3) q D  35.4  11.1(-6.3) - (0.5)(8.3)  38.2kN/m 2
46.4  32.6
For strip ABFE, q av   39.5 kN/m 2
2
1
Qav  [(500  600  400 )  39.5(12.6 x 4.3)  1820 kN
2
 Q av   1820 
q av        33.6 kN/m
2

 av 1  
q B B 12 . 6 x4.3 
Q av 1820
F   1.21
Q1  Q 2  Q3 500  600  400
Fig shows the modified column loads
FQ1  605 kN, FQ2  726 kN, FQ3  484 kN
Pressure intensity per metre  33.6 x 4.3  144.5 kN/m
S.F at section X - X at a distance x from the edge AE
Fs  605  144 .5 x
605
Point of zero shear   4.18 m
144.5
4.182
B.M at 44.18 m  605x(4.18 - 0.3) - 144.5x  1085 .4 kNm
2

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3. FULLY COMPENSATED OR FLOATING FOUNDATION

Floating foundations are also known by other names such as ‘Deep Cellular Rafts’, ‘Buoyancy
rafts’ and Compensated foundations. Floating foundations are the types of foundations which are fully
compensated to which an amount is excavated from below the foundation of soil equal to the weight of
the building and a basement raft or floating raft is provided to the structure. The weight of excavated
earth fully compensates the weight of the building.
Foundations can also be designed as partially compensated if the amount of excavation from
below the foundation of soil is not equal to the weight of the building and a basement raft or floating
raft is called partially floating foundation. The weight of excavated earth does not fully compensate the
weight of building.
A floating foundation for a building is defined as a foundation in which the weight of the
building is approximately equal to the full weight including water of the soil removed from the site of
the building. This principle of flotation may be explained with reference to Figure. Figure (a) shows a
horizontal ground surface with a horizontal water table at a depth dw below the ground surface. Fig.
(b) shows an excavation made in the ground to a depth D where D > dw, and Fig. (c) shows a structure
built in the excavation and completely filling it. If the weight of the building is equal to the weight of
the soil and water removed from the excavation, then it is evident that the total vertical pressure in the
soil below depth D in Fig. (c) is the same as in Fig. (a) before excavation. Since the water level has not
changed, the neutral pressure and the effective pressure are therefore unchanged. Since settlements are
caused by an increase in effective vertical pressure, if we could move from Fig. (a) to Fig. (c) without
the intermediate case of (b), the building in Fig. (c) would not settle at all.
This is the principle of a floating foundation, an exact balance of weight removed against
weight imposed. The result is zero settlement of the building.
However, it may be noted, that we cannot jump from the stage shown in Fig. (a) to the stage in
Fig. (c) without passing through stage (b). The excavation stage of the building is the critical stage.
Cases may arise where we cannot have a fully floating foundation. The foundations of this type are
sometimes called partly compensated foundations (as against fully compensated or fully floating
foundations). While dealing with floating foundations, we have to consider the following two types of
soils. They are:
Type 1: The foundation soils are of such a strength that shear failure of soil will not occur under the
building load but the settlements and particularly differential settlements, will be too large and will

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constitute failure of the structure. A floating foundation is used to reduce settlements to an acceptable
value.

Type 2: The shear strength of the foundation soil is so low that rupture of the soil would occur if the
building were to be founded at ground level. In the absence of a strong layer at a reasonable depth, the
building can only be built on a floating foundation which reduces the shear stresses to an acceptable
value. Solving this problem solves the settlement problem.
In both the cases, a rigid raft or box type of foundation is required for the floating foundation Fig. (d)
Problems to be Considered in the Design of a Floating Foundation
The following problems are to be considered during the design and construction stage of a
floating foundation.
1. Excavation
The excavation for the foundation has to be done with care. The sides of the excavation should
suitably be supported by sheet piling, soldier piles and timber or some other standard method.

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2. Dewatering
Dewatering will be necessary when excavation has to be taken below the water table level.
Care has to be taken to see that the adjoining structures are not affected due to the lowering of the
water table.
3. Critical depth
In Type 2 foundations the shear strength of the soil is low and there is a theoretical limit to the
depth to which an excavation can be made. Terzaghi (1943) has proposed the following equation for
computing the critical depth Dc,

for an excavation which is long compared to its width

where γ = unit weight of soil, s = shear strength of soil = qu/2,
B = width of foundation, L = length of foundation.
4. Bottom heave
Excavation for foundations reduces the pressure in the soil below the founding depth which
results in the heaving of the bottom of the excavation. Any heave which occurs will be reversed and
appear as settlement during the construction of the foundation and the building. Though heaving of the
bottom of the excavation cannot be avoided it can be minimized to a certain extent. There are three
possible causes of heave:
1. Elastic movement of the soil as the existing overburden pressure is removed.
2. A gradual swelling of soil due to the intake of water if there is some delay for placing the
foundation on the excavated bottom of the foundation.
3. Plastic inward movement of the surrounding soil.
The last movement of the soil can be avoided by providing proper lateral support to the
excavated sides of the trench.
Heaving can be minimized by phasing out excavation in narrow trenches and placing the
foundation soon after excavation. It can be minimized by lowering the water table during the
excavation process. Friction piles can also be used to minimize the heave. The piles are driven either
before excavation commences or when the excavation is at half depth and the pile tops are pushed
down to below foundation level. As excavation proceeds, the soil starts to expand but this movement is

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resisted by the upper part of the piles which go into tension. This heave is prevented or very much
reduced.
It is only a practical and pragmatic approach that would lead to a safe and sound settlement free
floating (or partly floating) foundation.

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Caissons
A caisson is a type of foundation of the shape of a hollow prismatic box which is built above the
ground level and sunk to the required depth as a single unit. It is a water tight chamber used for laying
foundations under water as in rivers lakes, harbors etc. The caissons are of three types
 Open caissons
 Pneumatic caissons
 Floating caissons
Open caissons
Open caissons are hollow chambers open both at top and bottom. The bottom of the caisson has a
cutting edge. The caisson is sunk into place by removing the soil from the inside of the chamber until
the bearing stratum is reached. Well foundations are special type of open caissons used in India. The
vertical loads acting on the caissons are the loads from the superstructure and the self weight. The
buoyant forces should be determined for the lowest water level and deducted from the vertical
downward loads. The lateral forces acting are due to the earth pressure, wind loads, water pressure and
earthquake loads. The total load is assumed to be carried by the base of the caisson. A caisson may
also be subjected to large stresses during sinking operations.

Pneumatic caissons
If the soil enclosed in an open caisson cannot be excavated satisfactorily through its shaft during
sinking operations, a pneumatic caisson is required. This condition occurs when the soil flows into the

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caisson faster than it can be removed. A pneumatic caisson is also used when there is a great influx of
water or if difficult obstructions are anticipated during sinking. Pneumatic caissons are suitable in soft
running soils which cannot be excavated in dry or where there is a greater danger of scour and erosion.
In the pneumatic caisson there is a working chamber made of mild steel about 3 m high with a strong
roof at the top. The air in the chamber is kept at a specified pressure to prevent water or soil to enter.
An air shaft connects the working chamber to an air lock at the top. The air lock is a steel chamber
above water level. Like open caissons pneumatic caissons may be constructed at the site or floated and
lowered from barges.

The advantages of pneumatic caissons are

1. As there is access to the bottom obstructions can be easily removed.
2. Soil can be inspected and if required samples can be collected.
3. In-situ test can be conducted to determine the soil bearing capacity.
4. Excavation and placing of concrete can be done in the dry
5. There is no flow of soil into excavated area. There is no settlement of adjoining structures
as the water table is not lowered.
The disadvantages are
1. Highly expensive.
2. Penetration depth is limited to 30 to 40 m.
3. Working under high pressure causes health problems.

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4. Large amount of manual work is needed.

5. Extreme care is required.
Floating caissons
Floating caissons are large hollow boxes with top opened but bottom closed. These are floated to the
place where they are to be installed. The caissons are then sunk by filling with ballast such as sand dry
concrete or gravel. A concrete cap is cast at the top. A floating caisson does not penetrate the soil.
Floating caissons are constructed of RCC or steel.

The advantages of floating caissons are

1. Installation is quick and convenient.
2. Quality of construction can be maintained being precast.
3. Less expensive than open or pneumatic caissons.
4. Can be transported by floating ar relatively low cost.
The disadvantages are
1. Load carrying capacity is much lower.
2. Foundation has to be leveled before installation
3. The base is to be protected from scouring.
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Well Foundation
A well foundation is similar to an open caisson. Fig shows the cross section of a well
foundation
A strong cutting edge is provided to facilitate sinking. The tapered portion above the cutting
edge is the curb. The wall of the well is known as steining. Steining is usually made of plain or
reinforce concrete. The steining shall be properly designed to withstand the load as well as the
resistance during sinking. After the well has been sunk to the final position the bottom plug is formed
by concreting. Sand filling is done in the chamber and a concrete plug is provided at the top. An RCC
well cap is provided to transmit the load of the superstructure to the well.

WELL-CAP
It is a RCC slab laid at the top of the well steining to transmit the loads and moments from the
pier to the well or wells below. Shape of well cap is same as that of well with a possible overhand of
150 mm all-around to accommodate lengthy piers. It is designed as a two-way slab with partial fixedity
at supports. The top of the well cap is usually kept at the bed level in case of rivers with seasonal flow
or at about the low water level in case of perennial rivers. Thickness of well cap is usually
between 1500 mm to 2000 mm.
STEINING
It is the main body of the well which transfers load to the base of the foundation. Steining is
normally of reinforced concrete. Minimum grade of concrete used in steining is M20 with cement

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content not less than 310 kg/m3. To facilitate well sinking an off-set of 75 mm to 100 mm is provided
in well steining at its junction with the well curb
WELL CURB
It is the wedge shaped RCC ring beam located at the lower portion of the well steining
provided to facilitate sinking. Well curb carries cutting edge for the well and is made up of reinforced
concrete using controlled concrete of grade M25. The cutting edge usually consists of a mild steel
equal angle of side 150 mm. In case blasting in anticipated, the outer face of the well curb should be
protected with 6 mm thick steel plate and the inner face should have 10 mm thick plate up to the top of
the curb and 6 mm plate further up to a height of 3 m above the top of the curb.
4. BOTTOM PLUG
After the well is sunk to the required depth, the base of the well is plugged with concrete. This
is called the bottom plug. It acts like an inverted dome supported by the steining on all the sides and
transmits the load to the subsoil and acts as a raft against soil pressure from below. Minimum grade of
concrete used in bottom plug is M15.
TOP PLUG
The top plug is an unreinforced concrete plug, generally provided with a thickness of about 600
mm beneath the well cap to transmit the loads from the pier to the steining. Minimum grade of
concrete used in top plug is M15.
The space inside the well between the bottom of the top plug and the top of bottom plug is usually
filled with clean sand, so that the stability of the well against overturning is increased. While this
practice is good in case of wells resting on sand or rock, the desirability of sand filling for wells resting
on clayey strata is doubtful, as this increases the load on the foundation and may lead to greater
settlement. In the latter case, the sand filling is done only for the part of well up to scour level, and
remaining portion is left free.
6. INTERMEDIATE PLUG
As discussed above, for wells resting on clayey strata, it is not preferable to fill the space inside
the well completely with sand. In such cases, sand filling is not done or sand is filled up to the scour
level. A concrete plug covering the filling is usually provided, known as intermediate plug. Usually,
thickness of intermediate plug is taken as 500 mm.
Different shapes of well.
Circular. This is the most common type as it has high structural strength and is convenient to sink. The
chances of tilting is also minimum. How ever when the piers are long they become uneconomical.
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Double -D wells. They are used when the piers and abutments of bridges are long. This shape also can
be sunk easily.
Double octagonal wells. Are better than double D wells since the square corners are eliminated and
bending stresses are reduced. However the increased surface area makes resistance to sinking more.
The construction is also more difficult.

Twin circular. Two independent wells are placed close to each other. The wells are sunk
simultaneously. Advantageous when the depth is small and bearing capacity of the soil is high.
Rectangular wells. They are used or bridge foundations 7 to 8 m depth. Double rectangular and multi
rectangular wells are also used. The bending stresses is high in these wells.
The depth of well foundation should be chosen considering the grip length and the bearing capacity of
the soil.
Forces acting on a well foundation
 Dead loads
 Live loads
 Impact loads
 Wind loads
 Water pressure
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 Longitudinal forces due to tractive and breaking forces.

 Centrifugal forces
 Buoyant forces
 Earth pressure
 Temperature stresses
 Seismic forces
Sinking of wells
The sinking operation consists of the following steps
1. Laying the well curb. If the river bed is dry the cutting edge over which the well curb is to be cast
is placed after levelling the ground with a 15 cm cutting for levelling. If the depth is upto 5 m an
earthen or sand island is formed and curb cast over it(fig 1). If the depth is more than 5 m it is
economic to cast the curb on the bank in firm ground and float it to the site. After erecting the
shuttering and placing the reinforcement the curb is cast. The concrete is allowed to set at least for
one week.
2. Well steining. After sinking the well curb, the steining is raised by about 1.5 m at a time and its
sinking done after curing. Once the steining has attained a depth of 6 m in ground, the steining can
be raised by 3 m at a time.
3. Sinking process. Sinking process is begun after having cast the curb and the first stage of steining
and allowing enough time for curing. The well is sunk by excavating material from inside the curb
manually or mechanically. When the depth is up to 1 m manual dredging can be done. After that
excavation is done with the help of "jham' which is a type of spade. Every time a diver dives and
pushes the jham into the soil and come up. The jham is then pulled out. In an improved version the
jham has been replaced by an automatic grab operated by diesel winches. Straight chisels are used
for breaking hard material. Under cutting chisels are used for to loosen the material which lies
under the steining. As the well sinks the friction on the sides increases. To accelerate the process of
sinking additional loading known as kentledge (fig. 2) is applied on the well. Kentledge is
generally in the form of sand bags placed on a suitable platform.

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Precautions to be taken to avoid tilts and shifts

During sinking sometimes the well tilts on one side or it shifts away from the desired position. The
precautions to be taken to avoid tilts and shifts are
 The outer surface of the well curb and steining should be regular and smooth.
 The diameter of the curb is kept about 4 to 8 cm larger than the outer diameter of steining and
the well should be symmetrically placed.
 The cutting edge should be of uniform thickness and sharpness.
 Dredging should be done uniformly on all sides in a circular well and in both pockets of a twin
well
Tilts and shifts should be properly recorded. Tilt should be generally limited to 1 in 60. The
shift should be restricted to one percent of the depth sunk.
MEASURES FOR RECTIFICATION OF TILTS AND SHIFTS
In case l tilts and shifts exceeds the permissible limits the following measures are taken for their
rectification.
1. Regulation of Grabbing. To rectify the tilt the higher side is grabbed more by regulating the
dredging. This is possible in the initial stages of sinking. In case of tilted wells dredging does not
work satisfactorily and in such a case a hole is made in the steining on the higher side and the
rope of the grab is pulled through the hook.

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2. Eccentric loading. (fig.2) To provide greater sinking effort on the higher side eccentric loading is
applied by adjusting the kentledge. A suitable platform is constructed on the higher side for this
purpose.

3. Water jetting. If water jets are applied on the outer face of the well on the higher side the side
friction is reduced and the tilt is rectified.

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4. Excavation under the cutting edge. A tilted well in a hard clayey stratum does not straighten due
to unbroken hard stratum on the higher side. If dewatering is not possible divers can be send to
loosen the strata.

5. Inserting wooden sleeper under the cutting edge. (fig. 5a and 5b). Sometimes wooden sleepers are
inserted temporarily below the cutting edge on the rear side to avoid further tilt.

6. Pulling the well. (fig.6) In early stages of the sinking, pulling the well towards the higher side by
using one or more wire ropes is effective.

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7. Strutting the well.(fig.7) The well is strutted on its tilted side with suitable logs of wood to prevent
further tilt. The other ends of the strut rests with a firm and non- yielding base having driven piles.

8. Pushing the well by jacks.(fig.8) The tilt can be rectified by pushing the well with a suitable
arrangement through mechanical or hydraulic jacks.

In actual practice combinations of two or more of the above methods is generally used.
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