AN INTRODUCTION TO

CONTROL VALVE

2nd May 2002

 TOPICS COVERED

 Types of Valves
 Details of Globe Valves
 Valve Body and Material Selection
 Required Information from x-y-z
 Valve Specification
 Sizing Steps
 Valve Characteristics
 TOPICS COVERED

 Valve Behavior Under Different

Liquid Phenomena
 Terminology in Valves
 Positioners
 Valve Packing
 Seat Leakage Classification

Regulators and Actuators NOT Covered.

Noise and Dynamic Performance NOT Covered
 What is a Control Valve?

A control valve is a device capable of modulating

flow at varying degrees between minimal flow and
full capacity in response to a signal from an external
control device. The control valve, often referred to as
"the final control element," is a critical part of any
control loop, as it performs the physical work and is
the element that directly affects the process.
 Valve Classification
 JV-01 General Service Control Valves
 JV-05: Regulators
 JV-07: De Superheating Valves
 JV-09: Actuated On/ Off Ball Valves
 JV-13: Severe Service Control Valves
 Linear Motion Control Valve

 TORTUOUS FLOW PATH

 LOW RECOVERY
 CAN THROTTLE SMALL FLOW
RATES

 SUITED TO HIGH-PRESSURE APPLICATIONS

 USUALLY FLANGED OR THREADED
 SEPARABLE BONNET
 OFFERS VARIETY OF SPECIAL TRIM DESIGNS
 Rotary Motion Control Valve

 STREAMLINED FLOW PATH

 HIGH RECOVERY

 CAN HANDLE SLURRY AND ABRASIVES

 FLANGELESS
 INTEGRAL BONNET
 MORE CAPACITY
 LESS PACKING WEAR
GLOBE VALVE STYLE
 GLOBE VALVES

The part of the globe valve that controls flow is the disk, which
is attached to the valve stem. The valve is closed by turning the
valve stem in until the disk is seated into the valve seat. The
edge of the disk and the seat are very accurately machined so
that they form a tight seal when the valve is closed. When the
valve is open, the fluid flows through the space between the
edge of the disk and the seat.
 SINGLE SEATED VALVE

The valve shown has a single seat

and a single plug. In single‑seated
valves, the process line pressure
acts on the bottom area of the
plug, creating an upward force on
the valve stem. The diaphragm
actuator must act against and
overcome this force in order to
move or hold the stem downward.

The larger the valve or the higher the line

pressure, the greater the actuator force must be.
Therefore it is evident that for large size valves, or
for high line pressures, single‑seated valves
generally cannot be used..
 DOUBLE SEATED CONTROL VALVE
One disadvantage of double‑seat
construction is that with variations in
temperature, the stem portion
between the two plugs contracts or
expands linearly a different amount
than the valve body. In the closed
position, therefore, both plugs will not
seat simultaneously and a small
leakage flow will occur. For tight
shutoff, single‑seated valves must be
used.
Double‑seated valves have two plugs and two seats. The
line pressure acting upward on one plug and downward on
the other produces a balance of forces. Double‑seated
valves are known as balanced or semi‑ balanced valves.
Double‑seated valves are used for applications involving
high pressures or where the valve size is large.
 SINGLE V/S DOUBLE SEATED VALVE
* Single Seated Valves are an excellent choice when a higher
degree of shut-off is required. However, this design is
unbalanced and limited in the pressure that it will shut off
against. The leakage rate is approximately 0.1% of the
maximum capacity.
* Double Seated Valves are nearly pressure balanced and,
therefore, are able to close the valve plug against higher operating
pressures. However, since temperature fluctuations may cause
expansion and contraction across the seats, tight shut-off is not
always possible. The leakage rate is approximately 0.5% of the
maximum capacity. Double seated valves have a faster flow
response and greater capacity than single seated valves and are
recommended when tight shut-off is not required. *
Double-Seated Balanced Valves with Cage
Throttling Trim
 Control Valves End Connection:

Most Widely used connection:

 Flanged - Lined pipe, Galvanized pipe
systems.
 Buttwelding - Standard for large valves
in high pressure systems, particularly
steam.
 Socket Welding - for small valves.
 Screwed - for small valves, generally in
low pressure systems.
 REQUIRED INFORMATION FOR
SIZING
 Type of fluid and its physical properties;
 Fluid phase (gas, liquid, slurry, multiphase, etc.);
 Density (specific gravity, molecular weight, specific
weight, etc.);
 Vapor pressure;
 Viscosity;
 Critical temperature and pressure;
 Degrees of superheat or existence of flashing
(vaporization curve across the valve);
 Corrosive properties due to contaminants (H2S,
chlorides, etc.);
 REQUIRED INFORMATIOM FOR
SIZING
 Quantity and type of solids (sand, silica, catalyst, etc.);
 Minimum, normal, and maximum inlet and outlet
pressure at the valve;
 Minimum, normal, and maximum operating temperature
at the valve;
 Minimum, normal, and maximum flow rates for each
operational state including startup and upset situations;
 Minimum, normal, and maximum operating pressure
drop at the valve;
 Pressure drop at shutoff;
 REQUIRED INFORMATIOM FOR
SIZING
 Shutoff leakage requirements;
 Startup conditions/procedures;
 Upset condition inlet pressure and temperature;
 Inlet and outlet pipe size and schedule;
 Maximum permissible noise level and reference point;
 Installation environmental conditions; and
 Type of erosion occurring or expected (abrasive particle,
cavitation, erosive-corrosive, or high liquid velocity
impingement).
 SPECIFICATION OF A VALVE

 Valve body construction (angle, double-port,

butterfly, etc.);
 Body material (316 stainless steel, Inconel, ceramic,
etc.);
 End connections and rating;
 Valve plug or disk style (quick opening, linear, etc.);
 Valve plug or disk action (air to open or close);
 Port size (full or restricted);
 Valve trim materials;
 SPECIFICATION OF A VALVE

 Action desired on failure of input signal (open,

closed, or fail-in-place);
 Flow action (flow tends to open or close);
 Input signal type (pneumatic, electric, etc.);
 Actuator type and size;
 Environmental requirements;
 Packing material (Teflon, graphite, etc.);
 Area classification; and
 Accessories required (controller, limit switch,
handwheel, etc.).
 SELECTING A CONTROL VALVE

1 Calculate required Cv
2. Select body material
3. Select body rating
4. Select shut-off Class required
5. Choose body style
6. Choose body size
7. Select trim size
8. Select trim material
 VALVE SIZING EXAMPLE
STEP #1: Specify Process Data

The system is pumping water from one tank to another

through a piping system.

 Total System Pressure drop is 150 psi.

 Temperature of water 70 0F.
 Maximum flowrate of 150 gpm,
 Operating flowrate of 110 gpm,
 Minimum flowrate of 25 gpm.
 The pipe diameter is 3 inches.
 Specific gravity of 1.0.

 Key Variables: Total pressure drop, design flow, operating flow,

minimum flow, pipe diameter, specific gravity.
 PUMPING CIRCUIT

Pump discharge head = friction losses+

Head loss+
delivery pressure
DPcv
Does not change with flow Friction loss = line loss + equipment loss
 SYSTEM CURVE

Pump Curve
Pressure

DP cv
System curve
F+Pend+H
Pend+H
Pend

Qn Q max
Flow
 SYSTEM PRESSURE DROP

@ Maximum flow
 Compute
– Friction loss in equipment without CV. (p 
Q2 )
– End pressure and static head remain
unchanged.
– Read pump head at max flow from pump curve
( or assume flat curve).

DPcv= Ps-F-Pend-H
SYSTEM PRESSURE DROP
PRESSURE DROP ALLOWANCE:
SINGLE PLUG VALVE 11 PSI
DOUBLE PLUG 7 PSI
CAGE VALVE - UNBALANCE 4 PSI
CAGE VALVE BALANCE 4 PSI
BUTTERFLY 0.2 PSI
V BALL 1 PSI

REQUIRED DELTA P= 0.05Ps + 1.1[ (Qm/Qd)2-1] F + B

 SYSTEM PRESSURE DROP

Bechtel practice to specify pumps for a rated flow

which is higher than the normal flow.
However for the rated flow, it is the normal practice to
specify the pump differential at the same value as
calculated for the normal flow.
The delivery pressure is maintained by reducing the
control valve pressure drop to compensate for the
increased frictional (dynamic) losses for the higher
flow.
 SYSTEM PRESSURE DROP
In order to obtain effective control under all flow conditions,
the control valve must represent a relatively high proportion
of the pressure drop in the system. Therefore, the control
valve pressure drop at normal flow should be:

  0.7 bar (10 psi)

  20% of dynamic losses
  5% of the total pump differential head.

At the rated flow, the control valve pressure drop should

be:

  0.7 bar (10 psi)

  15% of dynamic losses
 VALVE SIZING EXAMPLE
• TRADE OFF:

LARGER PRESSURE DROPS INCREASE THE PUMPING

COST (OPERATING) AND SMALLER PRESSURE DROPS
INCREASE THE VALVE COST BECAUSE A LARGER
VALVE IS REQUIRED (CAPITAL COST).

• THUMB RULE:
DESIGN THE VALVE TO USE 10-15% OF THE TOTAL
PRESSURE DROP OR 10 PSI, WHICHEVER IS GREATER.
FOR OUR SYSTEM, 10% OF THE TOTAL PRESSURE
DROP IS 15 PSI WHICH IS WHAT WE WILL USE.
 Recommendation
 For Fixed Speed BFP, use valve Pressure
drop of 300 psi and 100 psi for fixed speed
condensate pump.
 For variable speed BFP, use 100 psi as
valve pressure drop.
 These are initial values for start but finally
it has to be checked by system engineer.
 VALVE SIZING EXAMPLE
STEP #3: Calculate Valve Characteristic
 VALVE CHARACTERISTICS

• Equal percentage characteristics produce an equal

percentage change in flow for each equal increment of
travel. Change in flow rate is proportional to the flow rate
just before a change in valve plug, disc, or ball position.
• Equal percentage characteristic is common where the
system itself absorbs a large percentage of the pressure
drop, such as pressure control applications.
• Used in processes where a small percentage of the total
pressure drop is permitted by the valve.
Used in temperature and pressure control loops
 VALVE CHARACTERISTICS

Linear characteristics provide a flow rate directly

proportional to travel. This proportional relationship
produces a constant slope that yields a constant
valve gain with a constant pressure drop.
Linear characteristics are commonly specified for
liquid-level and flow-control applications.
Used in liquid level or flow loops
Used in systems where the pressure drop across the
valve is expected to remain fairly constant (ie. steady
state systems)
 VALVE CHARACTERISTICS

Quick opening characteristics permit about 70% of a

control valve’s capacity to be obtained in the first 40% of
travel. Quick opening characteristics are frequently found
in relief valve applications.
Used for processes where "instantly" large flow is needed
(ie. safety systems or cooling water systems)

MODIFIED PARABOLIC: A FLOW CHARACTERISTIC that

lies somewhere between LINEAR and EQUAL % .It provides
fine throttling at low flow capacity and an approximately
linear characteristic at higher flow capacities.
 INSTALLED CHARACTERISTICS

IT IS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FLOW THROUGH THE

VALVE AND VALVE ASSEMBLY INPUT WHEN INSTALLED IN
THE SYSTEM. THE OBJECTIVE IS TO HAVE LINELARISED
INSTALLED CHARACTERISTICS.
INHERENT CHARACTERISTICS OF A VALVE IS THE RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN VALVE FLOW CAPACITY AND THE VALVE TRAVEL
WHEN THE DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE ACROSS THE VALVE IS HELD
CONSTANT. SO UNDER SPECIFIC CONDITION VALVE FLOW IS
ONLY FUNCTION OF VALVE TRAVEL.

INSTALLED CHARACTERISTICS IS THE FLOW VS. PERCENT

OPEN CURVE CHANGES DUE TO THE HEAD LOSS IN THE
PIPING
INSTALLED CHARACTERISTICS

The installed characteristic differs from the inherent.

A valve with an equal percentage characteristic will exhibit a
more linear flow curve when installed because of the
reduction in pressure drop available across the valve. This
makes the characteristic curve flatter.
Linear installed characteristics are desirable because they
provide constant gain regardless of valve opening, making
the loop easier to tune and improving control performance.
A valve with a linear inherent curve may change to quick-
opening characteristic when installed
 INSTALLED CHARACTERISTICS

In real life situations, the valve is installed in a pipework

configuration where the differential pressure across the valve
can vary as the flow through the valve changes.
Therefore where the differential pressure across the valve is
free to change, the installed valve characteristic is far from
linear. To counteract this, the valve manufacturers offer a
characteristic called "equal percentage", where the percentage
increase in stem position equals the percentage increase in flow.
 INSTALLED CHARACTERISTICS

Why is linearity important? The answer lies in the fact that

the tuning of the controller's P term is largely dependent on
the process gain. If the process has not got installed linearity,
then this would mean that the tuning would only be good at
the one place on the measuring range where the particular
process gain was used in the tuning calculation. At other
places where the process gain was smaller, the control
response would be more sluggish, and where it was bigger,
the response would be faster and more cyclic, and could in
fact even become unstable.
 INSTALLED CHARACTERISTICS

People are very often confused as to why one doesn't always

just use an inherent linear characteristic; after all the graph
shows a straight line relationship between flow through the
valve, and valve stem position.
One must understand how the inherent characteristics are
generated. The test performed by the manufacturer to generate
the curve is accomplished by placing the valve in a flow rig
which is so arranged that the valve has got a completely
constant differential pressure across it at all times.
 VALVE SIZING EXAMPLE
STEP #1: Specify Process Data

The system is pumping water from one tank to another

through a piping system.

 Total System Pressure drop is 150 psi.

 Temperature of water 70 0F.
 Maximum flowrate of 150 gpm,
 Operating flowrate of 110 gpm,
 Minimum flowrate of 25 gpm.
 The pipe diameter is 3 inches.
 Specific gravity of 1.0.

 Key Variables: Total pressure drop, design flow,

operating flow, minimum flow, pipe diameter, specific
gravity.
 VALVE SIZING EXAMPLE
For our system
Cv= 150 ( 1/15) :::: This gives a Cv of 39.
At this point DONOT TEMPT to go to valve chart and select
you final Cv. LOT MORE TO SEE FURTHER;
STEP # 4: Preliminary valve selection
• NEVER USE A VALVE THAT IS LESS THAN TWO TIMES THE PIPE
SIZE
• AVOID USING THE LOWER 10% AND UPPER 20% OF THE VALVE
STROKE. THE VALVE IS MUCH EASIER TO CONTROL IN THE 10-
80% STROKE RANGE.
THIS ISSUE IS RANGEBILITY OF VALVE ( DISCUSS ED LATER )
NOW SELECT THE VALVE CHARACTRSTICS
 VALVE SIZING EXAMPLE
Let us assume we have equal percentage valve so when
we compare our Cv Table, it seems that 2” valve will
work fine. Notice that we're not trying to squeeze our
Cv into the 1 1/2 valve which would need to be at
100% stroke to handle our maximum flow. If this
valve were used, two consequences would be
experienced:
• The pressure drop would be a little higher than 15
psi at our design (max) flow.
• The valve would be difficult to control at maximum
flow. Also, there would be no room for error with this
valve.
 VALVE SIZING EXAMPLE

Valve Size Max Travel Valve Opening ( % of Total Travel)

mm
DN Cv
10 30 70 100 FL
DN25 19 0.783 2.20 7.83 17.2 0.88
DN 40 19 1.52 3.87 17.4 35.8 0.84
DN 50 29 1.66 4.66 25.4 59.7 0.85
DN 65 38 3.43 10.8 49.2 99.4 0.84
DN 80 38 4.32 10.9 66.0 136 0.82
 VALVE SIZING EXAMPLE
STEP #5: Check the Cv and stroke percentage at
the minimum flow
If the stroke percentage falls below 10% at our minimum
flow, a smaller valve may have to be used in some cases.

Judgements plays role in many cases.

For example, in our system more likely to operate closer
to the maximum flowrates more often than the minimum
flowrates? Or is it more likely to operate near the
minimum flowrate for extended periods of time. It's
difficult to find the perfect valve, but you should find one
that operates well most of the time. Let's check the valve
we've selected for our system:
 VALVE SIZING EXAMPLE
At a minimum flow of 25 gpm, valve Cv is 6.5
We see that a Cv of 6.5 would correspond to a stroke
percentage of around 35-40% which is certainly acceptable.

Notice that we used the maximum pressure drop of 15 psi

once again in our calculation. Although the pressure drop
across the valve will be lower at smaller flowrates, using the
maximum value gives us a "worst case" scenario.

 If our Cv at the minimum flow would have been around 1.5,

there would not really be a problem because the valve has a
Cv of 1.66 at 10% stroke and since we use the maximum
pressure drop, our estimate is conservative.
 VALVE SIZING EXAMPLE
STEP #6 : Check the gain across applicable
Flowrates
GAIN =  FLOW/  STROKE
Now, at our three flowrates:
Qmin = 25 gpm
Qop = 110 gpm
Qdes = 150 gpm
we have corresponding Cv values of 6.5, 28, and 39. The
corresponding stroke percentages are 35%, 73%, and 85%
respectively. Now we construct the following table:

VALVE SELECTED IS 2 INCH GLOBE VALVE WITH

EQUAL PERCENTAGE.
 GAIN =  FLOW/  STROKE

Stroke Change in flow

Flow (gpm) Change in Stroke (%)
(%) (gpm)
25 35
110-25 = 85 73-35 = 38
110 73
150 85 150-110 = 40 85-73 = 12

GAIN # 1 = 85/38 = 2.2

Gain #2 = 40/12 = 3.3
The difference between these values should be less than
50% of the higher value. . Also note that the gain should
never be less than 0.50.
 Liquid Phenomena in Valves
 CHOKED FLOW
 CAVITATION
 FLASHING
 NOISE

IN THE FOLLOWING SLIDES WE WILL SEE HOW

THESE AFFECT OUR VALVE SIZING.
 VENA CONTRACTA DIAGRAM

FLOW AREA OF LIQUISD IS AT MINIMUM AND VELOCITY AT

MAXIMUM. THE LOCATION OF VENA CONTRACTA VARY WITH
PROCESS CONDITION.
 CHOKED FLOW

Here pressure at Vena Contracta decreases. So with the

increase of differential pressure, vena contracta
pressure keeps on decreasing and may attain a value
which is lower than vapor pressure.

At this point, liquid becomes unstable and may vaporize.

So there is two phase flow at this point and fluid is no
longer “ Incompressible”.
 CHOKED FLOW

Let us see the behavior of gas application. In gas flow,

when the fluid velocity is equal to the speed of sound in
the fluid, it becomes critical and CHOKED condition
exists. Incompressible fluid have very high sound
speed so practically they don't choke whereas the
mixture have very low sound speed so the CHOKING
may occur.
Q
Cv

P

Actual Flow
Predicted Flow

actual dp Choked flow

max dp

P
 CONTROL VALVE BEHAVIOUR

The choked flow is related to the term FL value

found on the valve chart.
This must be checked for vastly different maximum
and minimum flowrates. For example if the
difference between the maximum and minimum
flows is above 90% of the maximum flow,

MUST CHECK THE CHOKED FLOW CONDITION.

 The Constants Plays a Vital Role

Ar = Trim Application Ratio

Kc = Cavitation Index
Km = Pressure Recovery Coefficient = FL2
Fp = Piping Correction Factor
rc = Critical Pressure Ratio = FF
Km = P1-P2/ P1-Pvc
Pvc = rc *Pv
 CHOKED FLOW

 THE MAXIMUM DROP A VALVE CAN TOLERATE AT

SHUT-OFF OR AT PARTIAL OPEN/ CLOSE POSITION.

THE CHOKED FLOW CONDITION IS RELATED TO

“ Maximum allowable Sizing Pressure Drop”
The FORMULA TO DETERMINE IS AS FOLLOW:

P max = FL2 ( P1- FF * PV )

Where FF= Liquid Critical Pressure Ratio Factor
FF = 0.96-0.28 ( PV /PC)*0.5
 CHOKED FLOW...

EXAMPLE
P1= 43.5, P2= 13.8, Q= 21160 kg/hr, Pv = 0.0827 bar

The Value of FL ( Valve Recovery Factor) is 0.9 for single/double

seated valves, 0.74 for butterfly valves and 0.6 for plug/ball
valves

The above equation results as P max = 41.7 bar. The actual P is

43.5- 13.8 = 29.7 bar
 CHOKED FLOW...
HERE P max IS MORE THAN ACTUAL P

BUT IF IF P max IS LESS THAN P, IT IS AN INDICATION

THAT “ CHOKED FLOW” CONDITION WILL EXIST UNDER
THIS SERVICE CONDITION.
TAKE AN EXAMPLE FOR PROCESS CONDITION: ( Cond. Reject to Tank)

P1= 17.0, P2= 2.1, Q1= 9430 kg/hr, T= 50 deg C Q1= 9340 Cv= 2.8
Pv =0.124 bar, Pc= 221 bar, P1-P2= 14.9 bar
USING THE FORMULA: Q2= 27270, Cv= 8.6
P max = FL2 ( P1- FF * PV ) = 13.37 bar 3 “ Valve, Cv= 12.5

Here P max is LESS THAN P WHICH IS CLEAR

INDICATION OF CHOKED FLOW
 CHOKED FLOW...
SO UNDER CHOKED FLOW CONDITION, Cv OF A
CONTROL VALVE MUST BE SELECTED BASED ON
MAX P CALCULATED .
CALCULAT THE FLOW WITH MAX. PRESS DROP .
THIS WILL RESULT IN “ CHOKED FLOW RATE”.
IF CHOKED FLOW RATE IS LESS THAN SERVICE
FLOW,

ALERT: THE VALVE IS UNDERSIZED

GO FOR NEXT SIZE OF VALVE
 CAVITATION IN CONTROL VALVES
 WHAT IS CAVITATION ?
It is a fluid phenomenon rising from a liquid to gas to liquid
phase change. This phase change occurs when fluids are
throttled through control valves.

u Cavitation damage occurs when the downstream pressure of

the valve rises back above the vapor pressure.

u Since the vapor bubble mass has a larger volume than the
equivalent liquid mass, the bubble “ implodes” from a larger to
smaller volume .
u A correctly chosen control valve can prevent cavitation.
 Press. Charact. Within a CV

P1
VENA CONTRACTA

NORMAL

CAVITATION
Pv

Pvc
FLASHING
 CAVITATION AND FLASHING
Flashing and cavitation represent an actual change of the
flowing media from liquid to vapor and result from an
increase in fluid velocity.
As the liquid passes through the restriction the velocity
increase is accompanied by a substantial decrease in
pressure at the vena contracta.
As the fluid stream expands further downstream velocity
decreases and pressure increases, but not to the original
pressure. The pressure differential that exists between P1
and P2 is the amount of energy dissipated in the valve.
When the pressure vena contracta drops below the vapor
pressure of the fluid, bubbles form.
 CAVITATION AND FLASHING

At this stage there is no difference between FLASHING

and CAVITATION, but the potential for structural
damage to the valve exists. If the pressure at the valve
outlet (P2) remains below the vapor pressure of the
liquid, the bubbles remain in the downstream system
and the process is said to have "flashed."

Aside from physical damage due to flashing or

cavitation, formation of vapor bubbles in the liquid
causes a "CROWDING" condition at the vena contracta
that limits or chokes the flow through the valve.
 CAVITATION AND FLASHING

If downstream pressure recovery is sufficient to raise

the outlet (P2) pressure above the vapor pressure of
the liquid, the bubbles collapse or implode to produce
cavitation. When vapor bubbles collapse energy is
released with noise. When bubbles collapse close to
the solid surfaces in the valve, the released energy
tears away material leaving a rough surface.
 CAVITATION IN CONTROL VALVES
 WHAT ARE THE EFFECTS OF CAVITATION ?

u MATERIAL DAMAGE

Mechanical Attack : Erosion resulting from high velocity

microjets impinging on material surface

Chemical Attack : Material deformation and failure resulting

from shock waves impinging on the
material surface

u NOISE
 CAVITATION INDEX

Cavitation Sizing Coefficient: ( Kc)

THIS IS THE VALUE USED TO DETERMINE THE
PRESSURE DROP AT WHICH CAVITATION WILL BEGIN
TO OCCUR . THIS IS INFLUENCED BY MANY FACTORS
AND PRIMARY INDICATOR OF VALVE PERFORMANCE
IN CAVITATING SERVICE.
This can be expressed in terms of Km value. Kc = 0.67 Km
Sigma () = (P2-Pv)/ (P1-P2)
Ratio of Potential for resisting Cavity formation to the potential
for causing Cavity formation.
 CAVITATION INDEX
• CHOKED CAVITATION INDEX
• OPERATING CAVITATION INDEX
• DAMAGE CAVITATION INDEX
One Example :
() = (56-.05) /( 200-56) = 0.38 This is Choked Index
The damage () of this valve is 0.73
On different operating condition
()= (200-0.5)/ (500-200) = 0.67
This value is > than choked value, the valve is not choking but it
is less than damage value so Cavitation may happen.
u
HOW TO AVOID CAVITATION
Torturous Path -
It lowers the amount of pressure recovery

u Pressure Drop Staging -

Valve takes a large pressure differential and yet maintain vena
contracta pressure above the vapor pressure of the liquid

u Expanding Flow Area -

Area of each restriction is larger than the previous restriction.
The first restriction takes the bulk of the pressure drop and the
pressure drop in the successive section decreases. In the last
restriction, where cavitation is most likely to occur the
pressure drop is only a small percentage of the total drop and
hence pressure recovery is substantially lowered
u HOW TO AVOID CAVITATION
Charecterized Cages -
For application where pressure drop decreases as the flow
rate increases, charecterized cages can be used.

u Separating Seating and Throttling Locations -

For application where both cavitation control and tight shut off
is required. The seating surface of the plug is upstream of the
throttling location and the upper cage is designed such that it
takes very little pressure drop. Hence, the seating surface
experiences relative low flow velocities .

Softer seating material is used relative to the plug in order to

provide Class VI shut off.
 ANTI CAVITATION VALVES
VARABLE RESISTANCE TRIM STEPPED TRIM
 A Typical Example of Cavitation
Flow kg/hr 368000 185000 126600

P1 bar 3.2 3.2 3.2

P2 bar 1.416 1.316 1.316

Valve Cv 317 155 104

0
Open BF 55 41 34

Result Ar>Kc Ar>Kc Ar>Kc

Noise 88 dB 84 dB 80 dB
0
Open VB 49 34 30
Noise 82 dB 75 dB 75 dB
 A Typical Example of Cavitation
This butterfly valve is cavitating. Optionally V ball valve will void
this problem as ball valves have higher Cavitation index. Other
option is to aspirated spool piece or move the valve at a location
to increase the back pressure.
TYPE TRIM SIZE Kc
Butterfly All All 0.5 Km
V Ball Trim 1/ 2 All Km
Trim 3 2- 8 ” 1.0
Globe Hard Mat. All 1.0
Globe Microform All 0.85 Km

The Km value is used to predict the flow rate at choked flow

condition whereas Kc predicts the point where Cavitation will
occur.
 CAVITATION INDEX

Cavitation Sizing Coefficient: ( Kc)

THIS IS THE VALUE USED TO DETERMINE THE

PRESSURE DROP AT WHICH CAVITATION WILL BEGIN
TO OCCUR . THIS IS INFLUENCED BY MANY FACTORS
AND PRIMARY INDICATOR OF VALVE PERFORMANCE
IN CAVITATING SERVICE.
This can be expressed in terms of Km value. Kc = 0.67 Km
 CAVITATION INDEX

TYPE TRIM SIZE Kc

Butterfly All All 0.5 Km

V Ball Trim 1/ 2 All Km

Trim 3 2- 8 ” 1.0
Globe Hard Mat. All 1.0
Globe Microform All 0.85 Km
 RECOVERY FACTOR

Given two valves with equal flow area and passing same
flow, High recovery valve will produce less pressure drop
than low recovery valve. The critical pressure drop ratio
(P/ P1) for High Recovery will be much less than Low
Recovery Valve
Globe valve typically exhibits a critical flow at a pressure
drop ratio of 0.5 while High Recovery valve as value as
low as 0.15
The recovery factor of a high recovery valve will vary
with its plug travel.
 LOW RECOVERY VALVE

LOW RECOVERY VALVE: A valve design that dissipates

a considerable amount of flow stream energy due to
turbulence created by the contours of the flow path.
Consequently, pressure downstream of the valve VENA
CONTRACTA recovers to a lesser percentage of its inlet
value than a valve with a more streamlined flow path. The
conventional GLOBE STYLE control valve is in this
category.

The recovery factor does not vary with travel to any

significant degree.
 HIGH RECOVERY VALVE

High and Low recovery refers to valve ability to convert velocity

at the Vena Contracta back into pressure downstream of valve.
A LOW RECOVERY VALVE REQUIRES MORE PRESSURE DROP
TO PASS THE SAME FLOW THAN HIGH RECOVERY VALVE.
HIGH RECOVERY VALVE: A valve design that dissipates
relatively little flow stream energy due to streamlined internal
contours and minimal flow turbulence. Therefore, pressure
down stream of the valve VENA CONTRACTA recovers to a
high percentage of its inlet value. These types of valves are
identifiable by their straight-through flow paths. Examples are
most rotary control valves, such as the eccentric plug, butterfly,
and ball valve.
 Pressure Recovery Factor
The graph below represents actual test data of a butterfly valve
showing change in recovery factor with plug rotation. The data
demonstrate why a rotary control valve can suddenly go into
Cavitation as the valve opens up.
 FLASHING IN CONTROL VALVES
A fluid is said to flash when the downstream pressure
of the fluid is less than it’s vapor pressure.

The vapor bubbles that are formed when the pressure

falls below the vapor pressure continue to grow and
eventually the liquid liquid flashes to a vapor.

Flashing is dependent solely on the relationship of the

downstream pressure ( P2 ) and the fluid vapor pressure
( Pv ). The relationship is [ P2 < Pv ]. It is independent
of valve type, style, or recovery characteristic. There are
no trim geometries available to eliminate flashing.
 FLASHING IN CONTROL VALVES
Hardware choices for flashing application
 Valve Design :
It does not prevent flashing but reduces the impact of
flashing.
Angle Valve with standard trim
Flashing damage occurs by high velocity vapor bubbles
impinging the surface of a valve which erodes the
surface.

Angle valve reduces the amount of vapor bubbles that

impinge on the wall by directing the flow stream to the
centre of the pipe and not in the valve body.
 FLASHING IN CONTROL VALVES

 System Design :

25 Feet 1 Foot
Condenser Condenser

Fig 1
Fig 2
Fig 1 :
Flashing will occur in the downstream pipe between the control
valve and the condenser. Any damage that occurs will do so in
that area.
Fig 2 :
Flashing will occur downstream of the valve and in the
condenser . Since condenser has a much larger volume compared
to the pipe, high velocity impingement on a material surface will
not occur since there is no essentially material surface.
 FLASHING IN CONTROL VALVES

Examples are boiler feed water pump recirculation,

condensate pump recirculation, and heater drain
lines, many of which discharge into the main
condenser. Problems encountered include severe
vibration due to flow and pressure pulsation in the
valve discharge piping with consequent damage to
the control valve and/or piping system, and
condenser internals.
The pressure pulsation or shock waves are the
result of liquid flashing, liquid separation or a
combination of these two events.
 FLASHING IN CONTROL VALVES

Figures 1 and 2 indicate a typical pump recirculation or

heater drain flow control system and the pressure
gradient resulting from flashing due to a sudden
pressure drop of the liquid below its vapor pressure
due to a negligible downstream backpressure.

If a backpressure device is placed at the condenser

inlet to maintain P2 above the vapor pressure, the
resultant pressure gradient will appear as Figure 3.
Note that Pv is the same as in FIG. 2 but P2 is higher than in
FIG. 2.
Figures 2 and 3 typify systems where the liquid vapor
pressure is raised above P5, which in this case is the
condenser pressure.
The case of a condensate pump recirculation system, the
vapor pressure of the liquid is essentially the same as the
condenser pressure. The energy remaining in the liquid after
passing through the control valve is then dissipated within
the downstream piping system where little or no back
pressure exists, or within the condenser if backpressure is
provided.
Figure 4 also depicts the pressure gradient in this type
system where backpressure is or is not provided.
 PROCESS CONDITIONS

Primary process variables in valve selection are pressure and

temperature. We normally look at operating pressure (OP) and
operating temperature (OT) which is the highest pressure and
temperature under any expected operating conditions and design
pressure (DP) and design temperature (DT) which has some
margin above the operating conditions.

A common error regarding design pressure is to use the pump

design point head instead of the shut-off head.

When calculating the margin, consideration should be given to the

likelihood of upward excursions or any uncertainty in the values
used for design.
 PROCESS CONDITIONS

kg/hr per Difference

Revised
data in two P1 P2 T Sp Gr
kg/hr
sheet flows
39,840 36,320 3,520 21.0 0.34 28.5 0.996
199,200 181,600 17,600 21.0 0.34 28.5 0.996
397,200 363,200 34,000 20.9 0.364 37.4 0.993
593,400 544,800 48,600 20.8 0.402 46.77 0.989

SP. Gr was taken as 0.908

 RANGEBILITY ISSUE
 4" valve in 6 “ line Emergency hotwell make-up.

 2" valve in 3 “ Normal hotwell make-up.

CASE-1
FLOW P1 P2 Cv % Travel
5,994 8.5 0.340 2.7 38
Min
11,928 8.5 0.360 5.5 57
Travel
29,700 8.4 0.402 13.6 81
5% to
Max
CASE-2 Travel
FLOW P1 P2 Cv % Travel
24,975 8.5 0.340 11 30 80%
139,300 7.0 0.360 70 73
168,300 6.5 0.402 87 81
 Valve Terminology
TURNDOWN: A term used to describe the ratio between the
minimum and maximum flow conditions seen in a particular system.
Example: If the minimum flow were 10 G.P.M. and the maximum flow
were 100 G.P.M. the turndown would be 10:1. This term is sometimes
incorrectly applied to valves. See RANGEABILITY.
TRIM: Includes all the parts that are in flowing contact with the
process fluid except the body, BONNET, and body flanges and
gaskets. The plug, seats, stem, guides, bushings, and cage are some
of the parts included in the term trim.
EXTENSION BONNET: A bonnet with a packing box that is
extended above the body to bonnet connection so as to maintain
the temperature of the packing above (cryogenic service) or below
(high-temp service) the temperature of the process fluid. The
length of the extension depends on the amount of temperature
differential that exists between the process fluid and the packing
design temperature.
 Valve Terminology
RANGEABILITY: The range over which a control valve can
control. It is the ratio of the maximum to minimum controllable
FLOW COEFFICIENTS. This is also called TURNDOWN although
technically it is not the same thing. There are two types of
rangeability - inherent and installed. Inherent rangeability is a
property of the valve alone and may be defined as the range of flow
coefficients between which the gain of the valve does not deviate
from a specified gain by some stated tolerance limit. Installed
rangeability is the range within which the deviation from a desired
INSTALLED FLOW CHARACTERISTIC does not exceed some stated
tolerance limit.
BENCH SET: The proper definition for bench set is the
INHERENT DIAPHRAGM PRESSURE RANGE, which is the
high and low values of pressure applied to the diaphragm to
produce rated valve plug travel with atmospheric pressure in
the valve body. This test is often performed on a work bench in
the instrument shop prior to placing the valve into service and
is thus known as Bench Set.

BONNET: The bonnet or bonnet assembly is that portion of the

valve pressure retaining boundary which may guide the stem
and contains the PACKING BOX and STEM SEAL. The
bonnet may be integral to the valve body or bolted or screwed.
The bonnet, if it is detachable, will generally provide the
opening to the valve body cavity for removal and replacement of
the internal TRIM. The bonnet is generally the means by which
the actuator is connected to the valve body.
 Valve Terminology

CAGE: A hollow cylindrical trim element that is sometimes

used as a guide to align the movement of a VALVE PLUG
with a SEAT RING. It may also act to retain the seat ring
in the valve body. On some types of valves, the cage may
contain different shaped openings which act to characterise
the flow through the valve. The cage may also act as a
NOISE ATTENUATION or ANTI-CAVITATION device.
 Valve Terminology
REDUCED TRIM: It is an undersized orifice. Reduced or
restricted capacity trim is used for several reasons.
(1) It adapts a valve large enough to handle increased future
flow requirement with trim capacity properly sized for present
needs.
(2) A valve with adequate structural strength can be selected
and still retain reasonable travel vs. capacity relationships.
(3) A valve with a large body using restricted trim can be used
to reduce inlet and outlet fluid velocities.
(4) It can eliminate the need for pipe reducers.
(5) Errors in over sizing can be corrected by use of restricted
capacity trim.
 Valve Terminology

EFFECTIVE AREA: For a DIAPHRAGM ACTUATOR, the effective area

is that part of the diaphragm area that is effective in producing a
stem force. Usually the effective area will change as the valve is
stroked - being at a maximum at the start and at a minimum at the
end of the travel range. Flat sheet diaphragms are most affected by
this; while moulded diaphragms will improve the actuator
performance, and a rolling diaphragm will provide a constant stem
force throughout the entire stroke of the valve.
LANTERN RING: A rigid spacer used in the packing with packing
above and below it. The lantern ring is used to allow lubrication to
the packing or allow access to a leak off connection. On some of the
new fugitive emission packing systems, it also acts as a stem guide.
 Valve Terminology

PUSH-DOWN-TO-CLOSE: A term used to describe a

LINEAR or GLOBE STYLE valve that uses a DIRECT
ACTING plug and stem arrangement. The plug is located
above the seat ring. When the plug is pushed down, the plug
contacts the seat, and the valve closes. Note! Most control
valves are of this type.
PUSH-DOWN-TO-OPEN: A term used to describe a
LINEAR or GLOBE STYLE valve that uses a REVERSE
ACTION plug and stem arrangement. The plug is located
below the seat ring. When the plug is pushed down, the plug
moves away from the seat, and the valve opens
 VALVE ACTION

The action of a valve is generally defined as either air ‑to ‑close or

air‑to‑open. These terms signify that an increase in air pressure
acting over the effective area of the diaphragm will either close
or open the valve, depending upon the type of actuator used and
the plug to seat‑ring relationship.
 POSITIONERS
A positioner is a device, pneumatic, electro-pneumatic or digital,
which, by using a control signal precisely positions the moving parts
of a control valve in accordance with the signal value.
 Positioners may be used for the following reasons:
 Permit greater accuracy & process control
 Maintain position regardless of changing forces
 Handle high air pressures ,
 Increase speed of operation
 Permit faster speed of response
 Change characteristics
 Provide simple adjustments including split ranging
 DIRECT ACTING POSITIONER

INPUT INCREASES INPUT DECREASES

OUTPUT INCREASES OUTPUT DECREASES

EQUALS
EQUALS

Increasing Signal Decreasing Signal

From Controller From Controller

Increasing Decreasing
Output From Positioner Output From Positioner
 REVERSE ACTING POSITIONER

INPUT INCREASES INPUT DECREASES

OUTPUT DECREASES OUTPUT INCREASES

EQUALS
EQUALS

Increasing Signal Decreasing Signal

From Controller From Controller

Decreasing Increasing
Output From Positioner Output From Positioner
 Control Valve Packing

Packing is a sealing system which normally consists of a deformable

material such as TFE, graphite, asbestos, etc. Usually the material is
in the form of solid or split rings contained in a packing box.

Packing material is compressed to provide an effective pressure seal

between the fluid in the valve body and the outside atmosphere. At one
time it was believed that the more packing you had in a control valve
the better it would seal.

Since FUGITIVE EMISSIONS has become a concern, extensive

studies have been made which have shown that better sealing can
be obtained by minimising the number of packing rings
 Control Valve Packing

In majority of the valves., the valve pressure boundary is penetrated

in order to provide the required movement to its main sealing
components. This requirement necessitates a need for an external
secondary sealing system to prevent the loss of the pressurized
fluid at the point of penetration of the valve pressure boundary. This
secondary sealing is achieved by a set of packing rings packed
around the valve stem in the valve's stuffing box, also called the
packing chamber.

Valve packing provides a positive and reliable sealing barrier

between the system fluid in the valve's pressure boundary and the
outside atmosphere and yet makes the actuation of the valve
internals possible from a point external to the valve pressure
boundary.
 Control Valve Packing

Stem: A shaft like component directly attached to the main sealing part
(e.g., wedge or disc) of the valve. The stem of the valve passes
through the stuffing box and externally actuates the sealing parts of
the valve.
Stuffing Box: Also called a packing chamber, is a machined cavity in
the valve bonnet or other pressure retaining part through which the
valve's actuating shaft (stem) penetrates in to the valve pressure
boundary. This cavity houses the packing rings.
Lantern Ring: A lantern ring is a spacer between the two sets of gland
packing. It is generally relieved in the middle to provide a void to
collect the fluid leaks through the lower set of packing rings. Lantern
rings are used on valve stuffing boxes where stem leakage detection is
desirable. In case of smaller size valves and large valves not requiring
stem leakage detection, lantern rings are omitted from their stuffing
boxes. These valves employ a single set of gland packing.
 Control Valve Packing

Leak-Off Connections A pipe or tube hook up to detect leaks through

the lower set of packing rings. One end of this pipe or tubing is
connected to the lantern ring installed in the valve stuffing box and the
other and drains off in a remote holding tank. In most smaller valves
and others where no lantern rings are installed, the leak-off connection
is provided in the middle of the stuffing box/packing chamber if a
specific valve application requires monitoring of leaks through the
valve stem.
Spring-Loaded Packing

Dual Packing

Dual Packing With Leak-Off

Connection
 Seat Leakage Classifications

Rule of Thumb ; There is no such thing as "Bubble Tight."

Control valves are designed to throttle. However, this is

not a perfect world, and control valves are also usually
expected to provide some type of shut-off capability. A
control valve's ability to shut off has to do with many
factors. The type of valves for instance. A double-seated
control valve will usually have very poor shut-off
capability. The guiding, seat material, actuator thrust,
pressure drop, and the type of fluid can all play a part in
how well a particular control valve shuts off.
 Seat Leakage Classifications

There are actually six different seat leakage classifications as

defined by ANSI/FCI 70-2-1976. But for the most part you will be
concerned with just two of them:
CLASS IV and CLASS VI.
CLASS IV is also known as METAL TO METAL. It is the kind of
leakage rate you can expect from a valve with a metal plug and
metal seat.
CLASS VI is known as a SOFT SEAT classification. SOFT SEAT
VALVES are those where either the plug or seat or both are made
from some kind of composition material such as Teflon.
 Seat Leakage Classifications

Class I. Identical to Class II, III, and IV in construction and

design intent, but no actual shop test is made.

Class II. Intended for double-port or balanced singe-port

valves with a metal piston ring seal and metal-to-metal seats.
Air or water at 45 to 60 psig is the test fluid. Allowable leakage
is 0.5% of the rated full open capacity.

Class III. Intended for the same types of valves as in Class II.
Allowable leakage is limited to 0.1% of rated valve capacity.
Seat Leakage Classifications
Class IV. Intended for single-port and balanced single-port
valves with extra-tight piston seals and metal-to-metal seats.
Leakage rate is limited to 0.01% of rated valve capacity.

Class V. Intended for the same types of valves as Class IV.

The test fluid is water at 100 psig or operating pressure.
Leakage allowed is limited to 5 X 10 ml per minute per inch
of orifice diameter per psi differential.
Class VI. Intended for resilient-seating valves. The test fluid is
air or nitrogen. Pressure is the lesser of 50 psig or operating
pressure. The leakage limit depends on valve size and ranges
from 0.15 to 6.75 ml per minute for valve sizes 1 through 8
inches.
 Seat Leakage Classifications
 Class VI Leakage Allowance

Nominal Port Diameter (inch) Leak Rate (ml/minute)

1.5 0.30 (2 Bubble/Minute)

2 0.45 (3 Bubble/Minute)
2.5 0.60 (4 Bubble/Minute)
3 0.90 (6 Bubble/Minute)
4 1.70 (11 Bubble/Minute)
6 4.00 (27 Bubble/Minute)
8 6.75 (45 Bubble/ Minute)

Bubbles per minute are based on ¼ inch X 0.032 inch wall tube
Submerged in water to a depth of 1/8 inch to ¼ inch.
THANKYOU
 ANY QUESTIONS
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