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ENGINEERING
D R AW I N G
SECOND EDITION

M. B. Shah
B. C. Rana

DELHI • CHANDIGARH • CHENNAI

UPPER SADDLE RIVER • BOSTON • LONDON
SYDNEY • SINGAPORE • HONG KONG • TORONTO • TOKYO
 Library of Congress Cataloging­in­Publication Data

Shah, M. B. (Mahendrakumar Budhichand), 1938‐

Engineering drawing / M.B. Shah, B.C. Rana. – 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN‐13: 978‐8131710562 (pbk.)
1. Mechanical drawing. I. Rana, B. C. (Bachubhai Chhibubhai), 1943‐ II. Title.
T353.S45146 2009
604.2—dc22
2009022319

Copyright © 2009 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd.

Licensees of Pearson Education in South Asia

This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade or
otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out, or otherwise circulated without the
publisher's prior written consent in any form of binding or cover other than
that in which it is published and without a similar condition including this
condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaser and without limiting
the rights under copyright reserved above, no part of this publication may be
reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted in
any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording
or otherwise), without the prior written permission of both the copyright
owner and the above‐mentioned publisher of this book.

ISBN 978‐81‐317‐1056‐2

Head Office: 7th Floor, Knowledge Boulevard, A‐8(A), Sector 62, Noida 201 309, India
Registered Office: 14 Local Shopping Centre, Panchsheel Park, New Delhi 110 017, India

Layout designed by Satwinder Singh Channey

Typeset by Integra, Puducherry
Printed in India at Tara Art Printers

Pearson Education Inc., Upper Saddle River, N.J.

Pearson Education Ltd., London
Pearson Education Australia Pty, Limited, Sydney
Pearson Education Singapore, Pte. Ltd
Pearson Education North Asia Ltd, Hong Kong
Pearson Education Canada, Ltd., Toronto
Pearson Educacion de Mexico, S.A. de C.V.
Pearson Education‐Japan, Tokyo
Pearson Education Malaysia, Pte. Ltd.
D E D I C AT I O N
To our students
This page is intentionally left blank
 ABOUT THE AUTHORS

M. B. Shah is a professor of mechanical engineering and the principal of Shah and

Anchor Kutchhi Engineering College, Mumbai. He pursued his undergraduate studies
in mechanical engineering from Sardar Patel University and obtained his master of
engineering degree in machine design from the University of Bombay (now University
of Mumbai). After obtaining his Ph.D. from the Indian Institute of Technology Bombay,
he joined Veermata Jijabai Technological Institute in 1969 where he taught engineering
drawing and machine design until 1998. His research paper, “Magnetic NDT Technique to
Evaluate Fatigue Damage,” was published in the Physica Status Solidi.

B. C. Rana was an assistant professor at Veermata Jijabai Technological Institute. He

graduated in mechanical engineering from Gujarat University in 1968 and obtained his
master of engineering degree from the University of Mumbai. He has taught for nearly
thirty years, initially at K. J. Somaiya Polytechnic as a lecturer and then at Veermata Jijabai
Technological Institute.

v
This page is intentionally left blank
 BRIEF CONTENTS

Abbreviations, Symbols and Notations xxi

Preface xxiii
The Development of This Book xxvii
1 Basics of Engineering Drawing 1
2 Symbolic Lines and Lettering 17
3 Geometrical Constructions, Loci and Engineering Plane Curves 27
4 Scales 59
5 Projections of Points and Lines 73
6 Projections on Auxiliary Reference Planes 103
7 Projections of Planes 115
8 Projections of Solids 149
9 Sections of Solids 193
10 Intersection of Surfaces 219
11 Development of Surfaces 247
12 Multiview Orthographic Projections 287
13 Sectional Views 317
14 Dimensioning 343
15 Auxiliary Views 353
16 Reading Orthographic Projections 373
17 Isometric Projections 419
18 Oblique Parallel Projections and Perspective Projections 441
19 Threaded Fasteners 467
20 Riveted and Welded Joints 497
21 Computer-Aided Drafting 513
Index 545

vii
This page is intentionally left blank
 CONTENTS

Abbreviations, Symbols and Notations xxi

Preface xxiii
The Development of This Book xxvii

Basics of Engineering Drawing 1

1 Objectives 1
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Drawing Instruments 2
1.2.1 Drawing Board 3
1.2.2 Minidrafter 3
1.2.3 Precision Instrument Box 4
1.2.4 Set Squares 6
1.2.5 Engineers’ Scales 7
1.2.6 Protractor 7
1.2.7 Irregular or French Curves 8
1.2.8 Spring Clips 8
1.2.9 Drawing Papers 8
1.2.10 Pencils 8
1.2.11 Erasers 8
1.2.12 Erasing Shields 9
1.2.13 Templates 9
1.2.14 Dusters 9
1.2.15 Flexible curves 9
1.2.16 Tracing Paper 10
1.2.17 T-square 10
1.3 Title Block 11
1.4 Points to Remember 12

Exercises 12
Review Questions 15

Symbolic Lines and Lettering 17

2 Objectives 17
2.1 Introduction 18
2.2 Symbolic Lines 18

ix
 2.3 Lettering 20
2.4 General Rules for Lettering 20

Exercises 24
Review Questions 26

Geometrical Constructions,

3
Loci and Engineering Plane Curves

Objectives 27
27

3.1 Introduction 28
3.2 Methods of Construction 28
3.3 Loci of Points 33
3.4 Engineering Curves 37
3.4.1 Conics 37
3.4.2 Cycloidal Curves 45
3.4.3 Involutes 49
3.4.4 Spirals 52

Exercises 54
Critical Thinking Exercises 56
Hints for Solving Critical Thinking Exercises 58

Scales 59

4 Objectives 59
4.1 Introduction 60
4.2 Representative Fraction 60
4.3 Construction of Scales 61
4.4 Types of Scales 61
4.4.1 Plain Scales 61
4.4.2 Diagonal Scales 63
4.4.3 Vernier Scales 66
4.4.4 Comparative Scales 68
4.4.5 Scale of Chords 70

Exercises 71
Critical Thinking Exercises 72

x Contents
 Projections of Points and Lines 73

5 Objectives 73
5.1 Introduction 74
5.2 Orthographic Projections 74
5.3 First-Angle Projections 75
5.4 Second-, Third- and Fourth-Angle Projections 75
5.5 Projections of Lines 79
5.6 Angles Between Lines and Reference Planes 79
5.7 Projections of Lines Parallel to One and Inclined
to the Other Reference Plane 80
5.8 Projections of Lines Inclined to both the Reference Planes 84
5.9 Problems Related to Lines Inclined to both
the Reference Planes 88
5.9.1 To Find the True Length of a Line 88
5.9.2 To Find the Angle of Inclination 89
5.10 Traces of a Line 91
5.11 Procedure for Locating the HT and the VT 91
5.12 Procedure When the HT and/or the VT is Given 92
5.13 Side Views 94
5.14 Shortest Distance Between a Given Line AB
and Ground Line XY 95

Exercises 98
Critical Thinking Exercises 102

Projections on Auxiliary Reference Planes 103

6 Objectives 103
6.1 Introduction 104
6.2 The Auxiliary Plane Method 104
6.2.1 Projection of a Point on an Auxiliary Vertical Plane (AVP) 104
6.2.2 Projection of a Point on an Auxiliary Inclined Plane (AIP) 105
6.3 Procedure for Drawing an Auxiliary Front View (AFV) 107
6.4 Procedure for Drawing an Auxiliary Top View (ATV) 107

Exercises 111

Contents xi
 Critical Thinking Exercises 111
Hints for Solving Exercises 112
Hints for Solving Critical Thinking Exercises 114

Projections of Planes 115

7 Objectives 115
7.1 Introduction 116
7.2 Positions of Planes 116
7.2.1 Planes Parallel to the VP 116
7.2.2 Planes Parallel to the HP 117
7.2.3 Planes Perpendicular to the VP and Inclined to the HP 117
7.2.4 Planes Perpendicular to the HP and Inclined to the VP 119
7.2.5 Planes Inclined to both the Reference Planes 120
7.3 Positions when the Shape and Size in the Front View
and/or Top View are Given 129

Exercises 144
Critical Thinking Exercises 146
Hints for Solving Exercises 147
Hints for Solving Critical Thinking Excercises 148

Projections of Solids 149

8 Objectives 149
8.1 Introduction 150
8.2 Solids 150
8.2.1 Prisms and Pyramids 150
8.2.2 Cylinders and Cones 152
8.2.3 Frustums 152
8.3 Orthographic Projections of Solids 152
8.3.1 Projections of Solids with the Axis Perpendicular to
one of the Reference Planes and Parallel to the Other Two 154
8.3.2 Projections of Solids with the Axis Parallel to One
of the Reference Planes and Inclined to the Other 157
8.4 Additional Points for Two-Step Problems 159
8.4.1 The Axis of a Solid is Required to be Parallel
to the VP and Inclined at θ to the HP 159

xii Contents
 8.4.2 The Axis of a Solid is Required to be Parallel to the HP
and Inclined at φ to the VP 159
8.5 Deciding the Position of the Axis 161
8.6 Visibility of Surfaces 163
8.7 Projections of Solids with the Axis Inclined to
Both the HP and the VP 169
8.8 Projections of Spheres 181

Exercises 184
Critical Thinking Exercises 186
Hints for Solving Exercises 187
Hints for Solving Critical Thinking Exercises 190

Sections of Solids 193

9 Objectives 193
9.1 Introduction 194
9.2 Cutting Planes 194
9.3 Sections and Sectional Views 194
9.4 Drawing Sectional Views 195
9.5 Locating the CP Position When the True Shape
of a Section is Known 202
9.5.1 Hints to Remember 203
9.5.2 The Procedure for Locating the Cutting Plane 203

Exercises 213
Critical Thinking Exercises 214
Hints for Solving Exercises 215
Hints for Solving Critical Thinking Exercises 218

Intersection of Surfaces 219

10 Objectives 219
10.1 Introduction 220
10.2 Determination of the Curve of Intersection 220
10.3 The Line Method 220

Contents xiii
 10.4 Procedure for the Line Method 221
10.5 Deciding the Visibility of the Curve of Intersection 224
10.5.1 Determining Cut-Off Portions of Lines
on the Penetrated Solid 224
10.5.2 Visibility When the Solid Has a Hole 227
10.6 The Cutting Plane Method 230

Exercises 238
Critical Thinking Exercises 240
Hints for Solving Exercises 241
Hints for Solving Critical Thinking Excercises 245

Development of Surfaces 247

11 Objectives 247
11.1 Introduction 248
11.2 Understanding the Development of Surfaces 248
11.3 Methods for Development 249
11.4 Methods for Development of Cut Surfaces 252
11.4.1 The Line Method 252
11.4.2 The Cutting Plane Method 259

Exercises 276
Critical Thinking Exercises 280
Hints for Solving Exercises 281
Hints for Solving Critical Thinking Excercises 285

Multiview Orthographic Projections 287

12 Objectives 287
12.1 Introduction 288
12.2 Multiview Orthographic Projections 290
12.3 Objects Bounded by Plane Surfaces 296
12.4 Reading an Isometric or Oblique Parallel Projection 296
12.4.1 Rules for Reading the Position of Each Line or Surface
of an Object in a Pictorial View 297
12.4.2 Misleading Conditions in Pictorial Views 302

xiv Contents
 Exercises 310
Critical Thinking Exercises 312

Sectional Views 317

13 Objectives 317
13.1 Introduction 318
13.2 Projections of Sectional Views 318
13.3 Hatching Lines 319
13.4 Drawing Sectional Views of Machine Parts 321
13.5 Types of Sectional Views 322
13.5.1 Full-Sectional View 322
13.5.2 Half-Sectional View 322
13.5.3 Offset Sections 323
13.5.4 Revolved Sections 323
13.5.5 Removed Sections 325
13.5.6 Partial Section or Broken Section 325

Exercises 333
Critical Thinking Exercises 341

Dimensioning 343

14 Objectives 343
14.1 Introduction 344
14.2 Dimensioning 344
14.2.1 Dimension Lines 344
14.2.2 Extension or Projection Lines 344
14.2.3 Leaders 344
14.3 Dimensioning Systems 345
14.4 Dimensioning Principles 345
14.5 Dimensioning Pictorial Views 348

Exercises 350
Critical Thinking Exercises 351

Contents xv
 Auxiliary Views 353

15 Objectives 353
15.1 Introduction 354
15.2 The Front Auxiliary View 354
15.3 The Top Auxiliary View or Auxiliary Elevation 356
15.4 The Side Auxiliary View 358
15.5 Partial Views 359
15.6 Drawing the Apparent Shapes of Surfaces 359

Exercises 366
Critical Thinking Exercises 370

Reading Orthographic Projections 373

16 Objectives 373
16.1 Introduction 374
16.2 Reading Orthographic Projections 374
16.3 Reading Orthographic Projections
by Visualizing the Bounding Surfaces 382
16.4 Recognizing the Projections of the Same Plane Surface 383

Exercises 409
Critical Thinking Exercises 416

Isometric Projections 419

17 Objectives 419
17.1 Introduction 420
17.2 Types of Pictorial Projections 420
17.3 Isometric Projections 420
17.3.1 The Isometric Scale 422
17.3.2 Drawing Isometric Projections of Solid Objects 423
17.3.3 Procedure for Drawing Isometric Projections of an Object 424
17.3.4 The Isometric Projection of a Sphere 430

xvi Contents
 Exercises 434
Critical Thinking Exercises 438

Oblique Parallel Projections and Perspective

18 Projections

Objectives 441
441

18.1 Introduction 442

18.2 Oblique Parallel Projections 442
18.3 The Oblique Parallel Projections of a Cube 444
18.4 Perspective Projections 451
18.4.1 Terminology 451
18.4.2 Theory of Perspective Projections 452
18.4.3 The Visual Ray Method 452
18.4.4 The Vanishing Point Method 454
18.4.5 Important Points About Perspective Projections 455

Exercises 460
Critical Thinking Exercises 464

Threaded Fasteners 467

19 Objectives 467
19.1 Introduction 468
19.2 Screw Threads 468
19.2.1 The Terminology for Threads 468
19.2.2 The Forms of Screw Threads 469
19.3 Representation of Threads 472
19.4 Bolts, Nuts and Washers 475
19.5 Hexagonal Nuts 476
19.5.1 Orthographic Projections of a Hexagonal Nut 477
19.5.2 Symbolic Views of a Hexagonal Nut 479
19.6 Projections of a Hexagonal-Headed Bolt 480
19.7 Washers 480
19.8 Square Nuts 481
19.9 Types of Nuts 482

Contents xvii
 19.10 Types of Bolt Heads 483
19.11 Set Screws 487
19.12 Foundation Bolts 487
19.13 Tap Bolts 490
19.14 Stud Bolts 490
19.15 Locking Arrangements for Nuts 492

Exercises 495
Critical Thinking Exercises 496

Riveted and Welded Joints 497

20 Objectives 497
20.1 Introduction 498
20.2 Types of Rivet Heads 499
20.3 Riveted Joints 499
20.3.1 Lap Joints 499
20.3.2 Butt Joints 502
20.4 Welding 504
20.5 Types of Welded Joints 504
20.5.1 Types of Welds 504
20.5.2 Welding Drawing 506
20.5.3 Representation of Welded Joints 506
20.5.4 Indication for Plate Preparation 507
20.5.5 Dimensioning Welds 507
20.5.6 Supplementary Symbols 508
20.5.7 Indicating the Welding Process 509

Exercises 509
Critical Thinking Exercises 510

Computer-Aided Drafting 513

21 Objectives 513
21.1 Introduction 514
21.2 Using AutoCAD 514

xviii Contents
 21.2.1 A Mouse 517
21.2.2 A Keyboard 517
21.2 AutoCAD Command Access 517
21.3 Menus and Toolbars 518
21.4 Toolbars 518
21.4.1 Opening a File 518
21.4.2 Saving a File 519
21.5 Execution of Commands 519
21.5.1 The Donut and Spline Commands 519
21.5.2 The Line Command 521
21.5.3 The Coordinate Systems Command 522
21.5.4 The Polygon Command 524
21.5.5 The Circle Command 525
21.5.6 The Arc Command 526
21.5.7 The Ellipse Command 527
21.5.8 The Hatch Command 527
21.5.9 The Zoom Command 527
21.5.10 The Regen Command 527
21.5.11 The UCS Command 528
21.5.12 The Units Command 528
21.5.13 Drawing Limits 528
21.5.14 The Grid Command 528
21.5.15 The Offset Command 528
21.5.16 The Change Command 529
21.5.17 The Chprop Command 529
21.5.18 The Erase Command 529
21.5.19 The Trim Command 529
21.5.20 The Array Command 529
21.5.21 The Mirror Command 531
21.5.22 The Copy Command 532
21.5.23 The Move Command 532
21.5.24 The Chamfer Command 532
21.5.25 The Fillet Command 532
21.5.26 The Pedit Command 532
21.5.27 The Dimension Command 532
21.5.28 The Extend Command 532
21.5.29 The Lengthen Command 532

Contents xix
 21.6 Three-Dimensional Modelling 540
21.6.1 The Wire Frame Model 540
21.6.2 The Surface Model 540
21.6.3 The Solid Model 540

Exercises 540
Critical Thinking Exercise 544

Index 545

xx Contents
 ABBREVIATIONS, SYMBOLS AND NOTATIONS

A B B R E V I AT I O N S
AFV auxiliary front view
AGP auxiliary ground plane
AIP auxiliary inclined plane
ATV auxiliary top view
AV axis of vision
Aux auxiliary
BIS Bureau of Indian Standards
CAD computer-aided drafting
CP central plane or cutting plane
CV centre of vision
Dia diameter
DOO direction of observation
FV front view
GL ground line or ground level
GP ground plane
GR ground
HL horizon line
HP horizontal plane
HRP horizontal reference plane
HT horizontal trace
IS Indian standard
ISO International Organization for Standardization
LHSV left-hand-side view
OSNAP object SNAP
PP pro ile plane
PPP picture plane for perspective projection
RF representative fraction
RHSV right-hand-side view
RP reference plane
S station point
Sect sectional
SFV sectional front view
SQ Square (represents the side of a square)
SRHSV Sectional right-hand-side view
SSV sectional side view
STV sectional top view
SV side view
TL true length
TS true shape
TV top view
VP vanishing point or vertical plane
VT vertical trace
XY ground line

xxi
S YM B O L S A N D N OTAT I O N S
A, B, … object points
a, b, … top views of object points A, B, …
a′, b′, … front views of object points A, B, …
a″, b″, … side views of object points A, B, …
a1, b1, … auxiliary top views of points A, B, … on projectors perpendicular to X1, Y1
a1′, b1′, … auxiliary front views of points A, B, … on projectors perpendicular to X1, Y1
ht′, ht front and top views of point HT
vt′, vt front and top views of point VT
A′, B′, C′ … perspective views of object points A, B, C, …
a0, b0, c0 … points at which the top views of visual rays meet top view of PPP; they are top views of per-
spective views of A′, B′, C′, …
α apparent angle of inclination of a line with the HP or angle of inclination of the front view of
a line with the XY line
β apparent angle of inclination of a line with the VP or angle of inclination of the top view of a
line with the XY line
θ angle of inclination made by object line with the HP
φ angle of inclination made by object line with the VP or diameter
Φ, φ diameter (alternative)
D, d diameter
e eccentricity of a conic curve
r, R radius
OV central axis

xxii Abbreviations, Symbols and Notations

 PREFACE

In the more than forty years that we have been teaching engineering drawing, we
have seen a dramatic increase in the number of engineering colleges in India and a
corresponding increase in the number of books on this subject. We have observed,
however, that students ind it very dif icult to master the subject from these books
since the majority of them cover just the basic theory, examples, and their solutions.
Practically none of them discuss the logic behind the solutions. We have attempted to
give the logical reasons for the questions as well as the analysis underlying the solu-
tions. This emphasis on understanding—rather than relying on memory alone—is
just one of the reasons that make this book unique.
The main purpose of this book is to provide students with a clear and thorough
presentation of the theory and applications of engineering drawing. To achieve this
objective, this edition has been shaped by the comments, suggestions and reviews
from numerous students, instructors, and professionals. Using a step-by-step
approach, the book covers the syllabi of irst-year engineering courses as well as
diploma courses of major universities and technical boards. It will also be useful to
students preparing for professional courses offered by the Institution of Engineers,
the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, and the Institution of Electronics and Tele-
communications Engineers.

N E W TO T H I S E D I T I O N
Signi icant improvements have been made to this second edition. The following is a
list of some of the important ones:

Updated Content
All the drawings have been updated and are based on the latest BIS standards. Based on market research
as well as reviewer feedback, a new chapter on scales has been added. The chapter on computer-aided
drafting has been updated to cover the latest version of AutoCAD.

xxiii
 Organization and
1.2.15 FLEXIBLE CURVES
tch various plotted points that are not on a
Approach
straight line (see Figure 1.14). In the bent position it can be utilized to guide a pencil or an ink pen to draw Each chapter is orga-
oft metallic rod to strengthen it. nized into well-de ined
sections that contain an
1.2.16 TRACING PAPER
A tracing paper is a semi-transparent paper, which is used to trace an existing pencil or ink drawing. This is
explanation of speci ic
then used to draw blueprints. topics with illustrative
examples. The topics
1.2.17 VP
b1
¢ within each section are
b¢ differentiated using
B1 distinct styles and

Y
Artwork titles. This presents a
The artwork has been enhanced by a a structured approach
q
two-colour presentation that provides xb 1 c1 B that enables quick
xb q
the reader with a more realistic and a¢
understanding as well as
understandable sense of the material. xa q b1
a convenient review.
Particular attention has been given to A C
X

the rendering of each igure so that the b

a
views and dimensions can be easily b

understood.
HP

(a)

OBJECTIVES ( a) Lines inclined to both the

After studying this chapter, you will be able to VP and the HP

>> Divide a line into equal parts >> Draw normals and
tangents to a given
>> Draw regular polygons engineering curve
Chapter Contents
>> Draw lines and arcs
A bulleted list of the chapter contents states
>> Draw the path of a point
tangent to each other the learning goals of the chapter. Each chapter
on a selected part of a
>> Draw the curves used machine that undergoes also begins with an introduction section that
in engineering practice ect presents an overview and explains the impor-
such as conics, cycloids, of another part tance of the material within the chapter.
involutes and spirals

Example 5.2 A straight line AB of 40 mm length has one of its ends, A, at 10 mm from the HP and 15 mm
from the VP. Draw the projections of the line if it is parallel to the VP and inclined at 30° to the HP. Assume
the line to be located in each of the four quadrants by turns.
Analysis: Based on Table 5.3, we can conclude that
(i) As the given line AB is parallel to the VP, the front view will be of the true length, that is, 40 mm, and inclined
to XY at α where α θ, the angle at which the given line is inclined to the HP (30° in the present case).
(ii) The top view will remain parallel to the XY line.
(iii) The position of point A is given. Hence, depending upon the quadrant, aʹ and a
front view can then be drawn.
(iv) The top view is then projected as a line parallel to the XY line.
Solution (Figures 5.12 to 5.15):
(i) Draw aʹ 10 mm above XY and a 15mm below XY
angle projection draw both the points above XY; for the third-angle projection draw a above XY and aʹ
below XY XY for the fourth-angle projection.

Improved Pedagogy
Clarity throughout the text has been improved, new examples have been provided, and many new problems
have been added. Also, each example has a new “analysis” section that aids in problem solving and review.

xxiv Preface
Review Material
Problem sets have been revised so that readers can select from a wide range of dif iculty. Partial solutions
and answers to selected problems are given, aiding students with further applications of the theory. The
material has been classi ied into the following:

Exercises
EXERCISES
Exercise problems
have been provided at
the end of the chapter 1 A straight line AB has an end point A, which is nearer to the HP and the VP, 15 mm above the HP and 20 mm in
front of the VP. The front view of the line is inclined at 30° to XY and is of 40 mm length. Draw the projections of
the line if the top view is inclined at 45° to the XY line. Draw an auxiliary front view on a ground line X1Y1, which
that help gauge the tion of the line with the HP.
understanding of the
concepts discussed in 2 A straight line PQ has its FV inclined at 45° to XY and is of 40 mm length. The end point P is 10 mm above the HP
and 20 mm in front of the VP. If the line is inclined at 30° to the VP, draw the projections of the line PQ. Draw an
the chapter. auxiliary top view on a plane inclined at 45° to the HP.

Critical Thinking
CRITICAL EXERCISES
Exercises
1 Four lamp posts, each of 10 m height, are erected at the corners of a rectangular plot 10 m 5 m. Each pair of
posts that are diagonally opposite has a rope with one end tied at 1 m from the top of one post and the other
end at 1 m from the base on the ground of the other post. Assuming the length of the plot to be 10 m and
Challenging problems
based on actual appli-
parallel to the VP, draw the projections of the lamp posts and cations have also been
the true length of the ropes. The diameters of the lamp posts and the ropes may be neglected and they may be provided in a separate
represented by lines only.
section to illustrate the
2 A room of 5 m 4 m 3 m dimensions has a fan suspended from the centre of the ceiling 0.5 m from the ceiling.
A cable connects a switch directly to the fan at the centre of the ceiling. If the switch is located at one of the
corners of the room, at a height of 1.5 m, draw the projections of the cable assuming the 5 m 3 m wall to be
concepts and tie them
to the real world.
ews.

Hints HINTS FOR SOLVING EXERCISES

Hints to the dif icult
problems of both kinds Data Hints for Solution
of exercises have been
provided, encouraging Q.1 aʹ Draw XY, locate aʹ and a
a aʹbʹ inclined 30° and aʹbʹ 40
students to try these α 30° ab inclined at 45°. Draw bʹb vertical line and locate b.
without giving away aʹbʹ 40 Draw X1Y1 parallel to ab
β 45° Project AFV by drawing projectors through a and b perpendicular to X1Y1
the whole solution. ? AFV on X1Y1 parallel to ab and locate a1ʹ b1ʹ at distances equal to the distances of aʹ and bʹ from XY.
??θ

Example 6.2: A straight line AB has one end A 18 mm below the HP and 10 mm behind the VP, while the other
end B is 10 mm below the HP and 25 mm behind the VP. If the distance between the end projectors is
35 mm and the line is located in the third quadrant, draw the projections of the line. With the help of
s of inclination to the HP and the VP.

Multimedia Package LiveDraw

This unique package is provided along with the book to help readers understand, practice, and master the
toughest and the most dif icult-to-visualize concepts of this subject. It comprises text, graphics, animations,
and voice-over effects, and demonstrates solutions to select examples from the book. The examples of this
type are identi ied by the icon.

Preface xxv
 SUPPLEMENTS
• To provide readers with suf icient practice, extra problems and solutions
are provided as a question bank. These range from easy to dif icult and help
readers learn in a sequential manner.
• A summary of the important points and topics in each chapter, along with the
relevant page numbers, are provided to help students review what they read
in each chapter.
• Solutions to selected problems are also provided on the companion Web site
for review and quick references.

AC K N O W L E D G E M E N T S
I am thankful to Thomas Mathew Rajesh and Jonaki Ray of Pearson Education for their
help and efforts in completing the work as early as possible. My colleague, Sachin
Bhatt, and my younger daughter-in-law, Manasi, helped in updating the chapters. I am
also grateful for the numerous suggestions and comments from various teachers in
this ield.

M. B. Shah

xxvi Preface
 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THIS BOOK

The second edition of Engineering Drawing has bene ited from an extensive development process. Over 100
faculty reviewers, students, and industry professionals provided feedback about the accuracy and relevance
of the content as well as suggestions for its improvements. While we could not incorporate every suggestion
from everyone, we do acknowledge that their feedback was invaluable in our attempt at creating the best
possible engineering drawing textbook.

CO N S U LTA N T B O A R D
The consultant board provided us with a detailed and critical analysis of each chapter and worked with us
throughout the development of the book. We would like to thank the following for their time and commitment:
Nitin D. Junnarkar
Tolani Maritime Institute, Pune
Varinder Mittal
Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani
S. Krishnamoorthy
Sri Ramanujar Engineering College, Chennai
N. Leela Prasad
Vignan Institute of Technology and Sciences, Hyderabad

REVIEWERS
The guidance and thoughtful recommendations of many helped us improve this book. We are grateful for the
comments and helpful suggestions received from the following reviewers:
R. K. Agarwal
R. G. Engineering College, Meerut
P. Aravindan
Dr. M. G. R. University, Chennai
R. S. Baliah
Saranathan College of Engineering, Trichy
M. M. Butt
National Institute of Technology, Srinagar
M. S. Charoo
National Institute of Technology, Srinagar
K. Duraivelu
Rajalakshmi Engineering College, Thandalam
R. Gnanamoorthy
Indian Institute of Technology, Madras
Swetank Gupta
Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur
K. B. Kelgandre
K. J. Somaiya Polytechnic, Mumbai

xxvii
Manish Kewalramani
Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani
N. S. Parthasarathy
Anna University, Chennai
G. Prasanthi
JNTU College of Engineering, Anantapur
K. Prahalada Rao
JNTU College of Engineering, Anantapur
K. Madhava Reddy
G. P. R. Engineering College, Kurnool
Y. V. Mohana Reddy
G. P. R. Engineering College, Kurnool
C. Selvaraj
Government College of Technology, Coimbatore
N. Shanmukha
R. V. College of Engineering, Bangalore
M. Thiruchitrambalam
Mahalingam Engineering College, Coimbatore
A. S. Verma
Apollo Institute of Technology, Kanpur

STUDENT REVIEWERS
We took the help of many students from the DAV Institute of Engineering and Technology, Jalandhar and
R. V. College of Engineering, Bangalore. These students class-tested the manuscript, evaluated it for clarity
and assessed each feature. Their comments helped us expand the book’s content, improved the pedagogical
features, and strengthened the assessment features. We are thankful to the following:
Shreenidhi Acharya
Tarun Arora
Abhinandan Bhatia
Himanshu Chandra
Mani Bhushan Choudhary
Ranvir Singh Gill
Tarun Kumar
Unnat Mahajan
C. S. Sandeep
Sourabh Sehgal
Ashish Sharma
Sagar Trehan
Vinay Varadaraj

xxviii The Development of This Book

1
Basics of Engineering
Drawing

OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you will be able to

>> Understand the basics of >> Get familiar with drawing

engineering drawing instruments and learn how
to use them in engineering
drawing
 1 1. 1 INTRODUCTION
Basics of Engineering Drawing

One of the most convenient ways to communicate, especially when discussing machines or their
components, is through engineering drawings. An engineering drawing is a type of drawing that is
technical in nature and is used to fully and clearly define the requirements for manufacturing objects.
It is usually prepared in accordance with basic principles and standardized conventions for the layout,
nomenclature, lines and symbolic representations.
As these drawings follow standard conventions, engineers can use them to communicate with each
other anywhere in the world. Therefore, engineering drawing is often called the universal language of
engineers. Learning to create and understand these drawings is, thus, very important for all engineering
students.
In India, engineering drawings are prepared according to the basic principles, standard conventions,
symbolic representations and notations recommended by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS).

1.2 D R AW I N G I N S T R U M E N T S
An engineering drawing can be prepared manually using drafting instruments or through computer-aided
drafting. In this book we will approach the topic of engineering drawing mainly from the perspective of
manual drafting. The accuracy of drawings and speed of execution depend upon the quality of drawing instru-
ments. It is, therefore, desirable for students to procure instruments of good quality.
The following drawing instruments are commonly used:
(i) Drawing board
(ii) Minidrafter
(iii) Precision instrument box
(iv) 45° and 30°–60° set squares
(v) Engineers’ scales
(vi) Protractor
(vii) Irregular or French curves
(viii) Drawing pins or clips
(ix) Drawing papers
(x) Pencils
(xi) Erasers
(xii) Erasing shields
(xiii) Templates
(xiv) Dusters
(xv) Flexible curves
(xvi) Tracing paper
(xvii) T-square
Let us now look at each of these drawing instruments in detail.

2 Engineering Drawing
 1.2.1 DRAWING BOARD
A wooden board usually made from well-seasoned
teak, blue pine, oak or red cedar is used as a drawing
board. A perfectly straight edge made of hard dura-
ble wood is inserted along one edge of the board, and
it is used to guide the T-square [see Figure 1.1(a)].
The working surface of the board should be free from
cracks. To prevent warping, it is made of narrow
strips of wood glued together and has two battens
ixed on the bottom [see Figure 1.1 (b)].
The standard sizes of drawing boards, which are
available in the market, are given in Table 1.1. Working edge
An interesting point to note is that in the British
FIGURE 1.1 ( a ) A drawing board with a working
system, drawing board sizes were called Imperial and edge on the left
half-Imperial sizes; they were 31″  23″ and 23″  16″
respectively.

1.2.2 MINIDRAFTER
A minidrafter consists of two
scales that are permanently
ixed at right angles to each
other (see Figure 1.2). The
working edges can be set and
clamped at any angle to one
of the working edges of the ten
Ba
drawing board by means of a
scale- ixing knob. The mini-
drafter is designed in such a
manner that when it is ixed Working edge
to the drawing board by the
Ebony
clamping knob, the working
edges, if moved, remain paral-
FIGURE 1.1 ( b) Partial view of the bottom of a drawing board
lel to their initial positions. To
use a minidrafter
(i) Adjust the angular scale with the help of the scale-
ixing knob so that it points to zero. TABLE 1.1 Standard sizes of drawing boards

(ii) Match one of the working edges to the horizontal Designation Size of the Board (in mm)
edge of the drawing sheet and the other to the vertical D0 1500  1000
edge.
D1 1000  700
(iii) Fix the drafter to the board with the help of the clamp-
ing knob. D2 700  500
If parallel lines that are inclined at an angle (to the hori- D3 500  350
zontal/vertical axis) are to be drawn, one of the working
edges is set at the required angle by operating the scale- ixing knob. Once the drafter is ixed and the
positions of the working edges are set, these edges remain parallel to their initially set position, no mat-
ter wherever they are moved on the drawing sheet. The minidrafter is, hence, used to draw multiple
parallel lines.

Basics of Engineering Drawing 3

 Clamping Drawing board
knob

Drawing sheet

Parallel Blades with scale

bars (working edges)

Scale-fixing
knob
90°

+
Angular scale

FIGURE 1.2 A minidrafter

1.2.3 PRECISION INSTRUMENT BOX

A good quality instrument box consists of the following:
• A large compass
• A small spring compass
• A large divider
• A small spring divider
• An inking pen
• An extension bar for a large compass
• Inking attachments for compasses
A large compass is used to draw circles and arcs of large radii. The lead is the sharpened bevel on the out-
side, and the needle point is kept about 1 mm longer than the lead. The extra length gets inserted into the
paper and, thus, enables the drawing of circles with large radii [see Figures 1.3 (a) and (b)]. While drawing
circles and arcs, the needle point and the lead (or the ink pen) should be adjusted so that they remain per-
pendicular to the drawing sheet [see Figure 1.3 (c)]. An extension bar can be attached to the large compass
for drawing circles of very large radii [see Figure 1.3 (d)].
The small spring compass is used to draw circles and small arcs of, say, up to 25 mm radii. The screw-and-
nut arrangement is used to set the radius accurately, and this arrangement does not allow the setting to be
disturbed. A Type-I small spring bow compass has the nut on one of the legs, whereas a Type-II compass has
the nut between the legs of the compass [see Figures 1.4 (a) and (b)]. Figure 1.4 (c) shows how a spring bow
compass is kept inclined slightly when used to draw a circle.

4 Engineering Drawing
 Extension bar
Sharpened on outside

(b) Legs

(d)
Paper

(c)
(a)

FIGURE 1.3 ( a ) A large compass (b) The needle point is 1 mm longer than the lead ( c ) A compass with its legs
bent at the joints to keep them perpendicular to the drawing paper ( d ) Using the extension bar to
get circles of very large radii

15°

(a) (b)

(c)

FIGURE 1.4 ( a ) A Type-I small spring bow compass ( b) A Type-II small spring bow compass
( c) Using a small spring bow compass to draw a circle of small radius

Dividers are similar to large and small compasses, except that the pencil lead is replaced by a needle point.
They are used to measure and mark distances from the scales to a drawing or from one part of a drawing to
another [see Figures 1.5 (a) and (b)].
The inking ruling pen and inking attachment for compasses enable the adjustment of the thickness of
the lines drawn using them [see Figures 1.6 (a), (b) and (c)]. An inking ruling pen has two nibs with a

Basics of Engineering Drawing 5

 4 to 6 mm ink
(b)

(b)
0

(c)
1

(a)
2

(c)

FIGURE 1.5 ( a ) A large divider (b) A small spring bow divider FIGURE 1.6 (a) An inking
( c) Using a divider to measure distance ruling pen
(b) An inking
attachment for
a compass
(c) A pen used
for drawing
lines with a
(a) fixed thickness

gap between them. The gap can be increased or decreased by a screw which correspondingly increases or
decreases the thickness of lines in the drawing. A range of pens is available for drawing lines of various thick-
nesses. A number of such pens can be used depending upon the thicknesses required.

1.2.4 SET SQUARES

Set squares are right-angled triangles with the other two angles being either 45° each or 30° and 60° respec-
tively [see Figure 1.7 (a)]. Generally, they are made of transparent plastic. They are either of a solid pattern
with a central hole or an open-centre pattern and may have square or bevelled edges.

200
150

(i) (ii)

FIGURE 1.7 ( a ) Set squares

6 Engineering Drawing
 Set squares are generally used to draw
lines inclined at 30°, 45° or 60° to the hori-
zontal. These are also used in combination
with the scale of a drafter to draw lines
inclined at different angles, like 15°, 75° and
105°, to the horizontal [see Figure 1.7 (b)].
Set squares are designated by the angle 45°
(or 60°) and the length (in mm) of the longer 45°
edge containing the right angle. For exam- 75° 30°
ple, the set squares in Figure 1.7 (a) will be
designated as 45°  150 and 60°  200.
15°

1.2.5 ENGINEERS’ SCALES

Engineers’ scales are used to mark the The scale of a drafter
required measurements on lines. Depend-
ing upon the size of the object and that FIGURE 1.7 ( b) Using two set squares and the scale of a
minidrafter to draw angles of 15°, 30°, 45° and 75°
of the paper, drawings are made to full,
reduced or enlarged sizes. These scales give
reduced or enlarged lengths for a drawing.
For example, a length designated as 2 cm on a 1:2 scale is equal to the length designated as 1 cm on a 1:1 scale
(see Figure 1.8). The scales commonly used for preparing engineering drawings are given in Table 1.2.

1.2.6 PROTRACTOR
A protractor is used to measure Scale 1:1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
angles (see Figure 1.9). It is made of
transparent plastic in semicircular
or circular shape and has square or
bevelled edges. Protractors that are Scale 1:2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
100, 150 or 200 mm in diameter are
used for accurate measurement. The
FIGURE 1.8 1:1 and 1:2 scales
centre of the protractor is placed on
the intersection of two straight lines
with one of the straight lines coinciding with the zero line of the protractor. The other straight line, then, points
to the measure of the angle between the two lines.

TABLE 1.2 Standard scales

Reducing Scales Enlarging Scales Full-Size Scales

Half the full-size scale and are Double the full-size scale and are Full-size and are commonly written
written as 1:2 written as 2:1 as 1:1
One- ifth the full-size scale and are Five times the full-size scale and
written as 1:5 are written as 5:1
One-tenth the full-size scale and Ten times the full-size scale and are
are written as 1:10 written as 10:1
Note that sometimes a scale that reduces the size of the original object to 1 / 2.5 times the original is used. This
scale is usually shown as 1:2.5.

Basics of Engineering Drawing 7

 1.2.7 IRREGULAR OR FRENCH CURVES
80 90 100 11
A wide variety of irregular curves is available [see Figure 70
00 80 7
0 1
60 110 1 0 20
1.10 (a)]. They are used for drawing curves other than circular 50 0 12
0 60 13
0
50
arcs. To use these, irst some points of the curve are plotted. 13

14 0 3
0 1 40
40

0
4
After that, the required curve is sketched by hand. The irregu-

15
30

0
15

0
lar curve is, then, placed on the sketched curve in such a way

160 10 0
20
160

20
that the two curves match as nearly as possible. [See Figure

170 180
180 170
0 10
1.10 (b)]. To continue drawing the curve, it is important that
the irregular curve match the sketched curve at each end for
some distance beyond the segment to be drawn so that there is
no abrupt change in the line curvature. FIGURE 1.9 A protractor

1.2.8 SPRING CLIPS

Spring clips are used to ix the drawing
sheet to the drawing board (see Figure
1.11). Adhesive tape can also be used to ix
the drawing sheet.
To ix a drawing sheet on a drawing
board
(i) Position the drawing sheet on the
board with its edges matching the
edges of the board.
(ii) Insert the clip with the lat part over FIGURE 1.10 (a) An irregular or French curve
the drawing sheet and the curved
part remaining under the board.
(iii) Normally four such clips should be
inserted, one at each corner, to hold
the sheet.

1.2.9 DRAWING PAPERS

A drawing paper should be thick, smooth,
strong, tough and uniform in thickness.
The ibre of the drawing paper should not
disintegrate when a good eraser is used on
FIGURE 1.10 (b) Using a French curve to draw an irregular curve
it. The commonly used and available sizes
of drawing papers are given in Table 1.3.

1.2.10 PENCILS
Clutch pencils are convenient as they do not need any sharpening. Usually,
medium hard (HB), irm (F), moderately hard (H) and hard (2H) leads are suit-
able for engineering drawing. HB and F are suitable for freehand sketching and
lettering, whereas H and 2H are suitable when they are guided by the scale of a
drafter or a set square.

1.2.11 ERASERS
A soft eraser should be used to erase unwanted lines. If the eraser is hard, it
destroys the surface of the paper. FIGURE 1.11 A spring clip

8 Engineering Drawing
 1.2.12 ERASING SHIELDS TABLE 1.3 Standard sizes of drawing paper
An erasing shield is used to protect the drawing from get- Commonly Marketed Trimmed Size (in mm)
ting erased while erasing the unwanted portions. It is a Drawing Papers
thin plate made of either plastic or metal, with openings
A0: the commonly 841  1189
of various shapes and sizes (see Figure 1.12). available, largest-sized
paper
1.2.13 TEMPLATES A1: the size nearest 594  841
Templates are lat sheets generally made of plastic with to A0
circles, triangles, squares and ellipses of different sizes cut A2: the next available 420  594
in them [see Figures 1.13 (a) and (b)]. Markings are pro- size nearest to A1
vided for positions of mutually perpendicular diameters
A3, A4 and A5: the 297  420, 210  297,
of circles and major and minor axes of ellipses. To use a
sizes smaller than A2 and 148  210,
template, one must match the speci ic shape with the fea- respectively
tures of the required shape. For instance, if the shape is a
circle (or an ellipse), the template for this is aligned with
the mutually perpendicular diameters of the required circle (or the major
and minor axes of the ellipse).

1.2.14 DUSTERS
A duster should be a clean soft piece of cloth. It is used to lick off the
eraser crumbs that are formed while erasing lines. The set squares, pro-
tractor and the minidrafter should be cleaned with the duster before
beginning the work as well as frequently during the work.
FIGURE 1.12 An erasing shield

1.2.15 FLEXIBLE CURVES

A lexible curve is usually a rubber rod that can be bent to match various plotted points that are not on a
straight line (see Figure 1.14). In the bent position it can be utilized to guide a pencil or an ink pen to draw
the required curve. The lexible rod has a centrally inserted soft metallic rod to strengthen it.

7 4
6 5
3
2
1

13
12
9 10
7

4 6 7 9 11

FIGURE 1.13 ( a ) A template for circles and ellipses

Basics of Engineering Drawing 9

 1.2.16 TRACING PAPER
A tracing paper is a semi-transparent paper, 12 10 8 6
which is used to trace an existing pencil or ink
drawing. This is then used to draw blueprints.

10
1.2.17 T-SQUARE 8
6
4
A T-square consists of a wooden blade and a
stock. These are rigidly fastened to each other
with their working edges at right angles to each
other (see Figure 1.15). The T-square is used in
the place of a minidrafter to draw horizontal
lines. The working edge of the stock of the FIGURE 1.13 ( b) A template for triangles and pentagons
T-square is kept in contact with the working
edge of the drawing board while the blade rests over the drawing sheet with its working edge horizontal.
Now that we know more about the various drawing instruments, let us look at an example that uses
them.

FIGURE 1.14 Flexible curves

Example 1.1 Figure 1.16 shows

a loor design made up of squares.
Redraw the drawing using a T-square
Working edge
or a minidrafter, a scale, and either of
the two set squares.
de
Solution: Bla
90°
Sto
(i) Using a drafter or a T-square, a ck
divider and a scale draw a hori-
zontal line AB of length 80 mm.
(ii) Using either the vertical scale
of the drafter or a T-square and
a set square, draw lines AD and
BC, each perpendicular to AB.
(iii) Complete the square by joining CD. FIGURE 1.15 A T-square
(iv) On the sides of the square, using
a divider and a scale, mark points E, F, G and H at a distance of 15 mm from A, B, C and D respectively
(as shown in Figure 1.16) and join EF, FG, GH and HE.

10 Engineering Drawing
 (v) Now, mark points at a distance of 15 mm each from D H C
corners F, G, H and E along the four sides of the
square EF, FG, GH and HE. M
(vi) Continue to draw the remaining squares in the same G
manner.
An important point to note here is that every engineer- 80 L
ing drawing should have a title to uniquely identify the
drawing, and a drawing number to differentiate the vari-
ous versions. The title is written inside the title block. J

E
1. 3 T I T L E B LO C K
Every drawing should have a title block. On the border of 15 K
A F
the drawing sheet, a reference grid of at least 10 mm width B
is drawn along all the four edges. The title block is then 15
80
drawn at the bottom right-hand corner of the reference
grid [see Figure 1.17 (a)]. The title block should gener- FIGURE 1.16 A floor design (Solution of
ally contain the name, corresponding dates, the projection Example 1.1)
symbol—which indicates whether the irst-angle or third-
angle method is used—for the drawing, the scale, the
title and the drawing number. The initials of the person(s) preparing the drawing, checking the drawing
and approving the drawing are also entered within the block. In addition, the manufacturing information is

Minimum width
(10 mm to 20 for usual sheet sizes)

Name of firm
Name Date
Title DSN Title block should contain
DRN name, title, date, scale,
drawing number and
CHD projection symbol.
APPD.
DRG No.
Scale

FIGURE 1.17 ( a ) Reference grid and title block on a drawing sheet

Basics of Engineering Drawing 11

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